M A X - P L A N C K - I N S T I T U T F R M E TA L L F O R S C H U N G S T U T T G A R T

210

The possibility to design polyolefins with controlled

branching or containing controlled amounts of polar
monomers by low pressure polymerization processes represents also attractive perspectives for the low cost industrial preparation of materials. The search for new families
of non metallocene catalysts with enlarged possibilities
should be supported.
The possibility to polymerize olefins in water has been
demonstrated. Further work in that direction should be
strongly supported in Europe. The heterogeneization of
metallocenes catalysts represents also an important challenge.
Many other possibilities or polymerization conditions /reactions exist or are under investigation for the preparation
of polymeric materials. Among these, the chemistry in the
molten state has to be mentioned, this concerns the chemical modification of polymers and their synthesis starting
from monomers. Along the same line the polymerization

in supercritical carbon dioxide constitutes a great deal.

The increasing contribution of various polymerization
processes to the synthesis of polymeric biomaterials of
controlled characteristics has to be highlighted.

References
1. P. Barghoorn; U. Stebani; M. Balsam, Acta Polymer, 49 (1998) 266.
2. W. Kaminsky, J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 1413 (1998)
3. K. Matyjaszewski; Controlled Radical Polymerization, ACS Symp. Ser.
Washington, D.C, 685, (1998).
4. E. Rizzardo, Chem. Aust. 54 (1987) 32.
5. M.K. Georges, R.P.N. Veregin, P.M. Kazmaier, G.K. Hamer, Macromolecules 26 (1993) 2987.
6. J. Qiu, K.Matyjaszewski, Acta Polym. 48 (1997) 169.
7. M. Sawamoto, M. Kamigaito, Trips 4 (1996) 371.
8. K. Soga, T. Shiono, Prog. Polym. Sci., 22 (1997) 1503.
9. A.E. Hamielec, J.B.P. Soares, Prog. Polym. Sci., 21 (1996) 651.
10. G.J.P. Britovsek, V.C. Gibson, D.F. Wass, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed, 38, (1999
428.
11. S.D.Ittel, L.K. Johnson, M. Brookhart, Chem. Rev., 100 (2000) 1169.
12. F. Candau, Polymerization in Microemulsions, Handbook of Microemulsion Science and Technology, Marcel Dekker Inc, New-York (1999).

6.5. Metal-Matrix Composites: Challenges and Opportunities

A. Mortensen | Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
T.W. Clyne | University of Cambridge CB2 3QZ, United Kingdom

6.5.1. Scope and Definitions

A metal matrix composite (MMC) combines into a single
material a metallic base with a reinforcing constituent,
which is usually non-metallic and is commonly a ceramic.
By definition, MMCs are produced by means of processes
other than conventional metal alloying. Like their polymer matrix counterparts, these composites are often produced by combining two pre-existing constituents (e.g.
a metal and a ceramic fibre). Processes commonly used
include powder metallurgy, diffusion bonding, liquid phase
sintering, squeeze-infiltration and stir-casting. Alternatively, the typically high reactivity of metals at processing
temperatures can be exploited to form the reinforcement
and/or the matrix in situ, i.e. by chemical reaction within a
precursor of the composite.
There are several reasons why MMCs have generated considerable interest within the materials community for nearly 30 years:

1. The composite approach to metallurgical processing

is the only pathway for the production of entire classes
of metallic materials. Only in this way can aluminium,
copper, or magnesium be combined with significant
volume fractions of carbide, oxide or nitride phases
because, unlike iron, the solubility of carbon, nitrogen
or oxygen in the molten metal is (with the exception of
O in Cu) far too low.
2. The approach facilitates significant alterations in the
physical properties of metallic materials. Composites
offer scope for exceeding the specific elastic modulus
value of about 26 J kg-1, which is exhibited by all the main
engineering metals. Composites also offer the only pathway for producing materials with tailored physical property combinations: an example is that of low thermal
expansivity combined with high thermal conductivity,
a combination of importance for electronic packaging.

4. Exceptional properties can be obtained in some cases.

An example is that of 3Ms Nextel-reinforced aluminium composites, which exhibit along the fibre direction
a tensile strength of 1.5 GPa, a compressive strength of
3 GPa and a transverse strength above 200 MPa, in a
material of density only slightly above 3 g cm-3.

duced by squeeze infiltration. They often form part of a

locally reinforced component, generally produced to net
or near-net shape. Their use in automotive engines is now
well established.
Continuous Fibre-Reinforced Metals contain continuous
fibres (of alumina, SiC, carbon, etc.) with a diameter
below about 20 m. The fibres can either be parallel, or
pre-woven before production of the composite; this is generally achieved by squeeze infiltration.
Monofilament-Reinforced metals contain fibres that are relatively large in diameter (typically around 100 m), available as individual elements. Due to their thickness, the
bending flexibility of monofilaments is low, which limits
the range of shapes that can be produced. Monofilamentreinforced metals can be produced by solid state processes requiring diffusion bonding: they are commonly based
on titanium alloy matrices, which are well-suited to such
techniques.
Interpenetrating phase composites are ones in which the
metal is reinforced with a three-dimensionally percolating
phase, for example ceramic foam.

Fig. 6.8. Duplex particle size distribution in a commercially available

70vol% (PRIMEX) SiC particle reinforced aluminium MMC for electronic substrate application.

MMCs come in several distinct classes, generally defined

with reference to the shape of their reinforcement:
Particle-Reinforced metals (PRMs) contain approximately
equiaxed reinforcements, with an aspect less than about 5.
These are generally ceramic (SiC, Al2O3, etc.). PRMs
commonly contain below 25vol.% ceramic reinforcement
when used for structural applications, but can have as
much as 80vol% ceramic when used for electronic packaging (Fig. 6.8). In general, PRMs are at least approximately isotropic. They are produced using both solid state (powder metallurgy) and liquid metal techniques (stir casting,
infiltration). Their mechanical properties, while often inferior to those of fibre-reinforced metals, are more or less
isotropic and often represent, at moderate cost, significant
improvements over those of corresponding unreinforced
metals.
Short Fibre- and Whisker-Reinforced metals. These contain
reinforcements with an aspect ratio of greater than 5, but
are not continuous. These composites are commonly pro-

Liquid phase sintered metallic materials, include the cemented carbides, in which carbide particles are bonded
together by a metal such as cobalt, and the tungsten heavy
alloys.

6.5.2. State of the Art

MMCs have been extensively studied. SiC monofilamentreinforced titanium has been the subject of many investigations, as have aluminium alloys containing up to 25
vol% SiC and Al2O3 particles. These materials have been
produced by industry (including Alcan, Textron, Alcoa,
AMC, BP, and 3M) in relatively large quantities, such that
they have been made available for testing at research
laboratories and universities. Their novelty, and their interesting mechanical behaviour (at both micro- and macroscopic levels), have led to many publications, exploring
many features of their microstructure, deformation, and
fracture behaviour. Many mechanisms responsible for
their mechanical characteristics are now well understood,
including the roles of damage development, internal stresses, reinforcement clustering, interfacial bond strength and
the effects of the presence of the reinforcement on aging
of the matrix. However, much work remains to be done
before required property combinations can be systematically achieved via microstructural design.

M AT E R I A L S S Y N T H E S I S A N D P R O C E S S I N G

3. MMCs offer significant improvements over their polymer matrix counterparts with regard to several properties, including tolerance of high temperature, transverse strength, chemical inertness, hardness and wear
resistance, while significantly outperforming ceramic
matrix composites in terms of toughness and ductility.

211

M A X - P L A N C K - I N S T I T U T F R M E TA L L F O R S C H U N G S T U T T G A R T

212

The processing of MMCs has also generated much interest. Many publications have appeared over the past
decades on this subject. Commonly, such studies have presented novel composite materials or processes, without
advancing the underlying science concerning the transport phenomena involved or their relationship with microstructural features of the product. For example the rate of
solid state consolidation of a mixture of two different powders is not yet predictable, nor is the rate of liquid phase
sintering of metal bonded carbides.
With regard to industrial applications, MMCs now have a
proven track record as successful high-tech materials in
a range of applications, bringing significant benefits (in
terms of energy savings, or component lifetime) and having documented engineering viability. These often relate
to niche applications, where achievable property combinations (e.g. high specific stiffness and weldability; high
thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion, or high
wear resistance and low weight and high thermal conductivity) are attractive for the component concerned. Many
such niches, ranging from diesel engine pistons to automotive engine cylinder liners, are of considerable industrial significance. Barriers to their wider exploitation include
price (which is, of course, inter-related with global and
specific usage levels), shortage of property data and design
guidelines and (perceived) limitations to their ductility and
toughness.

6.5.3. Challenges and Opportunities: Priorities in European Research

Several challenges must be overcome in order to enhance
the engineering usage of MMCs. Research efforts required
to overcome these challenges span the spectrum from
basic, fundamentals-oriented research, to more applied
engineering projects.
1. There is a need to advance our understanding of processing fundamentals, particularly concerning established processes such as squeeze infiltration, liquid
phase sintering, and powder metallurgy. Progress in this
area is required, both to drive innovation and to enable
quantitative process simulation, optimization, and
control. In particular, progress in this area is critical for
controlling internal defects an important goal with
these materials, given that they are more brittle than
unreinforced metals.
2. Property improvements must be sought, particularly in
ductility and toughness. Systematic investigations are
required of the fundamental links between microstructure and properties. Much work to date has focused on
only a few commercial or near-commercial materials,
which have been characterized in detail, but do not provide full insight into basic microstructure-property relations, such as the link between particle size or spatial
distribution and mechanical properties.
3. There is clearly scope for improvements in the properties of reinforcements. Substantial advances in fibres
for MMCs have been achieved at the 3M company: in
terms of strength, for example, the performance of alumina fibre-reinforced aluminium has doubled over the
past decade. Recent work has also shown that significant differences exist between ceramic particles that
can be used as reinforcements for aluminium (Fig. 6.9).
Research on the economical production of high
strength, low-cost, ceramics for the reinforcement of
metals would be very timely.

Fig. 6.9. Optical micrograph of a pressure-infiltrated composite combining pure aluminium with high-performance alumina particles: this
material, despite its high ceramic content, displays a tensile elongation of 4.5% and a toughness on the order of 25 MPam.

4. An important issue concerns secondary processing.

Operations such as welding and machining, and also
the definition of recycling strategies, are challenging
when applied to MMCs. Research in this area is critical for certain applications and for the life-cycle engineering of these materials.
5. Much work to date has focused on aluminium matrix
composites, but copper, magnesium, and iron-based
matrix composites do offer promise in specific applications. These include electronic applications for copper-

of MMCs requires specialized equipment and know-how.

The establishment of a European centre of excellence in
MMC research, able to cover the entire spectrum from
processing to performance, and providing a hub for such a
coordinated effort, would be highly opportune.

These windows of opportunity in research are ones which,

in large part, call for partnerships between different laboratories and researchers. For instance, a capability for
controlled processing of these materials is needed for the
generation of samples and microstructures that can be
used in the exploration of microstructure-property relations. Unlike unreinforced alloys, in which the microstructure can be varied using conventional and well-established
deformation and heat-treatment processes, the processing

References
1. T.W. Clyne, and P.J. Withers, An Introduction to Metal Matrix Composites. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993.
2. Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites, S. Suresh, A. Mortensen
and A. Needleman Eds., Butterworths, Boston, 1993.
3. Comprehensive Composite Materials, Volume 3: Metal Matrix Composites, Volume editor: T.W. Clyne, Series editors: A.Kelly and C. Zweben,
Pergamon, Oxford UK, 2000.
4. Brite Euram project: Assessment of Metal Matrix Composites for Innovations: http://mmc-assess.tuwien.ac.at/

213

6.6. Ceramic Matrix Composites

R. Naslain | Universit Bordeaux 1, 33600 Pessac, France

6.6.1. Introduction
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) have been developed
to overcome the intrinsic brittleness and lack of reliability
of monolithic ceramics, with a view to introduce ceramics
in structural parts used in severe environments, such as
rocket and jet engines, gas turbines for power plants, heat
shields for space vehicles, fusion reactor first wall, aircraft
brakes, heat treatment furnaces, etc. It is generally admitted that the use of CMCs in advanced engines will allow
an increase of the temperature at which the engine can be
operated and eventually the elimination of the cooling
fluids, both resulting in an increase of yield. Further, the
use of light CMCs in place of heavy superalloys is expected to yield significant weight saving. Although CMCs are
promising thermostructural materials, their applications
are still limited by the lack of suitable reinforcements, processing difficulties, sound material data bases, lifetime
and cost.

6.6.2. Ceramic Matrix Composite Spectrum

A given ceramic matrix can be reinforced with either discontinuous reinforcements, such as particles, whiskers or
chopped fibres, or with continuous fibres. In the first case,

M AT E R I A L S S Y N T H E S I S A N D P R O C E S S I N G

matrix composites, and chemical processing environments for steel matrix composites. These systems deserve exploration, again with emphasis on fundamentals, rather than the development of this or that specific composite.

the enhancement of the mechanical properties, in terms

of failure strength and toughness, is relatively limited but
it can be significant enough for specific applications, a well
known example being the use of ceramics reinforced with
short fibres in the field of the cutting tools (SiC w/Si3N4
composites). Among the discontinuous reinforcements,
whiskers are by far the most attractive in terms of mechanical properties. Unfortunately, their use raises important
health problems both during processing and in service.
Conversely, continuous reinforcements, such as fibre
yarns, are much more efficient, from a mechanical standpoint, but they are more expensive and more difficult to
use in a ceramic matrix in terms of material design and processing.
There is a wide spectrum of CMCs depending on the
chemical composition of the matrix and reinforcement.
Non-oxide CMCs are by far those which have been the
most studied. Such a choice could appear surprising since
the atmosphere in service is often oxidizing. That choice
could be explained as follows. The most performant fibres,
in terms of stiffness, failure strength, refractoriness and
density are non-oxide fibres, i.e. carbon and silicon carbide fibres. Further, carbon fibres are extensively used in
volume production of polymer-matrix composites. As a result, they are much cheaper than all the other fibres (glass
fibres excepted). Second, in order to avoid compatibility