EXTERNAL WORK

If a single spring system is taken into account, a direct relationship between load and
displacement is enforced, consequently:
P Ku

(1)

Where P is the applied load, K is the stiffness spring coefficient (load induced by a unitary
displacement) and u is the progressively applied displacement. Taking into account the physical
definition of work; work done by the external load P can be computed in the following manner:

We Pdu Pdu kudu

0

ku 2

1 2
k
2

(2)

Where We is the work done by load P, and is final deflection. According to Equation 1,
Equation 2 can be expressed alternatively as:
We

1 2 1
P
k k
2
2
2

(3)

However, if load is already present before a particular deflection is imposed, its value does not
change as the system deforms, consequently, work done by the load, involving previously stated
conditions is:

We Pdu P du Pu 0 P

(4)

1. Bettis Theorem
Consider a Beam, as shown in figure 1:

P1

P1

P2

Figure 1. Load Application Sequence

Upon first load application, work done by load P1 is:

We

P1'1
2

(1)

If load P2 is applied afterwards load P1, Total work at this stage, done by both loads is:
We

P1'1
P ' '
P1' '1 2 2
2
2

(2)

Keep in mind that load P1 was already in place on the beam before load P2 was applied.
P1
1

P2
2

Figure 2: Beam deflections after P1 is taken back

If load P1 is removed, Net work done by both loads is:

We

P1'1
P ' ' P '
P ' '
P1' '1 2 2 1 1 P2 '2 P1' '1 2 2 P2 '2
2
2
2
2

(3)

Clearly, net work done by applying load P1 firstly, then P2, and finally taking out P1 should be
equal to work done by applying only P2 firstly, consequently,
We

P1'1
P ' ' P '
P ' '
P ' '
P1' '1 2 2 1 1 P2 ' '2 P1' '1 2 2 P2'2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2

(4)

Therefore:
P1' '1 P2'2

(5)

Keep in mind that 1 is the displacement due load 2 under load 1 and 2 is the displacement
under load 2, due load 1. Equation 5 in particular, is a proof of the following statement
Work done by a set of loads along displacements caused by another set of loads has to be equal
to work done by the former set of loads acting along displacements of the first set of loads
This is Bettis law.
Another important consequence of Bettis law, is the fact that energy stored in a structural
system that behaves elastically is independent of the way loads are applied. This can be
demonstrated by taking a closer look at Equation 2, which can be expressed alternatively as:
We

P1'1 P1' '1 P1' '1 P2 ' '2

2
2
2
2

(6)

According to Equation 3, Equation 6 can be written in the following manner:

We

P1'1 P1' '1 P2 '2 P2 ' '2

2
2
2
2

(7)

After collecting comparable terms, Equation 7 becomes:

We

P1
'1 ' '1 P1 '2 ' '2
2
2

(8)

Clearly, the terms in brackets are total deformation under both loads. This way, total external
work is:
We

P1
P
1 2 2
2
2

(9)

2. Symmetry of stiffness matrices

Stiffness matrices are symmetric due Bettis law. In particular, consider the following cases,
where both unitary displacement and rotation are applied at a particular join, in different stages:
k

ku

ku
kuu

Figure 3: Complementary structural systems when applying unitary rotations and displacements at a joint.

As all degrees of freedom are constrained, except the one subjected to the unitary action, Bettis
law, when applied to structural systems outlined in figure 3, yield the following result:
ku ku u

(1)

As stiffness coefficients are defined by imposing unitary deformations, is clear that:

ku ku

Therefore, stiffness matrices have to be symmetric.

(1)