-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIES-

UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIES,

PANJAB UNIVERSITY.

TOPIC:- FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789

SUBJECT:- HISTORY.
SUBMITTED TO:- DR. SASHA TANDON

SUBMITTED BY: KUNAL KAPOOR

ROLL NO. 42/11
7TH SEMESTER
B.A. LL.B. (HONS.)
UILS
PANJAB UNIVERSITY

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Dr. Sasha Tandon who
gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic French Revolution
of 1789, which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and I came to know about so many
new things. I am really thankful to her. I would also like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finishing this project within the limited time.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
2. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION -------------------------------------- 5
- POLITICAL CAUSES ----------------------------------- 5
- SOCIAL CAUSES --------------------------------------- 7
- INTELLECTUAL CAUSES ---------------------------- 10
- FINANCIAL CAUSES --------------------------------- 12
3. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ---------------------------- 14
4. BIBLIOGRAPHY --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

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INTRODUCTION
The French Revolution was a movement which, in the last decade of the eighteenth century,
reconstructed the Government and society of France. It was an incident of that movement that
the greater part of Western Europe was temporarily occupied by French armies, and the
distribution of its ideas was effected alike by the provisional Government and by the
spectacle of revolutionary France.
A mighty upheaval like the French revolution was a composite movement caused by the
interaction of various forces, which had long been at work. They came to a head in the reign
of Louis XVI and burst into a terrific explosion. The revolution roused fervent hopes in the
heart of millions within and without France.
In the words of Lefebvre,
"No event except the Bolshevik revolution of Russia had so much
inspired men of modern times as the French revolution."
Due to the French revolution Europe relapsed into twenty-five years of great disorder and
upheaval which shattered its existing political structure. The revolution affected the continent
of Europe and Peoples began to say, when
"France catches cold, entire Europe sneezes."

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CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION

POLITICAL CAUSES
DESPOTIC MONARCHY
1. DIVINE RIGHT THEORY OF KINGSHIP - France was the most advanced and modern
of all the continental countries in the second half of the eighteenth century. Yet, the French
monarchy was still based on the idea of absolutism and "Divine right theory of kingship."
Henry IV was the founder of the Bourbon dynasty and under him France acquired
supremacy.
2. LOUIS-XIV - During the second half of the seventeenth century, over Europe. Louis XIV
had ruled over France with great glory. Under Louis XIV, the French monarchy became
absolutist and bureaucratic. Under him the power of the crown reached such a height that he
could claim, "The State, it is myself." Like his royal - contemporaries he believed with all his
heart in the Divine sanction of his absolutism. He was known as the Sun King. The king
made the law, he levied the taxes, he spent them as he saw fit, he declared wars, made peace,
contracted alliances according to his own inclination. He builds the famous palace of
Versailles.

3. LOUIS-XV - The Grand monarch was succeeded by his great grandson, Louis XV, who
was only five years of age when his predecessor died. He was known as the Butterfly King.
He was weak and frivolous, enjoying the sweets of the royal office, while sharing the
responsibilities attached to it. A disastrous foreign policy, culminating in the humiliation of
the seven years war, a capricious Government controlled by royal mistresses, a reckless
prodigality of Court expenditureall these developments opened the gates to the deluge that
swept over France. The king did nothing to satiate the discontent of the people. He had said
after me the deluge.

4. LOUIS-XVI & MARIE ANTOINETTE - Under Louis XVI a prodigal anarchy reigned
in France and the king stood a helpless spectator to it. He was good, well intentioned; he had
a high standard of morality and duty, a genuine desire to serve his people. He sincerely
wanted to introduce necessary reforms but failed because he had not the grit to overcome the
obstinate resistance of the privileged classes whose vested interests were threatened by any

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESscheme of reforms. Above all, he was too much under the influence of his young and
beautiful queen, the Austrian .Princess, Marie Antoinette, who was intently y hated b the
French people because she was a foreigner. She had a great deal of influence over her
husband. Unfortunately the queen, though gracious and sympathetic to certain obvious types
of suffering, had no political experience. She was gracious and vivacious, and she had a
strong will. While France was passing through a serious financial crisis and was faced with
the problem of food, she was lavishly spending money on her pleasure and was absolutely
unconcerned about the miseries of the people. Unfortunately, she did not understand the
temperament of the French people or the spirit of the times. She was staunch to friends, who
deceived her, and sympathies made her the innocent tool of ambitious factions and Court
intrigues, she was proud, frivolous, impatient of all restraint and fond of pleasure. The
inefficient king was a mere tool in her hands and could not over-rule her.

5. PALACE OF VERSAILLES - Kings have generally been inclined to be builders, to leave

imposing memorials of their reigns in works of architecture, but no king of France ever built
so much as Louis XIV. His remarkable achievement was the creation of the palace of
Versailles, which was the most monumental royal palace in Europe. The royal court at
Versailles under the Bourbon became a place for merry making and all sorts of low pleasures.
Luxury was everywhere the prevailing note.

6. CENTRALISATION

OF

GOVERNMENT - The administration had been highly

centralised in the 17th century and continued to be so in the 18th century. Everything in the
State was decided by the council at Versailles, which had hardly anything to devote to the
affairs of the State. The development of the central administrative system went back to the
remote days of the medieval monarch. Too much centralisation had deprived the local
officials of all initiative and unnecessary delay was caused by references to the Central
Government even over trivial matters.

7. THE INTENDANCE - The only large administrative units of any, significance in France
in the century preceding the revolution were the generalities, or intendancies. These
intendancies were appointed by the king to carry on the Royal Government, each in his own
district, upon them depended in large measure the happiness or the misery of the provinces.
They had the right to administer justice in all royal courts. They verified the accounts of their
subordinate financial administrators and they had a large control over the movement of the

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESmilitary, calling out recruits for the regular army, and directing the activities of municipal
police. The power held by the intendance and their subordinates led all thinking men of the
eighteenth century to denounce the thirty tyrants of France. The weaknesses of the
governmental system lay not with individual intendance, nor even with the intendance as a
class of administrator. It lay first with the theory of Government and secondly due to the
incompetence of Louis XVL

8. LACK OF UNIFORMITY IN LAW, WEIGHT & MEASUREMENTS - According to

absolutist theory all justice in France emanated from the monarch, whose officials
administered it in his name in the royal courts of justice that were established throughout the
entire country. The main reason for the existence of many hundred Courts of regular
jurisdiction is to be found in the procedure of selling public offices during the old regime.
France had no single code of law either for civil or criminal cases, and no attempt was made
to codify the laws. Besides, measures had different names and di weights and an differ values
as one moved from province to province. This lack of uniformity was the primary cause of
confusion.

9. ARBITRARY IMPRISONMENT - The uncertainty concerning interpretation of the law

and the competence of individual courts made the administration of justice not only dilatory,
but also expensive. The king would also issue writs, called "letters de cachet" (Arbitrary
imprisonment without trial) by virtue of which he could imprison any subject without inquiry
and trial, so long as it pleased the royal will.

SOCIAL CAUSES
In the pre-Revolutionary period, the society was divided into two classes-the privileged and
non-privileged. The privileged class included the nobility and the higher clergy and the
unprivileged class included the bourgeoisie or middle class citizens, the labourers and the
peasants. The privileged class enjoyed a total or partial exemption from taxation and had a
monopoly of honours and emoluments.
The clergy were called the first estate i.e., the first class. The clergy constituted only one
percent of the population of the country but they were owners of one-fifth of the landed
properties in France. On the other hand, they did not pay any tax to the State, rather they
enjoy the right themselves to tax, the clergy through its right to tithes, the nobility through its

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESright to exact feudal dues. Practically, the third estates bore the whole burden of taxation and
were at the same time excluded from all places of authority. The unprivileged classes had no
rights but were saddled with galling obligations. Thus, in a period when more and more
people were talking about the equality and the natural rights of all men, the class structure in
France showed glaring inequality and a wide variation in rights.

THE CLERGY

UPPER CLERGY - The clergy made up the first class or estate of France, and the Church,
that is, the corporation of the clergy, was the most influential corporate body in the kingdom.
It exercised an extraordinary influence in governmental administration, and held a dominant
position in the life of the nation. But the first estate or clergy was itself characterised by
inequality. The high Churchmen-archbishops, bishops, abbots often enjoyed great wealth
drawn from church landholdings and from tithes (A kind of religious tax). They lived with
pomp and ceremony. The higher clergy monopolised all the lucrative church offices but were
quite indifferent to their spiritual duties. The Church was a state within a state.

LOWER CLERGY - The lower clergy, who did the real work of spiritual consolation and
instruction, were wretchedly recompensed, with low income of a few hundred Francs, and
they had difficulty in keeping body and soul together. Relations between the upper and lower
clergy were an exchange of arrogance on the one part and open or suppressed hostility on the
other. The lower clergy formed a discontented class ready to join hands with the common
people against the abuses of favouritism and absolutism.

THE NOBILITY - The nobility constituted the second estate of the realm. The rank of
nobility was acquired by birth, by military service, by the purchase of patents of nobility, or
by the possession of certain public offices. The noble in France, who constituted, the, second
estate, formed a hereditary caste, and they kept themselves aloof from the commoners and
were very jealous of their rights. The nobility was divided into two sections, nobles by birth
and nobles by office, of course there were two main classes, the nobility of the sword and the
nobility of the robe. The nobility of the sword consisted of the nobles of the court and the
nobles of the provinces. In fact, the great nobles formed a background for the king. They do
not pay any direct tax and were exempted from a number of indirect ones. Rather they levied
their dues on the peasantry living on their estates and claimed exclusive hunting, shooting

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESand fishing rights. In real influence, the nobility of robe, which included the Magistrates of
the Parliaments and other sovereign courts, easily outranked the more ornamental and
wasteful nobles at court. There were large number of lesser or Provincial nobles who lived on
their estate, patched up their crumbing mansion, and showed pride in their coats of arms, their
horses, and their dogs. Many of them had small incomes, and they could cut no figure in the
world of society and they had few chances to increase their prosperity.

THE THIRD ESTATE (BOURGEOISIE) - Below the Privileged orders, was the vast
majority of population called the third estate. But it was not a homogeneous body. It
comprised the bourgeoisie or the upper middle class, the artisans and the peasants. The most
powerful element of the third estate was bourgeoisiethe merchants, bankers, businessmen,
manufactures, and professional men who lived in towns or cities. They formed the well to do
intelligent and the energetic section of the community.
Even the bourgeoisie section of the third estate was superior to the clergy and nobility in
education, initiative and even in wealth, but although superior to the upper classes on all
counts, the bourgeoisie was not entitled to enjoy any privilege, but they had to bear the
burden of the tax. They wanted abolition of state control over trade, commerce and industries.
They nourished a strong grievance against the Government for the restrictions imposed on
their trade. Further, this, class was not in favour of the French monarchy, which was being
controlled by the nobility. Their pride and self-respect were wounded by the social
discrimination and the deliberate snubs administered by the nobility. They demanded a voice
in the Government. In 1788-89 their role in undermining the old regime was particularly
prominent.
Their mood was brilliantly expressed by a pamphlet written by Abbe Sieyes, which circulated
on the eve of the revolution.
"What is the third estate? Everything, what was it been in politics until
now? "Nothing" "What does it desire? To become something"

THE ARTISANS - The artisans and labourers, although belonging to the third estate, were
much worse off than the bourgeoisie.

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESTHE PEASANTS - If there was cause for discontent, the peasantry had more reason to be
restive than the bourgeoisie. France was still a predominantly agricultural country, and it was
nil the backs of the peasantry that the other classes were borne. The condition of the
peasantry, who formed by far the largest section of the population, was deplorable in the
extreme. The peasants had to pay rent to his feudal lord, tithes to the church and taxes to the
king. The king claimed both direct and indirect taxes. The direct taxes comprised the Taille or
the land tax, a poll tax per head, and income tax which amounted to one-twentieth of the
peasants income. The indirect taxes comprised salt tax or gabelle, customs and excise duties
and corveeor forced labour on the roads. The bulk of the kings income was derived from the
masses. Three principal causes determined the steady decline in fortune of the French
peasantry:
(1) Sharp and continuous growth in population;
(2) A marked upward movement of prices,
(3) The influence of the physiocrats in stimulating agrarian reforms. The peasants required
only a signal to breakout in revolt and it was their active participation that made the
revolutionary movement of 1789 a success.

INTELLECTUAL CAUSES - THE INFLUENCE OF THE

FRENCH PHILOSOPHERS
As France was moving towards revolution due to the desperate political, social and economic
conditions during the 18th century, there was also going on a mental preparation for
revolution. The spirit of rationalism that was influencing the thought and outlook of the
Europeans during the second half of the 19th century had directly contributed top repare the
French nation for the revolution of 1789.
The 18th century was an age of Reason and witnessed a good deal of intellectual activity. It
was an age of enlightenment and its characteristics were scepticism, Rationalism, Humanism
and Deism. The writings of the philosophers had a tremendous influence on the minds of the
people and created a revolutionary awakening in their minds and formed the intellectual
creed of the French revolution. The philosophers contributed a lot to the rise of intellectual
revolution by their satirical writings and infused a new spirit of revolution in the people's
heart.

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESMONTESQUIEU - The true intellectual revolution in. France started with Montesquieu
(1689- 1755). He belonged to an aristocratic family. He was only too well aware of the perils
of the censorship and realised that his criticism would have to be indirect to win the approval
of the wide public in the capital.
In his Persian letters he ridiculed the corruption of the country condemned the
"privilege, financial administration and denounced the vices of
fanaticism and intolerance. In his spirit of laws,"
He openly attacked the absolute monarchy of France. The "spirit of laws" was largely
influenced by the English Constitution. He praised a limited Government, machinery of
checks and balances, and admired in the English practice what he called the "separation of
powers." He stressed in the "spirit of laws" that power of executive, Legislature and judiciary
should be separated completely.

VOLTAIRE The foremost champion of reason and tolerance during the 18th century and
perhaps of all time was Voltaire; a master of biting satire enjoyed almost autocratic authority
by reason of his powerful writing. He was born in 1694 AD in a middle class family. Voltaire
was a philosopher, historian, poet, dramatist and satirist of his age. He was a prolific writer.
In 1733, his observations about the Englishmen were published in a volume entitled "Letters
on the English." He denounced the abuses of the State, but directed his attack against the
bigotry and intolerance of the Church. His ideal of Government was a benevolent despotism.
He said it is better to be ruled by a lion then hundred rats. In his "philosophical dictionary,"
he denounced the Church as an infamous thing. His writings had a tremendous effect on
millions of people not only in France but also in the whole of Europe.

ROUSSEAU - Rousseau has been rightly called the prophet of the revolution. He was the son
of a Genevan watchmaker. From earliest boyhood he was virtually alone in the world,
indiscipline, untaught, and left to grow up without guidance. When he was sixteen years old,
he ran away from his native city of Geneva, where he had apprenticed to an engraver. He was
a homeless wanderer. His private life was miserable and in the books that he wrote in rapid
succession"the origin of inequality," the new Heloise, "Emile," "the social contact," he
preached a gospel of spiritual revolution. He held a supreme position among all the
philosophers and he influenced the society more than anybody else.
In his book "Discourse on the origin of inequality," he has analysed the inequality,
dishonesty, fraud and exploitation of the modern civilisation. The political influence of

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESRousseau's "social contract" was incalculable, not only in France, but also in Europe. He said,
"man was born free, but everywhere he is in chains," he believed that the sovereignty of the
state depended on the will of the people. Laws should be the expression of the "General will."
The collective will of the people, called the "General will" was the sovereign power.
Rousseau contributed to the popular notion of Liberty, modern democracy and gave the
French revolutionaries their famous slogan of "Equality and Fraternity."

FINANCIAL CAUSES
The finances of France were in a deplorable state. Almost half of the interest on the national
debt and expenditure were always larger than receipts. The rulers regarded the national
income as their personal income. The French Government spent beyond its means in
profitless war: The royal household was guile of extravagant expenses in feasts and keeping
vast number of jobless servants.
1. The Bourbon's love for war, mismanagement, and mal-administration also affected the
royal treasury otherwise; and the national debts of France had gone quite high.
2. The debt steadily grew and to meet the chronic deficit the Government was forced to resort
to the sale of offices, new loans etc. On the eve of the outbreak of french revolution. France
was under the teeth of a severe inflation. The new monarch Louis XVI was well meaning, but
lacking in decision. The common people bore the brunt of taxation. They paid both direct and
indirect taxes. Nearly fifty per cent of their income was snatched away in taxation.
3. The policy of taxation was full of anomaly. Those who were the wealthiest and therefore
best able to support the state were the very ones who paid the least. Further, the internal and
local customs hampered free circulation of goods from one part of the country to the other.
The imposition of local customs not only harassed trade but also multiplied the price of
goods.
4. The taxation system was shockingly unjust and scandalously oppressive. Besides the
method of realizing the revenue was also faulty. The revenue collector used to realize more
than that was due from the farmers but deposited in royal treasury only a part of it and thus,
appropriated a good amount for their own use.
5 On the one hand, the expenses of the state on wars and luxuries went on mounting, on the
other its resources were limited and had already been completely drained. When Louis XVI
ascended the throne, France was on the verge of bankruptcy. But in spite of that France

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESjoined the war of American independence. French participation in the war of American
independence up-set the finances of the country, without a change in the fiscal system the
government could not pay its way, for the noble would not pay, while the commons could not
pay.
6. On the other hand, the French Government persistently followed a policy of meeting the
deficit by raising public loans at a high rate of interest. The only way to cure these ills was to
increase direct tax on the people who enjoyed immunity from payment of taxation. Both the
king and the nobles failed to appreciate the gravity of the financial crisis and did not realize
that if the ship of state foundered on the rock of financial bankruptcy, the nobles would also
sink along with the king. The nobles remained adamant, and the king continued to vacillate.
7. To a Bishop or a noble it seemed ridiculous to pay taxes like a merchant or a peasant. The
privileged classes were so entrenched in the courts, the church, and the government. And s
well defended by law, tradition and precedent, that they were able to block any attempt to
alter the existing system. Thus, at his succession Louis XVI was faced with a serious
financial situation. The king entrusted the management of the finance to a man of rare ability
and he was none else than Turgot.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

1. The French revolution spread like waves all over Europe and no country were immune
from its influence. Certainly, in history of Europe, the French revolution was of great
inspirational value. The revolution released dynamic and explosive of the old established
order in politics, economics, social life, diplomacy and war. In England democrats welcomed
that the established absolutist monarchy was at last yielding to the need for constitutional
reforms. The revolutionaries feel that they were conducting a revolution on behalf of
mankind.
2. It swept away the evils and anomalies of the old regime and thereby freed the people from
the tyranny of the king, the nobles and the Church. Monarchical absolutism was a thing of the
past. The relics of feudalism were buried. Autocratic monarchy, arbitrary arrests, aristocratic
privileges became a thing of the past. The Church had been subordinated to the state.
3. A uniform and efficient system of administration had been introduced, and laws had been
codified. Taxation was shared by all and it was fairly distributed on all sections of society.
Feudalism was dead and the emergence of a free land owning peasantry was a permanent
result of the revolution.
4. Right to vote, right to assemble, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, which was
advocated in the writings of the philosophers, were all accepted. The opposition to the slave
trade and the attempts to reform the condition of prisons illustrate the stimulus given to
humanitarianism by the revolution. The ideal of political democracy deeply impressed the
Frenchmen.
5. The revolution burst the boundaries of France carrying with it new ideas of social and
political organisation and thus in the long run helped to refashion Europe on new principles.
6. England was also receptive to the revolutionary ideas. Leaders like Tom Paine, Thomas
Hardy, welcome the revolution as the greatest event since the American war of independence.
Even moderate Tory government, led by Pitt, the younger, had sought to introduce many
financial and administrative reforms. The ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity spread a
lasting impression among the masses of the conquered states.

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIES7. Equality, liberty and fraternity, the three ideals of the revolution, entered in to the
consciousness of the French people and received permanency. The revolution brought the
ideal of legal equality, social equality and career upon to talents, uniformity of law and
justice, Freedom of speech, freedom of thought and rule of law. The Revolution was equally
responsible for the rise of Napolean Bonaparte to power.
8. In the society, the privileges as well as the predominance of the clergy and the 'nobility
were abolished and equality of all persons was established. The cardinal idea was that of
liberty, an idea which found expression in the famous Declaration of right. Liberty, personal
and political, became a universal creed. Personal liberty implied the abolition of serfdom.
Political liberty implied the abolition of exclusive political privileges. Napoleon Bonaparte
became the messenger of the French Revolutionary ideas. He declared himself as the son of
the revolution. Further, the example set by the French revolution in establishing social
equality was infectious.
9. The influences of democracy and nationalism in the modern history were the results of the
revolution. It was the urge of national patriotism that for a time made the French invincible in
Europe. This was destined to act as a most important force in reshaping the boundaries of
Europe.
10. The uprising of the German people in their war of liberation was a manifestation of
nationalism. The history of Europe in the 19th century is the story of the triumph of
nationalism Belgium, Italy, Germany and the Balkan Peninsula. As a result of the revolution
the people of Europe acquired an experience which opened before the thinkers of later days,
new lines of thinking. Administration of law and justice became more uniform.
11. By a series of radical measures the revolution established a sound economic system based
upon social and economic justice became more uniform.
12. An era of religious liberty and equality was established as a result of changes in the
French Church leading to the subordination of the Church to the State.
13. Thousands of people suffered at the hands of the revolutionaries but ultimately it proved a
blessing in disguise for the whole humanity. It helped in the growth of the spirit of fraternity

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-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIESand social welfare. Serfdom was abolished. The French Revolution spread the ideal of a
welfare state.
14. Despotism come to an end giving way to democracy and the world witnessed the
regeneration of human society on the basis of the principle of the revolution.
15. Above all, the French became the spokesman of the human race and the idea of liberty
became the watchword and character of all the reformers and revolutionaries. Liberty became
a universal creed.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.

Nanda, S.P., History of the World, 2nd ed. Delhi: Dominant Publishers &
Distributors Pvt. Ltd. (2011).

2.

Palmer, R.A., History of the Modern World, 10th ed. McGraw (2006).

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