Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
electromagnetism as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other
methods such as Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen
Noise also use this principle.
Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.
When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a
magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This magnetic field expands
as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced
to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this
changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy
currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They get their
name from eddies that are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path
around obstacles when conditions are right
One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of
inspections and measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances,
eddy currents can be used for:

Crack detection
Material thickness measurements
Coating thickness measurements
Conductivity measurements for:
o Material identification
o Heat damage detection
o Case depth determination
o Heat treatment monitoring

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:

Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

Detects surface and near surface defects
Inspection gives immediate results
Equipment is very portable
Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
Minimum part preparation is required
Test probe does not need to contact the part
Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Some of the limitations of eddy current inspection include:

Only conductive materials can be inspected

Surface must be accessible to the probe

Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques

Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
Reference standards needed for setup
Depth of penetration is limited
Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and
probe scan direction are undetectable

resent State of Eddy Current

Inspection

Eddy current inspection is used in

a variety of industries to find
defects and make measurements.
One of the primary uses of eddy
current testing is for defect
detection when the nature of the
defect is well understood. In
general, the technique is used to
inspect a relatively small area and
the probe design and test
parameters must be established
with a good understanding of the
flaw that is to be detected. Since
eddy currents tend to concentrate at the surface of a material, they can only
be used to detect surface and near surface defects.
In thin materials such as tubing and sheet stock, eddy currents can be used to
measure the thickness of the material. This makes eddy current a useful tool
for detecting corrosion damage and other damage that causes a thinning of
the material. The technique is used to make corrosion thinning
measurements on aircraft skins and in the walls of tubing used in assemblies
such as heat exchangers. Eddy current testing is also used to measure the
thickness of paints and other coatings.
Eddy currents are also affected by the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of materials. Therefore, eddy current measurements can be
used to sort materials and to tell if a material has seen high temperatures or
been heat treated, which changes the conductivity of some materials.
Eddy current equipment and probes can be purchased in a wide variety of
configurations. Eddyscopes and a conductivity tester come packaged in very
small and battery operated units for easy portability. Computer based
systems are also available that provide easy data manipulation features for
the laboratory. Signal processing software has also been developed for trend
removal, background subtraction, and noise reduction. Impedance analyzers
are also sometimes used to allow improved quantitative eddy-current

measurements. Some laboratories have multidimensional scanning

capabilities that are used to produce images of the scan regions. A few
portable scanning systems also exist for special applications, such as
scanning regions of aircraft fuselages.
Research to Improve Eddy current measurements
A great deal of research continues to be done to improve eddy current
measurement techniques. A few of the these activities, which are being
conducted at Iowa State University, are described below.
Photoinductive Imaging (PI)
A technique known as photoinductive imaging (PI) was pioneered at CNDE
and provides a powerful, high-resolution scanning and imaging tool.
Microscopic resolution is available using standard-sized eddy-current
sensors. Development of probes and instrumentation for photoinductive (PI)
imaging is based on the use of a medium-power (5 W nominal power) argon
ion laser. This probe provides high resolution images and has been used to
study cracks, welds, and diffusion bonds in metallic specimens. The PI
technique is being studied as a way to image local stress variations in steel.
Pulsed Eddy Current
Research is currently being conducted on the use of a technique called
pulsed eddy current (PEC) testing. This technique can be used for the
detection and quantification of corrosion and cracking in multi-layer
aluminum aircraft structures. Pulsed eddy-current signals consist of a
spectrum of frequencies meaning that, because of the skin effect, each pulse
signal contains information from a range of depths within a given test
specimen. In addition, the pulse signals are very low-frequency rich which
provides excellent depth penetration. Unlike multi-frequency approaches,
the pulse-signals lend themselves to convenient analysis. .
Measurements have been carried out both in the laboratory and in the field.
Corrosion trials have demonstrated how material loss can be detected and
quantified in multi-layer aluminum structures. More recently, studies carried
out on three and four layer structures show the ability to locate cracks
emerging from fasteners. Pulsed eddy-current measurements have also been
applied to ferromagnetic materials. Recent work has been involved with
measuring the case depth in hardened steel samples.

Properties of Electricity
Since eddy current inspection makes use of electromagnetic induction, it is important to know
about the scientific principles of electricity and magnetism. For a review of these principles,
the Science of NDT materials on this Internet site may be helpful. A review of the key
parameters will be provided here.
Electricity

It is well known that one of the subatomic particles

of an atom is the electron. Atoms can and usually do
have a number of electrons circling its nucleus. The
electrons carry a negative electrostatic charge and
under certain conditions can move from atom to
atom. The direction of movement between atoms is
random unless a force causes the electrons to move
in one direction. This directional movement of
electrons due to some imbalance of force is what is
known as electricity.
Amperage

The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes or amps for short. An
amp is the amount of electrical current that exists when a number of electrons,
having one coulomb of charge, move past a given point in one second.
A coulomb is the charge carried by 6.25 x 1018 electrons or
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.
Electromotive Force

The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit is

called the electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is
convenient to think of EMF as electrical pressure. In other words, it
is the force that makes electrons move in a certain direction within
a conductor. There are many sources of EMF, the most common
being batteries and electrical generators.
The Volt

The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. One volt is defined as the electrostatic
difference between two points when one joule of energy is used to move one
coulomb of charge from one point to the other. A joule is the amount of energy
that is being consumed when one watt of power works for one second. This is also
known as a watt-second. For our purposes, just accept the fact that one joule of
energy is a very, very small amount of energy. For example, a typical 60-watt light
bulb consumes about 60 joules of energy each second it is on.
Resistance

Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of electrical current

through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or other forms
of energy. The amount of resistance depends on the type of material. Materials
with low resistance are good conductors of electricity. Materials with high
resistance are goodinsulators.

Current Flow and Ohm's Law

Ohm's law is the most important, basic law of electricity. It defines the relationship
between the three fundamental electrical quantities: current, voltage,
and resistance. When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing only resistive
elements (i.e. no coils), current flows according to Ohm's Law, which is shown
below.

I=V/R
Where:
Electrical Current
(Amperes)
V = Voltage (Voltage)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
I=

Ohm's law states that the electrical current (I) flowing in an circuit is proportional
to the voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). Therefore, if the
voltage is increased, the current will increase provided the resistance of the circuit
does not change. Similarly, increasing the resistance of the circuit will lower the
current flow if the voltage is not changed. The formula can be reorganized so that
the relationship can easily be seen for all of the three variables.
The Java applet below allows the user to vary each of these three parameters in
Ohm's Law and see the effect on the other two parameters. Values may be input
into the dialog boxes, or the resistance and voltage may also be varied by moving
the arrows in the applet. Current and voltage are shown as they would be displayed
on an oscilloscope with the X-axis being time and the Y-axis being the amplitude
of the current or voltage. Ohm's Law is valid for both direct current (DC)
and alternating current (AC). Note that in AC circuits consisting of purely resistive
elements, the current and voltage are always in phase with each other.
Exercise: Use the interactive applet below to investigate the relationship of the
variables in Ohm's law. Vary the voltage in the circuit by clicking and dragging the
head of the arrow, which is marked with the V. The resistance in the circuit can be
increased by dragging the arrow head under the variable resister, which is marked
R. Please note that the vertical scale of the oscilloscope screen automatically
adjusts to reflect the value of the current.

See what happens to the voltage and current as the resistance in the circuit is
increased. What happens if there is not enough resistance in a circuit? If the
resistance is increased, what must happen in order to maintain the same level of
current flow?
Induction and Inductance
Induction
In 1824, Oersted discovered that current passing
though a coil created a magnetic field capable of
shifting a compass needle. Seven years later, Faraday
and Henry discovered just the opposite. They noticed
that a moving magnetic field would induce current in
an electrical conductor. This process of generating
electrical current in a conductor by placing the
conductor in a changing magnetic field is
calledelectromagnetic induction or just induction. It
is called induction because the current is said to be induced in the conductor by the
magnetic field.
Faraday also noticed that the rate at which the magnetic field changed also had an
effect on the amount of current or voltage that was induced. Faraday's Law for an
uncoiled conductor states that the amount of induced voltage is proportional to the
rate of change of flux lines cutting the conductor. Faraday's Law for a straight wire
is shown below.

Where:
VL = the induced voltage in volts
d/dt = the rate of change of magnetic flux in webers/second
Induction is measured in unit of Henries (H) which reflects this dependence on the
rate of change of the magnetic field. One henry is the amount of inductance that is
required to generate one volt of induced voltage when the current is changing at
the rate of one ampere per second. Note that current is used in the definition rather
than magnetic field. This is because current can be used to generate the magnetic
field and is easier to measure and control than magnetic flux.
Inductance

When induction occurs in an electrical circuit

and affects the flow of electricity it is
calledinductance, L. Self-inductance, or
simply inductance, is the property of a circuit
whereby a change in current causes a change
in voltage in the same circuit. When one
circuit induces current flow in a second nearby
circuit, it is known asmutual-inductance. The
image to the right shows an example of
mutual-inductance. When an AC current is
flowing through a piece of wire in a circuit, an electromagnetic field is produced
that is constantly growing and shrinking and changing direction due to the
constantly changing current in the wire. This changing magnetic field will induce
electrical current in another wire or circuit that is brought close to the wire in the
primary circuit. The current in the second wire will also be AC and in fact will
look very similar to the current flowing in the first wire. An electrical transformer
uses inductance to change the voltage of electricity into a more useful level. In
nondestructive testing, inductance is used to generate eddy currents in the test
piece.
It should be noted that since it is the changing magnetic field that is responsible for
inductance, it is only present in AC circuits. High frequency AC will result in
greater inductive reactance since the magnetic field is changing more rapidly.
Self-inductance and mutual-inductance will be discussed in more detail in the
following
Self-Inductance and Inductive Reactance
The property of self-inductance is a particular form of electromagnetic induction.
Self inductance is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire
when the current in the wire itself is changing. In the case of self-inductance, the
magnetic field created by a changing current in the circuit itself induces a voltage
in the same circuit. Therefore, the voltage is self-induced.
The term inductor is used to describe a circuit element possessing the property of
inductance and a coil of wire is a very common inductor. In circuit diagrams, a coil
or wire is usually used to indicate an inductive component. Taking a closer look at
a coil will help understand the reason that a voltage is induced in a wire carrying a
changing current. The alternating current running through the coil creates a
magnetic field in and around the coil that is increasing and decreasing as the
current changes. The magnetic field forms concentric loops that surround the wire
and join to form larger loops that surround the coil as shown in the image below.
When the current increases in one loop the expanding magnetic field will cut

across some or all of the neighboring loops of wire, inducing a voltage in these
loops. This causes a voltage to be induced in the coil when the current is changing.

By studying this image of a coil, it can be seen that the number of turns in the coil
will have an effect on the amount of voltage that is induced into the circuit.
Increasing the number of turns or the rate of change of magnetic flux increases the
amount of induced voltage. Therefore, Faraday's Law must be modified for a coil
of wire and becomes the following.

Where:
VL = induced voltage in volts
N = number of turns in the coil
d/dt = rate of change of magnetic flux in
webers/second
The equation simply states that the amount of induced voltage (VL) is proportional
to the number of turns in the coil and the rate of change of the magnetic flux
(d/dt). In other words, when the frequency of the flux is increased or the number
of turns in the coil is increased, the amount of induced voltage will also increase.
In a circuit, it is much easier to measure current than it is to measure magnetic flux,
so the following equation can be used to determine the induced voltage if the
inductance and frequency of the current are known. This equation can also be

reorganized to allow the inductance to be calculated when the amount of inducted

voltage can be determined and the current frequency is known.

Where:
VL = the induced voltage in volts
L = the value of inductance in henries
di/dt = the rate of change of current in amperes per second
Lenz's Law
Soon after Faraday proposed his law of induction, Heinrich Lenz developed a rule
for determining the direction of the induced current in a loop. Basically, Lenz's
law states that an induced current has a direction such that its magnetic field
opposes the change in magnetic field that induced the current. This means that
the current induced in a conductor will oppose the change in current that is causing
the flux to change. Lenz's law is important in understanding the property of
inductive reactance, which is one of the properties measured in eddy current
testing.
Inductive Reactance
The reduction of current flow in a circuit due to induction is called inductive
reactance.By taking a closer look at a coil of wire and applying Lenz's law, it can
be seen how inductance reduces the flow of current in the circuit. In the image
below, the direction of the primary current is shown in red, and the magnetic field
generated by the current isshown in blue. The direction of the magnetic field can
be determined by taking your right hand and pointing your thumb in the direction
of the current. Your fingers will then point in the direction of the magnetic field. It
can be seen that the magnetic field from one loop of the wire will cut across the
other loops in the coil and this will induce current flow (shown in green) in the
circuit. According to Lenz's law, the induced current must flow in the opposite
direction of the primary current. The induced current working against the primary
current results in a reduction of current flow in the circuit.
It should be noted that the inductive reactance will increase if the number of winds
in the coil is increased since the magnetic field from one coil will have more coils
to interact with.

Similarly to resistance, inductive reactance reduces the flow of current in a circuit.

However, it is possible to distinguish between resistance and inductive reactance in
a circuit by looking at the timing between the sine waves of the voltage and current
of the alternating current. In an AC circuit that contains only resistive components,
the voltage and the current will be in-phase, meaning that the peaks and valleys of
their sine waves will occur at the same time. When there is inductive reactance
present in the circuit, the phase of the current will be shifted so that its peaks and
valleys do not occur at the same time as those of the voltage. This will be discussed
in more detail in the section on circuits.
Mutual Inductance

(The Basis for Eddy Current Inspection)

The magnetic flux through a circuit can be related to the current in that circuit and
the currents in other nearby circuits, assuming that there are no nearby permanent
magnets. Consider the following two circuits.

The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and
create current flow. The induced current flow in circuit 2 will have its own
magnetic field which will interact with the magnetic field of circuit 1. At some
point P, the magnetic field consists of a part due to i and a part due to i . These
fields are proportional to the currents producing them.
1

The coils in the circuits are labeled L1 and L2 and this term represents the self
inductance of each of the coils. The values of L1 and L2 depend on the geometrical
arrangement of the circuit (i.e. number of turns in the coil) and the conductivity of
the material. The constant M, called the mutual inductance of the two circuits, is
dependent on the geometrical arrangement of both circuits. In particular, if the
circuits are far apart, the magnetic flux through circuit 2 due to the current i will be
small and the mutual inductance will be small. L and M are constants.
1

We can write the flux,

through circuit 2 as the sum of two parts.

B2

= Li + iM
2 2

An equation similar to the one above can be written for the flux through circuit 1.
B1

= Li + iM
1 1

Though it is certainly not obvious, it can be shown that the mutual inductance is
the same for both circuits. Therefore, it can be written as follows:
M =M
1,2

2,1

How is mutual induction used in eddy current

inspection?
In eddy current inspection, the eddy currents are
generated in the test material due to mutual induction.
The test probe is basically a coil of wire through which
alternating current is passed. Therefore, when the
probe is connected to an eddyscope instrument, it is
basically represented by circuit 1 above. The second circuit can be any piece of
conductive material.

When alternating current is passed through the coil, a

magnetic field is generated in and around the coil.
When the probe is brought in close proximity to a
conductive material, such as aluminum, the probe's
changing magnetic field generates current flow in the
material. The induced current flows in closed loops in
planes perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They are named eddy currents because
they are thought to resemble the eddy currents that can
be seen swirling in streams.
The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields
that interact with the primary magnetic field of the

coil. By measuring changes in the resistance and inductive reactance of the coil,
information can be gathered about the test material. This information includes the
electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the material, the amount of
material cutting through the coils magnetic field, and the condition of the material
(i.e. whether it contains cracks or other defects.) The distance that the coil is from
the conductive material is called liftoff, and this distance affects the mutualinductance of the circuits. Liftoff can be used to make measurements of the
thickness of nonconductive coatings, such as paint, that hold the probe a certain
distance from the surface of the conductive material.
It should be noted that if a sample is ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux is
concentrated and strengthened despite opposing eddy current effects. The increase
inductive reactance due to the magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials
makes it easy to distinguish these materials from nonferromagnetic materials.
In the applet below, the probe and the sample are shown in cross-section. The
boxes represent the cross-sectional area of a group of turns in the coil. The liftoff
distance and the drive current of the probe can be varied to see the effects of the
shared magnetic field. The liftoff value can be set to 0.1 or less and the current
value can be varied from 0.01 to 1.0. The strength of the magnetic field is shown
by the darkness of the lines.
Circuits and Phase
A circuit can be thought of as a closed path in which current flows through the
components that make up the circuit. The current (i) obeys Ohm's Law, which is
discussed on the page on current flow. The simple circuit below consists of a
voltage source (in this case an alternating current voltage source) and a resistor.
The graph below the circuit diagram shows the value of the voltage and the current
for this circuit over a period of time. This graph shows one complete cycle of an
alternating current source. From the graph, it can be seen that as the voltage
increases, the current does the same. The voltage and the current are said to be "inphase" since their zero, peak, and valley points occur at the same time. They are
also directly proportional to each other.

In the circuit below, the resistive component has been replaced with an inductor.
When inductance is introduced into a circuit, the voltage and the current will be
"out-of-phase," meaning that the voltage and current do not cross zero, or reach
their peaks and valleys at the same time. When a circuit has an inductive
component, the current (i ) will lag the voltage by one quarter of a cycle. One cycle
is often referred to as 360o, so it can be said that the current lags the voltage by
90o.
L

This phase shift occurs because the inductive reactance changes with changing
current. Recall that it is the changing magnetic field caused by a changing current
that produces inductive reactance. When the change in current is greatest,
inductive reactance will be the greatest, and the voltage across the inductor will be
the highest. When the change in current is zero, the inductive reactance will be
zero and the voltage across the inductor will be zero. Be careful not to confuse the
amount of current with the amount of change in the current. Consider the points
where the current reaches it peak amplitude and changes direction in the graph
below (0o, 180o, and 360o). As the current is changing directions, there is a split
second when the change in current is zero. Since the change in current is zero, no
magnetic field is generated to produce the inductive reactance. When the inductive
reactance is zero, the voltage across the inductor is zero.

The resistive and inductive components are of primary interest in eddy current
testing since the test probe is basically a coil of wire, which will have both
resistance and inductive reactance. However, there is a small amount of
capacitance in the circuits so a mention is appropriate. This simple circuit below
consists of an alternating current voltage source and a capacitor. Capacitance in a
circuit caused the current (i ) to lead the voltage by one quarter of a cycle
(90o current lead).
c

When there is both resistance and inductive reactance (and/or capacitance) in a

circuit, the combined opposition to current flow is known as impedance.
Impedance will be discussed more on the next page.
Impedance
Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to
alternating current. Impedance is measured in ohms and may include resistance
(R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (XC). However, the total
impedance is not simply the algebraic sum of the resistance, inductive reactance,
and capacitive reactance. Since the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance
are 90o out of phase with the resistance and, therefore, their maximum values occur
at different times, vector addition must be used to calculate impedance.
In the image below, a circuit diagram is shown that represents an eddy current
inspection system. The eddy current probe is a coil of wire so it contains resistance
and inductive reactance when driven by alternating current. The capacitive
reactance can be dropped as most eddy current probes have little capacitive
reactance. The solid line in the graph below shows the circuit's total current, which
is affected by the total impedance of the circuit. The two dashed lines represent the
portion of the current that is affected by the resistance and the inductive reactance
components individually. It can be seen that the resistance and the inductive
reactance lines are 90o out of phase, so when combined to produce the impedance
line, the phase shift is somewhere between zero and 90o. The phase shift is always
relative to the resistance line since the resistance line is always in-phase with the
voltage. If more resistance than inductive reactance is present in the circuit, the
impedance line will move toward the resistance line and the phase shift will
decrease. If more inductive reactance is present in the circuit, the impedance line
will shift toward the inductive reactance line and the phase shift will increase.

The relationship between impedance and its individual components (resistance and
inductive reactance) can be represented using a vector as shown below. The
amplitude of the resistance component is shown by a vector along the x-axis and
the amplitude of the inductive reactance is shown by a vector along the y-axis. The
amplitude of the the impedance is shown by a vector that stretches from zero to a
point that represents both the resistance value in the x-direction and the inductive
reactance in the y-direction. Eddy current instruments with impedance plane
displays present information in this format.

The impedance in a circuit with resistance and inductive reactance can be

calculated using the following equation. If capacitive reactance was present in the
circuit, its value would be added to the inductance term before squaring.

The phase angle of the circuit can also be calculated using some trigonometry.
The phase angle is equal to the ratio between the inductance and the resistance in
the circuit. With the probes and circuits used in nondestructive testing, capacitance
can usually be ignored so only inductive reactance needs to be accounted for in the
calculation. The phase angle can be calculated using the equation below. If
capacitive reactance was present in the circuit, its value would simply be
subtracted from the inductive reactance term.

or
The applet below can be used to see how the variables in the above equation are
related on the the vector diagram (or the impedance plane display). Values can be

entered into the dialog boxes or the arrow head on the vector diagram can be
dragged to a point representing the desired values. Note that the capacitive
reactance term has been included in the applet but as mentioned before, in eddy
current testing this value is small and can be ignored.
Impedance and Ohm's Law
In previous pages, Ohm's Law was discussed for a purely resistive circuit. When
there is inductive reactance or capacitive reactance also present in the circuit,
Ohm's Law must be written to include the total impedance in the circuit. Therefore,
Ohm's law becomes:
I=V/Z
Ohm's law now simply states that the current (I), in amperes, is proportional to the
voltage (V), in volts, divided by the impedance (Z), in ohms.
The applet below can be used to see how the current and voltage of a circuit are
affected by impedance. The applet allows the user to vary the inductance (L),
resistance (R), voltage (V) and current (I). Voltage and current are shown as they
would be displayed on an oscilloscope. Note that the resistance and/or the
inductive reactance values must be changed to change the impedance in the circuit.
Also note that when there is inductance in the circuit, the voltage and current are
out of phase. This is because the voltage across the inductor will be a maximum
when the rate of change of the current is greatest. For a sinusoidal wave form like
AC, this is at the point where the actual current is zero. Thus the voltage applied
to an inductor reaches its maximum value a quarter-cycle before the current
does, and the voltage is said to lead the current by 90o.
Depth of Penetration & Current
Density
Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current
circulating in planes perpendicular to the
magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to
the coil's winding and flow is limited to the area
of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy currents
concentrate near the surface adjacent to an
excitation coil and their strength decreases with
distance from the coil as shown in the image.
Eddy current density decreases exponentially
with depth. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect.

The skin effect arises when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any depth
produce magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing the net
magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current flow as the depth increases.
Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil's
magnetic field, thereby weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and
reducing induced currents.
The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency
of the excitation current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability
of the specimen. The depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency and
increasing conductivity and magnetic permeability. The depth at which eddy
current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface density, is called
the standard depth of penetration (). The word 'standard' denotes plane wave
electromagnetic field excitation within the test sample (conditions which are rarely
achieved in practice). Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one standard
depth of penetration, they decrease rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of
penetration (2), eddy current density has decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the
surface density. At three depths (3), the eddy current density is down to only 5%
of the surface density.

Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current
density at the defect location, it is important to know the strength of the eddy
currents at this location. When attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often
selected which places the expected flaw depth within one standard depth of
penetration. This helps to assure that the strength of the eddy currents will be
sufficient to produce a flaw indication. Alternately, when using eddy currents to
measure the electrical conductivity of a material, the frequency is often set so that
it produces three standard depths of penetration within the material. This helps to

assure that the eddy currents will be so weak at the back side of the material that
changes in the material thickness will not affect the eddy current measurements.
The applet below illustrates how eddy current density changes in a semi-infinite
conductor. The applet can be used to calculate the standard depth of penetration.
The equation for this calculation is:

Where:
= Standard Depth of Penetration (mm)
= 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
= Magnetic Permeability (H/mm)
= Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)

(Note: The applet has an input box for relative permeability since this is often the
more readily available value. The applet multiplies the relative permeability of the
material by the permeability of free space to get to H/mm units.)
Phase Lag
Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to obtain
information about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is the shift in
time between the eddy current response from a disruption on the surface and a
disruption at some distance below the surface. The generation of eddy currents can
be thought of as a time dependent process, meaning that the eddy currents below
the surface take a little longer to form than those at the surface. Disruptions in the
eddy currents away from the surface will produce more phase lag than disruptions
near the surface. Both the signal voltage and current will have this phase shift or
lag with depth, which is different from the phase angle discussed earlier. (With the
phase angle, the current shifted with respect to the voltage.)
Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes it
possible to estimate the depth of a defect, and with proper reference specimens,
determine the rough size of a defect. The signal produced by a flaw depends on
both the amplitude and phase of the eddy currents being disrupted. A small surface
defect and large internal defect can have a similar effect on the magnitude of
impedance in a test coil. However, because of the increasing phase lag with depth,
there will be a characteristic difference in the test coil impedance vector.
Phase lag can be calculated with the following equation. The phase lag angle
calculated with this equation is useful for estimating the subsurface depth of a
discontinuity that is concentrated at a specific depth. Discontinuities, such as a

crack that spans many depths, must be divided into sections along its length and a
weighted average determined for phase and amplitude at each position below the
surface.
In
Radians
In
Degrees

Where:
=Phase Lag (Rad or Degrees)
x=Distance Below Surface (in or mm)
=Standard Depth of Penetration (in or mm)

At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is one radian or 57o. This
means that the eddy currents flowing at one standard depth of penetration ()
below the surface, lag the surface currents by 57o. At two standard depths of
penetration (2), they lag the surface currents by 114o. Therefore, by measuring
the phase lag of a signal the depth of a defect can be estimated.
On the impedance plane, the liftoff signal serves as the reference phase
direction. The angle between the liftoff and defect signals is about twice the phase
lag calculated with the above equation. As mentioned above, discontinuities that
have a significant dimension normal to the surface, will produce an angle that is
based on the weighted average of the disruption to the eddy currents at the various
depths along its length.
In the applet below, the relationship between the depth and dimensions of a
discontinuity and the rotation produced on the impedance plane is explored. The
red lines represent the relative strength of the magnetic field from the coil and the
dashed lines indicate the phase lag of the eddy currents induced at a particular
depth.

Eddy Current Instruments

Eddy current instruments can be
purchased in a large variety of
configurations. Both analog and digital
instruments are available. Instruments are
commonly classified by the type of
display used to present the data. The

common display types are analog meter, digital readout, impedance plane and time
versus signal amplitude. Some instruments are capable of presenting data in
several display formats.
The most basic eddy current testing instrument consists of an alternating current
source, a coil of wire connected to this source, and a voltmeter to measure the
voltage change across the coil. An ammeter could also be used to measure the
current change in the circuit instead of using the voltmeter.

While it might actually be possible to detect some types of defects with this type of
equipment, most eddy current instruments are a bit more sophisticated. In the
following pages, a few of the more important aspects of eddy current
instrumentation will be
Resonant Circuits
Eddy current probes typically have a frequency or a range of frequencies that they
are designed to operated. When the probe is operated outside of this range,
problems with the data can occur. When a probe is operated at too high of a
frequency, resonance can occurs in the circuit. In a parallel circuit with resistance
(R), inductance (XL) and capacitance (XC), as the frequency increases XL decreases
and XC increase. Resonance occurs when XL and XC are equal but opposite in
strength. At the resonant frequency, the total impedance of the circuit appears to
come only from resistance since XL and XCcancel out. Every circuit containing
capacitance and inductance has a resonant frequency that is inversely proportional
to the square root of the product of the capacitance and inductance.

In eddy current probes and cables, it is commonly stated that capacitance is

negligible. However, even circuits not containing discreet components for
resistance, capacitance, and inductance can still exhibit their effects. When two
conductors are placed side by side, there is always some capacitance between

them. Thus, when many turns of wire are placed close together in a coil, a certain
amount of stray capacitance is produced. Additionally, the cable used to
interconnect pieces of electronic equipment or equipment to probes, often has
some capacitance, as well as, inductance. This stray capacitance is usually very
small and in most cases has no significant effect. However, they are not negligible
in sensitive circuits and at high frequencies they become quite important.
Probes - Mode of Operation
Eddy current probes are available in a
large variety of shapes and sizes. In fact,
one of the major advantages of eddy
current inspection is that probes can be
custom designed for a wide variety of
applications. Eddy current probes are
classified by the configuration and mode
of operation of the test coils. The
configuration of the probe generally
refers to the way the coil or coils are
packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest. An example of different
configurations of probes would be bobbin probes, which are inserted into a piece
of pipe to inspect from the inside out, versus encircling probes, in which the coil or
coils encircle the pipe to inspect from the outside in. The mode of operation refers
to the way the coil or coils are wired and interface with the test equipment. The
mode of operation of a probe generally falls into one of four categories: absolute,
differential, reflection and hybrid. Each of these classifications will be discussed in
more detail below.
Absolute Probes
Absolute probes generally have a single test coil
that is used to generate the eddy currents and
sense changes in the eddy current field. As
discussed in the physics section, AC is passed
through the coil and this sets up an expanding
and collapsing magnetic field in and around the
coil. When the probe is positioned next to a
conductive material, the changing magnetic
field generates eddy currents within the
material. The generation of the eddy currents
take energy from the coil and this appears as an
increase in the electrical resistance of the coil.
The eddy currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic
field of the coil and this changes the inductive reactance of the coil. By measuring

the absolute change in impedance of the test coil, much information can be gained
about the test material.
Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection, conductivity measurements, liftoff
measurements and thickness measurements. They are widely used due to their
versatility. Since absolute probes are sensitive to things such as conductivity,
permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be taken to minimize these
variables when they are not important to the inspection being performed. It is very
common for commercially available absolute probes to have a fixed "air loaded"
reference coil that compensates for ambient temperature variations.
Differential Probes
Differential probes have two active
coils usually wound in opposition,
although they could be wound in
addition with similar results. When
the two coils are over a flaw-free area
of test sample, there is no differential
signal developed between the coils
since they are both inspecting
identical material. However, when
one coil is over a defect and the other
is over good material, a differential
signal is produced. They have the
advantage of being very sensitive to
defects yet relatively insensitive to
slowly varying properties such as
gradual dimensional or temperature variations. Probe wobble signals are also
reduced with this probe type. There are also disadvantages to using differential
probes. Most notably, the signals may be difficult to interpret. For example, if a
flaw is longer than the spacing between the two coils, only the leading and trailing
edges will be detected due to signal cancellation when both coils sense the flaw
equally.
Reflection Probes
Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but one coil is used
to excite the eddy currents and the other is used to sense changes in the test
material. Probes of this arrangement are often referred to as driver/pickup probes.
The advantage of reflection probes is that the driver and pickup coils can be
separately optimized for their intended purpose. The driver coil can be made so as
to produce a strong and uniform flux field in the vicinity of the pickup coil, while
the pickup coil can be made very small so that it will be sensitive to very small
defects.

Some absolute and differential "transformer" type eddy current probes.

The through-transmission method is sometimes used when complete penetration of
plates and tube walls is required.
Hybrid Probes
An example of a hybrid probe is the split D,
differential probe shown to the right. This probe has a
driver coil that surrounds two D shaped sensing coils.
It operates in the reflection mode but additionally, its
sensing coils operate in the differential mode. This
type of probe is very sensitive to surface cracks.
Another example of a hybrid probe is one that uses a
conventional coil to generate eddy currents in the
material but then uses a different type of sensor to
detect changes on the surface and within the test
material. An example of a hybrid probe is one that uses a Hall effect sensor to
detect changes in the magnetic flux leaking from the test surface. Hybrid probes
are usually specially designed for a specific inspection application.

Probes - Configurations
As mentioned on the previous page, eddy current probes are classified by the
configuration and mode of operation of the test coils. The configuration of the
probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are packaged to best "couple" to
the test area of interest. Some of the common classifications of probes based on
their configuration include surface probes, bolt hole probes, inside diameter (ID)
probes, and outside diameter (OD) probes.

Surface Probes
Surface probes are usually designed to be
handheld and are intended to be used in
contact with the test surface. Surface
probes generally consist of a coil of very
fine wire encased in a protective housing.
The size of the coil and shape of the
housing are determined by the intended use
of the probe. Most of the coils are wound
so that the axis of the coil is perpendicular
to the test surface. This coil configuration
is sometimes referred to as a pancake coil
and is good for detecting surface
discontinuities that are oriented
perpendicular to the test surface.
Discontinuities, such as delaminations, that
are in a parallel plane to the test surface
will likely go undetected with this coil configuration.
Wide surface coils are used when scanning large areas for relatively large defects.
They sample a relatively large area and allow for deeper penetration. Since they do
sample a large area, they are often used for conductivity tests to get more of a bulk
material measurement. However, their large sampling area limits their ability to
detect small discontinuities.
Pencil probes have a small surface coil that is encased in a long slender housing to
permit inspection in restricted spaces. They are available with a straight shaft or
with a bent shaft, which facilitates easier handling and use in applications such as
the inspection of small diameter bores. Pencil probes are prone to wobble due to
their small base and sleeves are sometimes used to provide a wider base.
Bolt Hole Probes
Bolt hole probes are a special type of surface probe that is designed to be used with
a bolt hole scanner. They have a surface coil that is mounted inside a housing that
matches the diameter of the hole being inspected. The probe is inserted in the hole
and the scanner rotates the probe within the hole.
ID or Bobbin Probes
ID probes, which are also referred to as
Bobbin probes or feed-through probes,
are inserted into hollow products, such
as pipes, to inspect from the inside out.

The ID probes have a housing that keep the probe centered in the product and the
coil(s) orientation somewhat constant relative to the test surface. The coils are most
commonly wound around the circumference of the probe so that the probe inspects
an area around the entire circumference of the test object at one time.
OD or Encircling Coils
OD probes are often called encircling coils.
They are similar to ID probes except that the
coil(s) encircle the material to inspect from the
outside in. OD probes are commonly used to
inspect solid products, such as bars.

Probes - Shielding & Loading

One of the challenges of performing an eddy current
inspection is getting sufficient eddy current field strength
in the region of interest within the material. Another
challenge is keeping the field away from nonrelevant
features of the test component. The impedance change
caused by nonrelevant features can complicate the
interpretation of the signal. Probe shielding and loading
are sometimes used to limit the spread and concentrate the
magnetic field of the coil. Of course, if the magnetic field
is concentrated near the coil, the eddy currents will also be concentrated in this
area.
Probe Shielding
Probe shielding is used to prevent or reduce the interaction of
the probe's magnetic field with nonrelevent features in close
proximity of the probe. Shielding could be used to reduce edge
effects when testing near dimensional transitions such as a step
or an edge. Shielding could also be used to reduce the effects of
conductive or magnetic fasteners in the region of testing.
Eddy current probes are most often shielded using magnetic
shielding or eddy current shielding. Magnetically shielded
probes have their coil surrounded by a ring of ferrite or other material with high

permeability and low conductivity. The ferrite creates an area of low magnetic
reluctance and the probe's magnetic field is concentrated in this area rather than
spreading beyond the shielding. This concentrates the magnetic field into a tighter
area around the coil.
Eddy current shielding uses a ring of highly conductive but nonmagnetic material,
usually copper, to surround the coil. The portion of the coil's magnetic field that
cuts across the shielding will generate eddy currents in the shielding material rather
than in the nonrelevent features outside of the shielded area. The higher the
frequency of the current used to drive the probe, the more effective the shielding
will be due to the skin effect in the shielding material.
Probe Loading with Ferrite Cores
Sometimes coils are wound around a ferrite core. Since
ferrite is ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux produced by the
coil prefers to travel through the ferrite as opposed to the
air. Therefore, the ferrite core concentrates the magnetic
field near the center of the probe. This, in turn,
concentrates the eddy currents near the center of the probe.
Probes with ferrite cores tend to be more sensitive than air
core probes and less affected by probe wobble and lift-off.

Coil (Probe) Design

The most important feature in eddy current testing is the way in which the eddy
currents are induced and detected in the material under test. This depends on the
design of the probe. As discussed in the previous pages, probes can contain one or
more coils, a core and shielding. All have an important effect on the probe, but the
coil requires the most design consideration.
A coil consists of a length of wire wound in a helical manner around the length of a
former. The main purpose of the former is to provide a sufficient amount of
rigidity in the coil to prevent distortion. Formers used for coils with diameters
greater than a few millimeters (i.e. encircling and pancake coils), generally take the
form of tubes or rings made from dielectric materials. Small-diameter coils are
usually wound directly onto a solid former.
The region inside the former is called the core, which can consist of either a solid
material or just air. When the core is air or a nonconductive material, the probe is
often referred to as an air-core probe. Some coils are wound around a ferrite core

which concentrates the the coil's magnetic field into a smaller area. These coils are
referred to as "loaded" coils.
The wire used in an eddy current probe is typically made from copper or other
nonferrous metal to avoid magnetic hysteresis effects. The winding usually has
more than one layer so as to increase the value of inductance for a given length of
coil. The higher the inductance (L) of a coil, at a given frequency, the greater the
sensitivity of eddy current testing.
It is essential that the current through the coil is as low as possible. Too high a
current may produce:

a rise in temperature, hence an expansion of the coil, which increases the

value of L.
magnetic hysteresis, which is small but detectable when a ferrite core is
used.

The simplest type of probe is the single-coil probe, which is in widespread use.
The following applet may be used to calculate the effect of the inner and outer
diameters, length, number of turns and wire diameter of a simple probe design on
the probe's self inductance. Dimensional units are in millimeters.
Impedance Matching
Eddy current testing requires us to determine the components of the impedance of
the detecting coil or the potential difference across it. Most applications require the
determination only of changes in impedance, which can be measured with a high
degree of sensitivity using an AC bridge. The principles of operation of the most
commonly used eddy current instruments are based on Maxwell's inductance
bridge, in which the components of the impedance of the detecting coil, commonly
called a probe, are compared with known variable impedances connected in series
and forming the balancing arm of the
bridge. Refer back to Bridges.
The input to the bridge is an AC
oscillator, often variable in both
frequency and amplitude. The detector
arm takes the form of either a meter or
a storage cathode-ray oscilloscope, a
phase-sensitive detector, a rectifier to
provide a steady indication, and
usually an attenuator to confine the
output indication within a convenient
range. Storage facilities are necessary
in the oscilloscope in order to retain

the signal from the detector for reference during scanning with the probe.
The highest sensitivity of detection is achieved by properly matching the
impedance of the probe to the impedance of the measuring instrument. Thus, with
a bridge circuit that is initially balanced, a subsequent but usually small variation
in the impedance of the probe upsets the balance, and a potential difference
appears across the detector arm of the bridge.
Although the Maxwell inductance bridge forms the basis of most eddy current
instruments, there are several reasons why it cannot be used in its simplest form
(i.e. Hague, 1934), including the creation of stray capacitances, such as those
formed by the leads and leakages to earth. These unwanted impedances can be
eliminated by earthing devices and the addition of suitable impedances to produce
one or more wide-band frequency (i.e. low Q) resonance circuits. Instruments
having a wide frequency range (i.e. from 1 kHz to 2 MHz) may possess around
five of these bands to cover the range. The value of the impedance of the probe is
therefore an important consideration in achieving proper matching and, as a result,
it may be necessary to change the probe when switching from one frequency band
to another.
Reference Standards
In eddy current testing, the use of reference standards in setting up the equipment
is particularly important since signals are affected by many different variables and
slight changes in equipment setup can drastically alter the appearance of a signal.
As with most other NDT methods, the most useful information is obtained when
comparing the results from an unknown object to results from a similar object with
well characterized features and defects. In almost all cases, eddy current inspection
procedures require the equipment to be configured using reference standards.
For crack detection, corrosion thinning and other material damage, reference
standards are used to setup the equipment to produce a recognizable signal or set of
signals from a defect or set of defects. In many cases, the appearance of a test
signal can be related to the appearance of a signal from a known defect on the
reference standard to estimate the size of a defect in the test component. Signals
that vary significantly from the responses produced by the reference standard must
be further investigated to the determine the source of the signal.

The reference standard should be of the same material as the test article. If this is
not possible or practical, it should be of material that has the same electrical
conductivity and magnetic permeability. Component features (material thickness,
geometry, etc.) should be the same in the reference standard as those in the test
region of interest. If the reference standard is the type with intentional defects,
these defects should be as representative of actual defects in the test component as
possible. The closer the reference standard is to the actual test component, the
better. However, since cracks and corrosion damage are often difficult and costly
to produce, artificial defects are commonly used. Narrow notches produced with
electron discharge machining (EDM) and saw cuts are commonly used to represent
cracks, and drilled holes are often used to simulate corrosion pitting.
Common eddy current reference standards include:

Conductivity standards.
Flat plate discontinuity standards.
Flat plate metal thinning standards (step or tapered wedges).
Tube discontinuity standards.
Tube metal thinning standards.
Hole (with and without fastener) discontinuity standards.

Signal Filtering
Signal filtering is often used in eddy current testing to eliminate unwanted
frequencies from the receiver signal. While the correct filter settings can
significantly improve the visibility of a defect signal, incorrect settings can distort

the signal presentation and even eliminate the defect signal completely. Therefore,
it is important to understand the concept of signal filtering.
Filtering is applied to the received signal and, therefore, is not directly related to
the probe drive frequency. This is most easily understood when picturing a time
versus signal amplitude display. With this display mode, it is easy to see that the
signal shape is dependent on the time or duration that the probe coil is sensing
something. For example, if a surface probe is placed on the surface of conductor
and rocked back and forth, it will produce a wave like signal. When the probe is
rocked fast, the signal will have a higher frequency than when the probe is rocked
slowly back and forth. The signal does not need a wavelike appearance to have
frequency content and most eddy current signals will be composed of a large
number of frequencies. Consider a probe that senses a notch for 1/60th of a second.
In a period of one second the probe could (in theory) go over the notch 60 times,
resulting in the notch signal having a frequency of 60 Hz. But, imposed on this
same signal, could be the signal resulting from probe wobble, electronic noise, a
conductivity shift and other factors which occur at different frequencies.
Filters Effects
The two standard filters found in most
impedance plane display instruments are the
High Pass Filter (HPF) and Low Pass Filter
(LPF). Some instruments also have aBand Pass
Filter (BPF), which is a combination high and
low pass filter. Filters are adjusted in Hertz
(Hz).
The HPF allows high frequencies to pass and
filters out the low frequencies. The HPF is
basically filtering out changes in the signal that
occur over a significant period of time.
The LPF allows low frequency to pass and
filters out the high frequency. In other words,
all portions of the signal that change rapidly (have a high slope) are filtered, such
as electronic noise.
In the image above, the gradual (low frequency) changes were first filtered out
with a HPF and then high frequency electronic noise was filtered with a LPF to
leave a clearly visible flaw indication. It should also be noted that since flaw
indication signals are comprised of multiple frequencies, both filters have a
tendency to reduce the indication signal strength. Additionally, scan speed must be
controlled when using filters. Scan over a flaw too slow and the HPF might filter

out the flaw indication. Scan over the flaw too fast and the LPF might eliminate the
flaw indication.
Filter Settings
If the spectrum of the signal frequency
and the signal amplitude or attenuation
are plotted, the filter responses can be
illustrated in graphical form. The image
to the right shows the response of a LPF
of 20Hz and a HPF of 40Hz. The LPF
allows only the frequencies in yellow to
pass and the HPF only allow those
frequencies in the blue area to pass.
Therefore, it can be seen that with these
settings there are no frequencies that
pass (i.e. the frequencies passed by the LPF are filtered out by the HPF and visa
versa).
To create a window of acceptance for
the signals, the filters need to overlap. In
the image to the right, the LPF has been
adjusted to 60Hz and the HPF to 10Hz.
The area shown in gray is where the two
frequencies overlap and the signal is
passed. A signal of 30Hz will get
through at full amplitude, while a signal
of 15Hz will be attenuated by
approximately 50%. All frequencies
above or below the gray area (the pass
band) will be rejected by one of the two
filters.
Use of Filters
The main function of the LPF is to remove high frequency interference noise. This
noise can come from a variety of sources including the instrumentation and/or the
probe itself. The noise appears as an unstable dot that produces jagged lines on the
display as seen in the signal from a surface notch shown in the left image below.
Lowering the LPF frequency will remove more of the higher frequencies from the
signal and produce a cleaner signal as shown in the center image below. When
using a LPF, it should be set to the highest frequency that produces a usable signal.
To reduce noise in large surface or ring probes, it may be necessary to use a very
low LPF setting (down to 10Hz). The lower the LPF setting, the slower the
scanning speed must be and the more closely it must be controlled. The image on

the right below shows a signal that has been clipped due to using a scan speed too
fast for the selected HPF setting.

The HPF is used to eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow
changes, such as conductivity shift within a material, varying distance to an edge
while scanning parallel to it, or out-of-round holes in fastener hole inspection. The
HPF is useful when performing automated or semiautomatic scans to keep the
signal from wandering too far from the null (balance) point. The most common
application for the HPF is the inspection of fastener holes using a rotating scanner.
As the scanner rotates at a constant RPM, the HPF can be adjusted to achieve the
desired effect.
Use of the HPF when scanning manually is not recommended, as keeping a
constant scanning speed is difficult, and the signal deforms and amplitude
decreases. The size of a signal decreases as the scan speed decreases and a flaw
indication can be eliminated completely if the scan is not done with sufficient
speed. In the images below, it can be seen that a typical response from a surface
notch in aluminum without HPF (left image) looks considerably different when the
HPF is activated (right image). With the HPF, looping signals with a positive and
similar negative deflection are produced on the impedance plane.

The use of a minimal HPF setting (1 or 2 Hz) may be used when manually
scanning, provided the operator can largely control the scan speed and becomes
familiar with the indication signal changes as scan speed is varied slightly. An
good example of such an application would be the manual scan of the radius of a

wheel that is rotated by hand, but the speed of rotation can be kept relatively
constant.

Surface Breaking Cracks

Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of
applications such as the detection of cracks
(discontinuities), measurement of metal thickness,
detection of metal thinning due to corrosion and
erosion, determination of coating thickness, and the
measurement of electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability. Eddy current inspection is an excellent
method for detecting surface and near surface defects
when the probable defect location and orientation is
well known.
Defects such as cracks are detected when they disrupt
the path of eddy currents and weaken their strength.
The images to the right show an eddy current surface
probe on the surface of a conductive component. The
strength of the eddy currents under the coil of the
probe ins indicated by color. In the lower image, there is a flaw under the right side
of the coil and it can be see that the eddy currents are weaker in this area.
Of course, factors such as the type of material, surface finish and condition of the
material, the design of the probe, and many other factors can affect the sensitivity
of the inspection. Successful detection of surface breaking and near surface cracks
requires:
1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and orientation.
2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit the geometry of the part
and the coil must produce eddy currents that will be disrupted by the flaw.
3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For surface flaws, the
frequency should be as high as possible for maximum resolution and high
sensitivity. For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are necessary to get the
required depth of penetration and this results in less sensitivity.
Ferromagnetic or highly conductive materials require the use of an even
lower frequency to arrive at some level of penetration.
4. Setup or reference specimens of similar material to the component being
inspected and with features that are representative of the defect or condition
being inspected for.

The basic steps in performing an

inspection with a surface probe are
the following:
1. Select and setup the
instrument and probe.
2. Select a frequency to
produce the desired depth
of penetration.
3. Adjust the instrument to
obtain an easily recognizable defect response using a calibration standard or
setup specimen.
4. Place the inspection probe (coil) on the component surface and null the
instrument.
5. Scan the probe over part of the surface in a pattern that will provide
complete coverage of the area being inspected. Care must be taken to
maintain the same probe-to-surface orientation as probe wobble can affect
interpretation of the signal. In some cases, fixtures to help maintain
orientation or automated scanners may be required.
6. Monitor the signal for a local change in impedance that will occur as the
probe moves over a discontinuity.
The applet below depicts a simple eddy current probe near the surface of a
calibration specimen. Move the probe over the surface of the specimen and
compare the signal responses from a surface breaking crack with the signals from
the calibration notches. The inspection can be made at a couple of different
frequencies to get a feel for the effect that frequency has on sensitivity in this
application.

Surface Crack Detection Using Sliding Probes

Many commercial aircraft applications involve the use of multiple fasteners to
connect the multi-layer skins. Because of the fatigue stress that is caused by the
typical application of any commercial aircraft, fatigue cracks can be induced in the
vicinity of the fastener holes. In order to inspect the fastener holes in an adequate
amount of time, sliding probes are an efficient method of inspection.
Sliding probes have been named so because they move over fasteners in a sliding
motion. There are two types of sliding probes, fixed and adjustable, which are
usually operated in the reflection mode. This means that the eddy currents are
induced by the driver coil and detected by a separate receiving coil.

Sliding probes are one of the fastest methods to inspect large numbers of fastener
holes. They are capable of detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities, but
they can only detect defects in one direction. The probes are marked with a
detection line to indicate the direction of inspection. In order to make a complete
inspection there must be two scans that are orthogonal (90 degrees) to each other.
Probe Types
Fixed Sliding Probes
These probes are generally used for thinner material compared to the adjustable
probes. Maximum penetration is about 1/8 inch. Fixed sliding probes are
particularly well suited for finding longitudinal surface or subsurface cracks such
as those found in lap joints. Typical frequency range is from
100 Hz to 100 kHz.
Adjustable Sliding Probes
These probes are well suited for finding subsurface cracks in
thick multi-layer structures, like wing skins. Maximum
penetration is about 3/4 inch. The frequency range for
adjustable sliding probes is from 100 Hz to 40 kHz.
Adjustable probes, as the name implies, are adjustable with the use of spacers,
which will change the penetration capabilities. The spacer thickness between the
coils is normally adjusted for the best detection. For tangential scans or 90 degree
scanning with an offset from the center, a thinner spacer is often used.
The spacer thickness range can vary from 0 (no
spacer) for inspections close to the surface and small
fastener heads to a maximum of about 0.3 inch for
deep penetration with large heads in the bigger probe
types. A wider spacer will give more tolerance to
probe deviation as the sensitive area becomes wider
but the instrument will require more gain. Sliding
probes usually penetrate thicker materials compared
to the donut probes.
Reference Standards
Reference/calibration standards for setup of sliding probes typically consist of
three or four aluminum plates that are fastened together within a lap joint type
configuration. EDM notches or naturally/artificially- induced cracks are located in
the second or third layer of the standard.

Reference standards used should be manufactured from the same material type,
alloy, material thickness, and chemical composition that will be found on the
aircraft component to be inspected. Sizes and tolerances of flaws introduced in the
standards are usually regulated by inspection specifications.
Inspection Variables
Liftoff Signal Adjustment
Liftoff is normally adjusted to be relatively horizontal. The term "relatively
horizontal" is used here because the liftoff signal often appears a curved line rather
than a straight line. Sometimes liftoff can be a sharp curve and may need to be
adjusted to run slightly upwards before moving downwards. See Figures 1 and 2.

Scan Patterns
A typical scan is centralized over the fastener head and moves along the axis of the
fastener holes. This scan is generally used to detect cracks positioned along the
axis of the fastener holes. For detecting cracks located transverse or 90 degrees
from the axis of the fastener holes, a scan that is 90 degrees from the axis of the
fastener holes is recommended.
Signal Interpretation
When the probe moves over a fastener hole with a crack, the indication changes

and typically will create a larger vertical movement. The vertical amplitude of the
loop depends on the crack length, with longer cracks giving higher indications.
If the crack is in the far side of the fastener, as the probe moves over it, the dot will
follow the fastener line first but will move upwards (clockwise) as it goes over the
crack. If the crack is in the near side, it will be found first and the dot will move
along the crack level before coming down to the fastener level.
If two cracks on opposite sides of the fastener hole are present, the dot will move
upwards to the height by the first crack length and then come back to the fastener
line and balance point. If the second crack is longer than the first one, the dot will
move even higher and complete the loop (clockwise) before going down to the
balance point. See Figures 3 and 4.

Probe Scan Deviation

Most probes are designed to give a narrow indication for a good fastener hole so
that the loops from the cracks are more noticeable. Some probes and structures can
give wider indications and a similar result can be obtained if the probe is not
straight when it approaches the fastener. It is important to keep the probe
centralized over the fastener heads. Doing this will give you a maximum indication
for the fastener and a crack.
If the probe deviates from the center line, the crack indication will move along the
loop that we saw in Figure 5 and is now present in Figure 6. The crack indication is
at "a" when the probe is centralized and moves toward "b" as it deviates in one
direction, or "c" as it deviates in the opposite direction. Point "b" gives an
important indication even if it loses a small amount of amplitude it has gained in
phase, giving a better separation angle. This is because we deviated to the side
where the crack is located.

Crack Angle Deviation

A reduction in the crack indication occurs when the crack is at an angle to the
probe scan direction. This happens if the crack is not completely at 90 degrees to
the normal probe scan or changes direction as it grows. Both the fixed and
adjustable sliding probes are capable of detecting cracks up to about 30 degrees off
angle. See Figures 7 and 8.

Electrical Contact
When inspecting fasteners that have just been installed or reference standards that
have intimate contact with the aluminum skin plate, it is not unusual to obtain a
smaller than normal indication. In some extreme cases, the fastener indication may
disappear almost completely. This is due to the good electrical contact between the
fastener and the skin. This condition allows the eddy currents to circulate without
encountering a boundary, and therefore, no obstacle or barrier. Because of this
effect, it is recommended to paint the holes before fastener installation.

Tube Inspection

Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion,

erosion, cracking and other changes in tubing. Heat
exchangers and steam generators, which are used in power
plants, have thousands of tubes that must be prevented from
leaking. This is especially important in nuclear power plants
where reused, contaminated water must be prevented from
mixing with fresh water that will be returned to the
environment. The contaminated water flows on one side of
the tube (inside or outside) and the fresh water flows on the
other side. The heat is transferred from the contaminated
water to the fresh water and the fresh water is then returned
back to is source, which is usually a lake or river. It is very
important to keep the two water sources from mixing, so power plants are
periodically shutdown so the tubes and other equipment can be inspected and
repaired. The eddy current test method and the related remote field testing method
provide high-speed inspection techniques for these applications.
A technique that is often used involves
feeding a differential bobbin probe into
the individual tube of the heat
exchanger. With the differential probe,
no signal will be seen on the eddy
current instrument as long as no metal
thinning is present. When metal
thinning is present, a loop will be seen
on the impedance plane as one coil of
the differential probe passes over the flawed area and a second loop will be
produced when the second coil passes over the damage. When the corrosion is on
the outside surface of the tube, the depth of corrosion is indicated by a shift in the
phase lag. The size of the indication provides an indication of the total extent of the
corrosion damage.
A tube inspection using a bobbin probe is simulated below. Click the "null" button
and then drag either the absolute or the differential probe through the tube. Note
the different signal responses provided by the two probes. Also note that the
absolute probe is much more sensitive to dings and the build up of magnetite on
the outside of the tube than the differential probe is.

Conductivity Measurements
One of the uses of eddy current instruments is
for the measurement of electrical
conductivity. The value of the electrical
conductivity of a metal depends on several
factors, such as its chemical composition and
the stress state of its crystalline structure.
Therefore, electrical conductivity information
can be used for sorting metals, checking for
proper heat treatment, and inspecting for heat
damage.
The technique usually involves nulling an absolute probe in air and placing the
probe in contact with the sample surface. For nonmagnetic materials, the change in
impedance of the coil can be correlated directly to the conductivity of the material.
The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials from nonmagnetic
materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity effects from the magnetic

permeability effects, so conductivity measurements are limited to nonmagnetic

materials. It is important to control factors that can affect the results such as the
inspection temperature and the part geometry. Conductivity changes with
temperature so measurements should be made at a constant temperature and
adjustments made for temperature variations when necessary. The thickness of the
specimen should generally be greater than three standard depths of penetration.
This is so the eddy currents at the back surface of the sample are sufficiently
weaker than the variations in the specimen thickness that are not seen in the
measurements.
Generally large pancake type, surface probes
are used to get a value for a relatively large
sample area. The instrument is usually setup
such that a ferromagnetic material produces a
response that is nearly vertical. Then, all
conductive but nonmagnetic materials will
produce a trace that moves down and to the
right as the probe is moved toward the
surface. Think back to the discussion on the
impedance plane and these type of responses
make sense. Remember that inductive
reactance changes are plotted along the yaxis and resistance changes are plotted in the x-axis. Since ferromagnetic materials
will concentrate the magnetic field produced by a coil, the inductive reactance of
the coil will increase. The effects on the signal from the magnetic permeability
overshadow the effects from conductivity since they are so much stronger.
When the probe is brought near a conductive but nonmagnetic material, the coil's
inductive reactance goes down since the magnetic field from the eddy currents
opposes the magnetic field of the coil. The resistance in the coil increases since it
takes some of the coil's energy to generate the eddy currents and this appears as
additional resistance in the circuit. As the conductivity of the materials being tested
increases, the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will
be greater. Therefore, the signals will be come more vertical as the conductivity
increases, as shown in the image above.
To sort materials using an impedance plane device, the signal from the unknown
sample must be compared to a signal from a variety of reference
standards. However, there are devices available that can be calibrated to produce a
value for electrical conductivity which can then be compared to published values
of electrical conductivity in MS/m or percent IACS (International Annealed
Copper Standard). Please be aware that the conductivity of a particular material
can vary significantly with slight variations in the chemical composition and, thus,
a conductivity range is generally provided for a material. The conductivity range
for one material may overlap with the range of a second material of interest, so

conductivity alone can not always be used to sort materials. The electrical
conductivity values for a variety of materials can be found in the material
properties reference tables.

Conductivity Measurements
for the Verification of
Heat Treatment
With some materials, such as solution
heat treatable aluminum alloys,
conductivity measurements are often
made verifying that parts and materials
have received the proper heat treatment.
High purity aluminum is soft and
ductile, and gains strength and hardness
with the addition of alloying elements.
A few such aluminum alloys are the
2000 series (2014, 2024, etc.), 6000
series (6061, 6063, etc.), and 7000 series (7050, 7075, etc.). The 2xxx series
aluminum alloys have copper, the 6xxx series have magnesium, and the 7xxx
have zinc as their major alloying elements.

Eddy
Current
Testing
Introduction
Basic Principles
History of ET
Present State of
ET
The Physics
Properties of
Electricity
Current Flow &
Ohm's Law
Induction &
Inductance
Self Inductance
Mutual
Inductance
Circuits & Phase
Impedance
Depth & Current
Density
Phase Lag

Instrumentation
Eddy Current
Heat treatment of aluminum alloys is accomplished in two phases - solution Instruments
Resonant Circuits
heat treatment and then aging. In the solution heat treatment step, the alloys are Bridges
Impedance Plane
heated to an elevated temperature to dissolve the alloying elements into
Display - Analog
solution. The metal is then rapidly cooled or quenched to freeze the atoms of Meter

the alloying elements in the lattice structure of the aluminum. This distorts and
Probes (Coils)
stresses the structure, making electron movement more difficult, thereby
Probes - Mode of
Operation
decreasing the electrical conductivity. In this condition, the alloys are still
Probes relatively soft but start to gain strength as the alloying elements begin to
Configuration
Probes - Shielding
precipitate out of solution to form extremely small particles that impede the
Coil Design
movement of dislocations within the material. The formation of the
Impedance
Matching
precipitates can be controlled for many alloys by heating and holding the
material at an elevated temperature for a period of time (artificial aging). As
the alloying elements precipitate out of solid solution, the conductivity of the Procedures
Issues
Reference
material gradually increases. By controlling the amount of precipitated
particles within the aluminum, the properties can be controlled to produce peak Standards
Signal Filtering
strength or some combinations of strength and corrosion resistance.
Sometimes, the material must be annealed or put into the softest, most ductile Applications
Breaking
condition possible in order to perform forming operations. Annealing allows Surface
Cracks
SBC using Sliding
all of the alloying elements to precipitate out of solution to form a coarse,
Probes
widely spaced precipitate. The electrical conductivity is greatest when the
Tube Inspection
Conductivity
material is in the annealed condition.
Since solution heat-treated and aged materials are stronger, components can be
made using less material. A lighter or more compact design is often of great

Heat Treat
Verification
Thickness of Thin
Mat'ls
Thickness of

importance to the designer and well worth the cost of the heat treating process. Coatings
However, think of the consequences that could arise if a component that was Advanced
supposed to be solution heat-treated and aged somehow left the manufacturing Techniques
Scanning
facility and was put into service unheat-treated or annealed. This is a real
Multi-Frequency
possibility since heat-treated aluminum parts look exactly like unheat-treated Tech.
Frequency
parts. Consider 2024 aluminum as an example. Select tensile properties and its Swept
Tech.
electrical conductivity for various heat treatment conditions are given in the Pulsed ET Tech.
Background
following table.
Pulsed ET
Remote Field
Tech.

Properties for Alclad 2024 Aluminum

Quizzes

Heat Treatment
Condition

Ultimate
Strength

Electrical
Yield Strength
Conductivity

Annealed (O)

26 ksi (180
MPa)

11 ksi (75
MPa)

50 % IACS

Solution Heat Treated

64 ksi (440
and Naturally Aged
MPa)
(T42)

42 ksi (290
MPa)

30 % IACS

Solution Heat Treated,

Coldworked and
70 ksi (485
Artificially Aged
MPa)
(T861)

66 ksi (455
MPa)

38 % IACS

It can be seen that the yield strength for the material is 42 kilopounds/square
inch (ksi) (290 MPa) in the solution heat-treated and naturally aged condition
(T42 condition). The yield strength can be increased to 66 ksi (455 MPa) when
coldworked and artificially aged (T861 condition). But in the annealed
condition, the yield strength is reduced to 11 ksi (75 MPa). If an annealed part
were accidentally used where a part in the T42 or T861 was intended, it would
likely fail prematurely. However, a quick check of the conductivity using an
eddy current instrument of all parts prior to shipping would prevent this from
occurring.

Formulae&
Tables
EC Standards &
Methods
EC Material
Properties
-

Thickness Measurements of Thin

Material
Eddy current techniques can be used to
perform a number of dimensional
measurements. The ability to make rapid
measurements without the need for couplant
or, in some cases even surface contact, makes
eddy current techniques very useful. The type
of measurements that can be made include:

thickness of thin metal sheet and foil,

and of metallic coatings on metallic and
nonmetallic substrate
cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods
thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic substrates

Corrosion Thinning of Aircraft Skins

One application where the eddy current technique is
commonly used to measure material thickness is in
the detection and characterization of corrosion
damage on the skins of aircraft. Eddy current
techniques can be used to do spot checks or scanners
can be used to inspect small areas. Eddy current
inspection has an advantage over ultrasound in this
application because no mechanical coupling is
required to get the energy into the structure.
Therefore, in multi-layered areas of the structure like
lap splices, eddy current can often determine if
corrosion thinning is present in buried layers.
Eddy current inspection has an advantage over
radiography for this application because only single
sided access is required to perform the inspection. To
get a piece of film on the back side of the aircraft
skin might require removing interior furnishings, panels, and insulation which
could be very costly. Advanced eddy current techniques are being developed that
can determine thickness changes down to about three percent of the skin thickness.
Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Sheet, Strip and Foil
Eddy current techniques are used to measure the thickness of hot sheet, strip and
foil in rolling mills, and to measure the amount of metal thinning that has occurred
over time due to corrosion on fuselage skins of aircraft. On the impedance plane,

thickness variations exhibit the same type of eddy current signal response as a
subsurface defect, except that the signal represents a void of infinite size and depth.
The phase rotation pattern is the same, but the signal amplitude is greater. In the
applet, the lift-off curves for different areas of the taper wedge can be produced by
nulling the probe in air and touching it to the surface at various locations of the
tapered wedge. If a line is drawn between the end points of the lift-off curves, a
comma shaped curve is produced. As illustrated in the second applet, this comma
shaped curve is the path that is traced on the screen when the probe is scanned
down the length of the tapered wedge so that the entire range of thickness values
are measured.

When making this measurement, it is important to keep in mind that the depth of
penetration of the eddy currents must cover the entire range of thicknesses being
measured. Typically, a frequency is selected that produces about one standard
depth of penetration at the maximum thickness. Unfortunately, at lower
frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary penetration, the probe
impedance is more sensitive to changes in electrical conductivity. Thus, the effects
of electrical conductivity cannot be phased out and it is important to verify that any
variations of conductivity over the region of interest are at a sufficiently low level.
Measurement of Cross-sectional Dimensions of Cylindrical Tubes and Rods
Dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods can be measured with either OD coils or
internal axial coils, whichever is appropriate. The relationship between change in
impedance and change in diameter is fairly constant, except at very low
frequencies. However, the advantages of operating at a higher normalized
frequency are twofold. First, the contribution of any conductivity change to the
impedance of the coil becomes less important and it can easily be phased out.
Second, there is an increase in measurement sensitivity resulting from the higher
value of the inductive component of the impedance. Because of the large phase
difference between the impedance vectors corresponding to changes in fill-factor

and conductivity (and defect size), simultaneous testing for dimensions,

conductivity, and defects can be carried out.
Typical applications include measuring eccentricities of the diameters of tubes and
rods and the thickness of tube walls. Long tubes are often tested by passing them at
a constant speed through encircling coils (generally differential) and providing a
close fit to achieve as high a fill-factor as possible.
An important application of tube-wall thickness measurement is the detection and
assessment of corrosion, both external and internal. Internal probes must be used
when the external surface is not accessible, such as when testing pipes that are
buried or supported by brackets. Success has been achieved in measuring thickness
variations in ferromagnetic metal pipes with the remote field technique.
Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Layers
It is also possible to measure the thickness of a thin layer of metal on a metallic
substrate, provided the two metals have widely differing electrical conductivities
(i.e. silver on lead where = 67 and 10 MS/m, respectively). A frequency must be
selected such that there is complete eddy current penetration of the layer, but not of
the substrate itself. The method has also been used successfully for measuring
thickness of very thin protective coatings of ferromagnetic metals (i.e. chromium
and nickel) on non-ferromagnetic metal bases.
Depending on the required degree of penetration, measurements can be made using
a single-coil probe or a transformer probe, preferably reflection type. Smalldiameter probe coils are usually preferred since they can provide very high
sensitivity and minimize effects related to property or thickness variations in the
underlying base metal when used in combination with suitably high test
frequencies. The goal is to confine the magnetizing field, and the resulting eddy
current distribution, to just beyond the thin coating layer and to minimize the field
within the base metals.
Thickness Measurements of Nonconducting Coatings on
Conductive Materials
The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined
simply from the effect of liftoff on impedance. This method has widespread use for
measuring thickness of paint and plastic coatings. The coating serves as a spacer
between the probe and the conductive surface. As the distance between the probe
and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current field strength decreases
because less of the probe's magnetic field can interact with the base metal.
Thicknesses between 0.5 and 25 m can be measured to an accuracy between 10%
for lower values and 4% for higher values. Contributions to impedance changes

due to conductivity variations should be phased out, unless it is known that

conductivity variations are negligible, as normally found at higher frequencies.

Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw
detector and a calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the direction of
the lift-off signal is established. The location of the signal is marked on the screen
as the probe is placed on the calibration specimen in areas of decreasing coating
thickness. When the probe is placed on the test surface, the position of the signal
will move from the air null position to a point that can be correlated to the
calibration markings.

Specialized eddy current coating thickness detectors are also available and are
often pocket-sized with the probe resembling a small pencil. They are usually
operated by a small battery and provide a digital read-out in the appropriate units.
Calibration adjustments, some of which are laid down by standards such as BS EN
2360 (1995) and ASTM B 244 and E 376, may be assisted by the use of an inbuilt
microprocessor
Scanning
Eddy current data can be collected using automated scanning systems to improve
the quality of the measurements and to construct images of scanned areas. The
most common type of scanning is line scanning where an automated system is used
to push the probe at a fixed speed. Line scan systems are often used when
performing tube inspections or aircraft engine blade slot inspections, where
scanning in one dimension is needed. The data is usually presented as a strip chart
recording. The advantage of using a linear scanning system is that the probe is
moved at a constant speed, so indications on the strip chart can be correlated to a

position on the part being scanned. As with all automated scanning systems,
operator variables, such as wobble of the probe, are reduced.
Two-dimensional scanning systems are used to scan a two-dimensional area. This
could be a scanning system that scans over a relatively flat area in a X-Y raster
mode, or it could be a bolt hole inspection system that rotates the probe as it is
moved into the hole. The data is typically displayed as a false-color plot of signal
strength or phase angle shift as a function of position, just like an ultrasonic C-scan
presentation. Shown below is a portable scanning system that is designed to work
on the skins of aircraft fuselage and wing
sections.
Listed below are some automated scanning
advantages:

minimizes changes in liftoff or fill factor

resulting from probe wobble, uneven
surfaces, and eccentricity of tubes caused
by faulty manufacture or damage
accurate indexing
repeatability
high resolution mapping
Multiple Frequency Techniques

Multiple frequency eddy current techniques simply involve collecting data at

several different frequencies and then comparing the data or mixing the data in
some way.
Why the need for multiple frequencies? - Some background information
The impedance of an eddy current probe may be affected by the following factors:

variations in operating frequency

variations in electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of a
object or structure, caused by structural changes such as grain structure,
work hardening, heat treatment, etc.
changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces,
and eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture or damage
the presence of surface defects such as cracks, and subsurface defects such
as voids and nonmetallic inclusions
dimensional changes, for example, thinning of tube walls due to corrosion,
deposition of metal deposits or sludge, and the effects of denting
the presence of supports, walls, and brackets
the presence of discontinuities such as edges

Several of these factors are often present simultaneously. In the simple case where
interest is confined to detecting defects or other abrupt changes in geometry, a
differential probe can be used to eliminate unwanted factors, providing they vary in
a gradual manner. For example, variations in electrical conductivity and tube
thinning affect both coils of a differential probe simultaneously. However, if
unwanted parameters that occur abruptly are affecting the measurements, they can
sometimes be negated by mixing signals collected at several frequencies.
An example of where a multi-frequency eddy current inspection is used is in heat
exchanger tube inspections. Heat exchanger assemblies are often a collection of
tubing that have support brackets on the outside. When attempting to inspect the
full wall thickness of the tubing, the signal from the mounting bracket is often
troublesome. By collecting a signal at the frequency necessary to inspect the full
thickness of the tube and subtracting a second signal collected at a lower frequency
(which will be more sensitive to the bracket but less sensitive to features in the
tubing), the effects of the bracket can be reduced.
There are a number of commercially available multi-frequency eddy current
instruments. Most operate at only two frequencies at a time but some units can
collect data at up to four frequencies simultaneously. Multi-frequency
measurements can also be made using an impedance analyzer but this equipment is
generally not suitable for field measurements. A typical impedance analyzer
system is shown below. The interest in pulsed eddy current instruments is largely
due to their ability to, in essence, perform multi-frequency measurements very
quickly and easily.

swept Frequency
Swept frequency eddy current techniques involve collecting eddy current data at a
wide range of frequencies. This usually involves the use of a specialized piece of
equipment such as an impedance analyzer, which can be configured to
automatically make measurements over a range of frequencies. The sweptfrequency technique can be implemented with commercial equipment but it is a

difficult and time-consuming measurement. The advantage of a swept frequency

measurement is that depth information can be obtained since eddy current depth of
penetration varies as a function of frequency.
Swept frequency measurements are useful in applications such as measuring the
thickness of conductive coatings on conductive base metal, differentiating between
flaws in surface coatings and flaws in the base metal and differentiating between
flaws in various layers of built-up structure. An example application would be the
lap splice of a commercial aircraft. Swept frequency measurements would make it
possible to tell if cracking was occurring on the outer skin, the inner skin or a
double layer. Below is an example of the type of data that can be obtained from
swept-frequency measurements.

Data from swept-frequency measurements on two heats of material.

It can be seen that in the etched condition, the material labeled "good" exhibits a
much different signal response than the material labeled "bad." It can also be seen
that a frequency of around 2.2 MHz provides the largest separation in the curves.
Therefore, this frequency should be used if a single frequency is used to sort the
parts made from the two metals.

Pulsed Eddy Current Inspection

Conventional eddy current inspection techniques use sinusoidal alternating
electrical current of a particular frequency to excite the probe. The pulsed eddy
current technique uses a step function voltage to excite the probe. The advantage of
using a step function voltage is that it contains a continuum of frequencies. As a
result, the electromagnetic response to several different frequencies can be
measured with just a single step. Since the depth of penetration is dependent on the
frequency of excitation, information from a range of depths can be obtained all at
once. If measurements are made in the time domain (that is by looking at signal
strength as a function of time), indications produced by flaws or other features near
the inspection coil will be seen first and more distant features will be seen later in
time.
To improve the strength and ease interpretation of the signal, a reference signal is
usually collected, to which all other signals are compared (just like nulling the
probe in conventional eddy current inspection). Flaws, conductivity, and
dimensional changes produce a change in the signal and a difference between the
reference signal and the measurement signal that is displayed. The distance of the
flaw and other features relative to the probe will cause the signal to shift in time.
Therefore, time gating techniques (like in ultrasonic inspection) can be used to gain
information about the depth of a feature of interest.

Background on Pulsed Eddy Current

(adapted from Blitz, 1997)
The use of pulsed eddy currents has long been considered for testing metals
(Libby, 1971) and it has been applied to operations in specialized areas, such as in
the nuclear energy industry, where testing equipment is often constructed to order.
However, significant progress in this direction has taken place only recently after
appropriate advances in technology (Krzwosz et al. 1985; Sather, 1981; Waidelich,

1981; Wittig and Thomas 1981), but at the time of writing, commercial equipment
was not yet available. The method has the potential advantages of greater
penetration, the ability to locate discontinuities from time-of-flight determinations,
and a ready means of multi-frequency measurement. At present, it does not
generally have the precision of the conventional methods. The apparatus is
somewhat complicated in design and not readily usable by the average operator
who is experienced with the conventional eddy current equipment. Its main
successes are in the testing of thin metal tubes and sheets, as well as metal cladding
for measuring thickness and for the location and sizing of internal defects.
When comparing the pulsed method with the conventional eddy current technique,
the conventional technique must be regarded as a continuous wave method for
which propagation takes place at a single frequency or, more correctly, over a very
narrow frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods, the frequencies are excited over
a wide band, the extent of which varies inversely with the pulse length; this allows
multi-frequency operation. As found with ultrasonic testing, the total amount of
energy dissipated within a given period of time is considerably less for pulsed
waves than for continuous waves having the same intensity. For example, with
pulses containing only one or two wavelengths and generated 1000 times per
second, the energy produced is only about 0.002 of that for continuous waves
having the same amplitude. Thus, considerably higher input voltages can be
applied to the exciting coil for pulsed operation than for continuous wave
operation.
Pulsed waves can reasonably be expected to allow penetration of measurable
currents through a metal sample to a depth of about 10 times the standard
penetration depth, provided a suitable probe is used (i.e. a shielded ferrite-cored
coil, see section 5.3). Therefore, penetration is possible through a 2 mm thick plate
at frequencies of 1-3 kHz for non-ferromagnetic metals having corresponding
electrical conductivities ranging from 60 down to 20MS/m. However, with an
unmagnetized steel plate 2 mm thick, where sigma = 5 MS/m and r = 100, the
maximum frequency for through-penetration is only 100 Hz.
Pulsed eddy currents may be generated by a thyratron connected in series with the
exciting coil through a capacitor (e.g. Waidelich, 1981). A direct voltage, on the
order of 1200 V, slowly charges the capacitance and when the thyratron conducts
there is an abrupt discharge through the coil in which free-damped harmonic
oscillations occur. This is repeated periodically (i.e. at 1 kHz), so as to propagate
the eddy current pulses through the metal.
The currents are detected by a receiving probe located either adjacent to or on the
opposite side of the metal sample from the exciting probe when access is possible.
The range of propagated frequencies depends on the logarithmic decrement of the
exciting circuit, and because the speed of the waves is a function of frequency,
dispersion takes place and the pulse changes in shape as it progresses through the

metal. As one would expect, the height of the peak and its time delay can be
related to the thickness of the metal. Waidelich reports a maximum penetration of
90 mm for aluminum sheet and 10 mm for steel. For 6 mm thick sheets, the peak
value of the received pulse voltage was 13 V for aluminum but only 20 mV for
steel. Krzwosz et al. (1985) has shown how pulses that result from the presence of
internal simulated defects produce broadening with an increase in depth.
The frequency content of the pulses depends on their lengths, and in the extreme,
contains continuous spectra ranging from less than 100 Hz to 1 or 2 kHz. By
performing a Fourier transformation, the pulse obtained by the receiving probe can
be displayed in the form of the variation of amplitude (or phase) with frequency.
By sampling different delay times within a pulse, different parts of the spectrum
can be evaluated (Sather, 1981). If both amplitude and phase are measured, two
parameters (i.e. presence of defects, variations in tube thickness, and changes in
fill-factor or liftoff) can be evaluated for each frequency selected in the same way
as with the multi-frequency method, although, at present, with a lower degree of
precision.
Dodd et al.(1988) has designed and developed a pulsed magnetic saturation
method for the eddy current testing of ferromagnetic metals. The DC field pulses
are generated by passing a high-current pulse through an electromagnet so as to
produce saturation in the metal object; the pulse length is made equal to the
thickness of the object, thus ensuring complete eddy current penetration where
feasible. The DC pulse, on the order of 1 ms duration, simultaneously produces an
eddy current pulse, which is detected by a probe; the output of the probe is
characteristic of the material being tested.
This technique has the advantage of producing high magnetic peak powers with
low average powers, thus keeping any heating of the test sample down to an
acceptable level. It has been applied successfully to the internal testing of the walls
of steel steam generator tubes, and tubes of diameter 10.9 mm and wall thickness 5
mm have been examined with peak powers of 500 kW. Small defects close to the
external surfaces can be detected, and by taking advantage of the multi-frequency
properties of pulsed eddy currents, their indications can be resolved from those that
originate from other characteristics of the tubes.
More recent work on the use of pulsed eddy currents has been reported by Gibbs
and Campbell (1991), who inspected cracks under fasteners in aluminum aircraft
structures. Here, a Hall element was used as a receiver. Radial position,
approximate depth, and relative size of defects hidden under fastener heads could
be determined in countersunk areas for defect depths of up to 7 mm for nonferrous
fasteners and 14 mm for ferrous fasteners.
Lebrun et al. (1975) reported the detection of deep cracks in ferromagnetic samples
using an emission coil excited by square pulses of high intensity and employing

highly sensitive magneto-resistive sensors to measure the resultant magnetic fields.

Defects of 1 mm x 1 mm could be detected at a depth of 5 mm and 3 mm x 4 mm
at a depth of 20 mm.

Remote Field Sensing

Eddy current testing for external defects in tubes where external access is not
possible (e.g. buried pipelines), is conducted using internal probes. When testing
thick-walled ferromagnetic metal pipes with conventional internal probes, very low
frequencies (e.g. 30 Hz for a steel pipe 10 mm thick) are necessary to achieve the
through-penetration of the eddy currents. This situation produces a very low
sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of penetration can, in principle, be
increased by the application of a saturation magnetic field. However, because of
the large volume of metal present, a large saturation unit carrying a heavy direct
current may be required to produce an adequate saturating field.
The difficulties encountered in the internal testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be
greatly alleviated with the use of the remote field eddy current method. This
method provides measurable through penetration of the walls at three times the
maximum frequency possible with the conventional direct field method. This
technique was introduced by Schmidt in 1958. Although it has been used by the
petroleum industry for detecting corrosion in their installations since the early
1960s, it has only recently evoked general interest. This interest is largely because
the method is highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness, but relatively
insensitive to fill-factor changes. The method has the added advantage of allowing
equal sensitivities of detection at both the inner and outer surfaces of a
ferromagnetic tube. It cannot, however, differentiate between signals from these
respective surfaces.

EC Standards and Methods

STANDARDS
British Standards (BS) and American Standards (ASTM) relating to magnetic flux
leakage and eddy current methods of testing are given below. National standards

are currently being harmonized across the whole of Europe, and British Standards
are no exception. Harmonized standards will eventually be identified by the initials
BS EN; for example, BS 5411 has been revised and is now known as BS EN 2360.
Harmonization is unlikely to be completed before 2001. The year of updating a
British Standard is given in brackets. ASTM standards are published annually and
updated when necessary.
FLUX LEAKAGE METHODS (INCLUDING MAGNETIC PARTICLE
INSPECTION)
British Standards (BS)
BS 6072:1981 (1986) Magnetic particle flaw detection
BS 4489:1984 Black light measurement
BS 5044:1973 (1987) Contrast aid paints
BS 5138:1974 (1988) Forged and stamped crankshafts
BS 3683 (part 2):1985 Glossary
BS 4069:1982 Inks and powders
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ASTM E 709 Magnetic particle inspection practice
ASTM E 125 Indications in ferrous castings
ASTM E 1316 Definition of terms
ASTM E 570 Flux leakage examination of ferromagnetic steel tubular products
EDDY CURRENT METHODS
British Standards (BS)
BS 3683 (part 5):1965 (1989) Eddy current flaw detection glossary
BS 3889 (part 2A): 1986 (1991) Automatic eddy current testing of wrought steel
tubes
BS 3889 (part 213): 1966 (1987) Eddy current testing of nonferrous tubes
BS 5411 (part 3):1984 Eddy current methods for measurement of coating thickness
of nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base material. Withdrawn: now known
as BS EN 2360 (1995).
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ASTM A 450/A450M General requirements for carbon, ferritic alloys and
austenitic alloy steel tubes
ASTM B 244 Method for measurement of thickness of anodic coatings of
aluminum and other nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base materials with
eddy current instruments

ASTM B 659 Recommended practice for measurement of thickness of metallic

coatings on nonmetallic substrates
ASTM E 215 Standardizing equipment for electromagnetic testing of seamless
aluminum alloy tube
ASTM E 243 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless copper and
copper alloy tubes
ASTM E 309 Eddy current examination of steel tubular products using magnetic
saturation
ASTM E 376 Measuring coating thickness by magnetic field or eddy current
(electromagnetic) test methods
ASTM E 426 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless and welded
tubular products austenitic stainless steel and similar alloys
ASTM E 566 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of ferrous metals
ASTM E 571 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nickel and nickel
alloy tubular products
ASTM E 690 In-situ electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nonmagnetic
heat-exchanger tubes
ASTM E 703 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of nonferrous metals
ASTM E 1004 Electromagnetic (eddy current) measurements of electrical
conductivity
ASTM E 1033 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of type F continuously
welded (CW) ferromagnetic pipe and tubing above the Curie temperature
ASTM E 1316 Definition of terms relating to electromagnetic testing
ASTM G 46 Recommended practice for examination and evaluation of pitting
corrosion