1

CHAPTER- 2
Lateral Earth Pressures
1.

Introduction

Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a soil mass on a retaining
structure or a wall. The problem associated with lateral earth pressures and retaining wall
stability is one of the most common in the civil engineering field, and a segment of soil
mechanics that has been receiving widespread attention from engineers for a long time.
Design of structures such as retaining walls, sheet piling, and braced sheeting of pits and
trenches, bulkheads, bridge abutments, basement or pit walls etc., requires a quantitative
estimate of lateral earth pressure.

In this chapter we will learn how to determine the

magnitude and direction of lateral earth pressures for which a structure must be designed. In
last part of the chapter the intro to design of a gravity retaining wall will be taken up. By
definition a retaining wall is a structure used for maintaining ground surface at different
elevations on its either side. The soil supported by the retaining wall is called backfill.
In this chapter we will be concentrating on lateral earth pressures experienced by a retraining
wall. To understand the concept behind these earth pressures lets examine the sequence of
retaining wall construction for a road construction project in a hilly area. The sequence is
shown below:

Ideally a vertical cut should be provided to economize on the cost of excavation but soils are
seldom stable at vertical slope and tend to slough down to attain equilibrium. Generally they tend to
stabilize at a gentle slope. The stable slope angle depends on the soil properties and the height of
slope. A gentle cut may not be feasible due to high cost of excavation or due to existence of some
structures which may be pulled down. Under such circumstances soil is cut at a steep slope and is
supported by constructing a retaining wall. A reasonable slope is cut during dry part of the year (step2)
and retaining wall is constructed. The space behind the wall is later filled with soil and proper drainage
is provided to protect it from storm water erosion. The retaining wall supports the backfill and its
thickness at every horizon must be adequate to resist lateral earth pressure so that the wall neither tilts
excessively nor is displaced horizontally away from the soil mass it is supporting. The approach to
design of these walls is as under:-

a.
b.

Determine different forces which contribute to wall stability

Determine forces which are trying to destabilize the wall

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c.

Compare these forces to ensure that the structure is safe.

Two basic types of soil pressures are evaluated in this chapter, active and passive. If the
soil mass pushes against a retaining wall such as to push it away, the soil becomes the
actuating element and the pressure resulting thereby is known as active pressure. On the
other hand, if the wall pushes against the soil, the resulting pressure is known as passive
pressure. In this case the actuating element is the retaining wall itself.
Analysis of a wide range of earth-retaining structures is primarily based on either of
the two theories formulated by such persons as Coulomb in 1776 and Rankine in 1857.
Furthermore, although some research data and experience indicate that assumptions related
to pressure distributions on retaining walls, or on the failure surface of backfills, are not quite
those depicted by these early investigators, substantial evidence exists that the analysis and
design efforts based on their theories give acceptable results for most cases of cohesion-less
type backfills. The results are significantly less dependable for the more cohesive soils.
2.
Common Uses of Retaining Walls

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3.

Factors Affecting Lateral Earth Pressure

The main factors that affect lateral earth pressure include wall movement, wall friction,

water in the backfill, compaction of the backfill, slope of backfill, seasonal variation and the
nature of the backfill, the interaction between the soil and the retaining structure at the
interface and the imposed loading (e.g., height of backfill, surcharge loads). These are
discussed briefly in the following sections.
a.

Wall Moment. Under service conditions a rigid retaining wall possibly can rotate
about its base, its top, its middle or another point: it can translate or there can be
a combination of these modes. It is also possible that wall may not yield at all.
Terzaghi (1934) is believed to be the first to conclude from his large scale earth
pressure tests that the lateral earth pressure distribution behind retaining wall is
associated, with the type and the magnitude of wall movement. Earth pressure
distribution behind a wall rotating about its base is considered as linear (Terzaghi
1934).

b.

Wall Friction
A relative movement between a retaining wall and its back fill develops shear
forces between the face of the wall and the backfill. These are termed wall
friction (Lambe and Whitman 1969). The wall friction depends on roughness of
the wall, amount and direction of the wall movements, soil properties of the
backfill and inclination of ground surface behind the wall. The wall friction is also
influenced by the settlement of the structure and the backfill soil (Grandil 1987).
The maximum value of wall friction may not occur simultaneously with the
maximum shearing resistance and the value of wall friction may vary across the
wall (Bowles 1982). Wall friction angle () between 1/3 to 2/3 is a good
approximation for computing lateral earth pressure using Coulombs theory. The
wall friction affects the magnitude and the direction of earth pressure.

c.

Water in the Backfill

The presence of water in the wall backfill without compensating water in front
substantially increases total pressure because the coefficient K for water is unity.
The distribution of pressure on a retaining wall due to water is hydrostatic and the
resultant water force acts at one third the water height from wall base. The
effective earth force acts above one third of wall height due to the presence of
water in the backfill. The combined force due to soil and water acts below the
one-third of wall height.

d.

Seasonal Variation
Seasonal Variations affect the magnitude and the distribution of earth pressure
mainly because of changes in temperature, freezing of backfill and heavy rainfall.
Field test results show about 30% variation of earth pressure due to seasonal
variations (Terzaghi and peck 1967). There is variation in earth pressure in
summer and winter (Duncan et al, 1990).The warm front face of a wall in the
summer expands relative to the back face and causes the wall to deflect back
against the fill. The result is an increase in earth pressure. In the winter the
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pressure is reversed, the earth pressure also increases in winter due to

expansion of water in the backfill voids due to freezing.
e.

Nature of Backfill Soil

The engineering properties of the backfill soil such as(c, , ) cohesion, internal
friction angle and unit weight have substantial effect on the magnitude of lateral
earth pressure on retaining structures.

Higher the cohesion and internal

friction angle, the lower will be the pressure. On the other hand, higher the
Unit weights, higher will the pressure on the wall.
f.

Slope of Backfill
The backfill slope changes the direction of lateral earth pressure. Thus, the
magnitude of horizontal earth force acting on the wall changes with the increase
or decrease in slope.

4.

Lateral Earth Pressures at Rest, Active and Passive States

Let there be a mass of soil of density at

depth z, vertical and horizontal stresses

can be given as, v = *z ,

z
3

244
.3k
n/m

h = k* *z = k* v , where k= h/ v

k = Coefficient of earth pressure.

Statically value of k is indeterminate. The notation of k

For certain special cases are given below:ko = Coefficient of earth pressure at rest which corresponds to zero strain.
ka = Coefficient of active earth pressure which corresponds to shear
failure by expansion of soil.
Kp = Coefficient of passive earth pressure which corresponds to shear
failure by compression of soil.
Figure 13.2 above shows some of the forces acting on a typical gravity retaining wall.
Frictional forces that may be developed on the front and back faces of the retaining wall are
not shown. The lateral force induced by the backfill pushes against the wall with a resultant
pressure Pa. In turn, the retaining wall resists the lateral force of the backfill, thereby
preventing its movement. In this case, it is apparent that the soil becomes the actuating force.
The thrust Pa is the resultant of the active pressure, or simply the active thrust. The
resistance to the active thrust is provided by the frictional force at the bottom of the
wall and by the soil in front of the wall. For the sake of illustration, assume that the wall was
pushed to the left by the active thrust Pa. In this case the soil in front of the wall at its toe
provides a passive resistance to movement. This resistance is known as the passive earth
pressure, with the resultant of this pressure denoted by Pp. The magnitude of the lateral
force varies considerably as the wall undergoes lateral movement resulting in either tilting or
lateral translation, or both. Terzaghi focused on this phenomenon during his classic
experiments in 1929 -1934.
The concept of active and passive earth pressure can be best illustrated by reviewing the
experiments conducted at MIT. In these experiments a glass box was used. A retaining wall
was placed as shown below and steel bars, 6 inch long and inch diameter, were placed on
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either side of the wall up to its top.

Since the top level of bars was the same initially the wall stood vertically i.e., every thing was in

equilibrium, forces from left side of wall were balancing forces from right hand side. Later
some bars from the left side were removed. Since there was no force to balance out forces
from the right hand side, the wall tilted slightly to the left resulting in a decrease in pressure on
the wall. As more rods were removed from the left the pressure on the wall reduced further
and it swayed away from the rods on the right side. Finally as the depth of rod removal on left
side reached a certain magnitude the bars on the right moved one past the other and a zone of
shear failure was formed.

A clear cut surface of shear failure could be seen.

The wall

experienced the minimum horizontal pressure at this instance. As more rods were removed,
there was no further reduction in pressure on the wall. A similar phenomenon occurs in soils.
Lets consider soil strata under geostatic state of stress. Initially on any element the horizontal
stresses on left and right side of the element are the same to keep it in equilibrium. Lets pass
an imaginary retaining wall of zero volume through this soil. Now we start removing soil from
left of this imaginary wall just like the example above. As above the pressure on the wall will
decrease as the wall tilts to the left due to removal of support. As more soil is removed the tilt
increases and finally the soil behind the wall fails in shear and a zone of shear failure is formed
right behind the wall. There is no further reduction in the lateral pressure experienced by the
wall. This minimum lateral earth pressure experienced by the wall as it moves away from the
soil mass it is supporting is called ACTIVE earth pressure.

By definition active earth

pressure is the minimum lateral earth pressure experienced by the wall as

it moves away from the soil mass to which it is supporting.

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Figure 12.2 above depicts the relationship between the earth pressure and the walI movement.
Po represents the magnitude of pressure when no movement of the retaining wall takes
place; it is commonly referred to as earth pressure at rest. As the wall moves toward the
backfill, the pressure increases, reaching a maximum value of Pp at point C. On the other
hand, if the wall moves away from the backfill, the force on the wall decreases, reaching a
minimum value of Pa at point B.
Figures 12.3a and 12.3b show the active case, where the wall moves away from the backfill,
together with the corresponding force polygon. Similarly, the case of passive resistance,
together with its force polygon, is shown in Figs. 12.3c and 12.3d.

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5.

Active and Passive Earth Pressures for (c- ) Soils with Horizontal Backfill
a.

Active Earth Pressure (c- , soils). Lets consider a case for wall with horizontal
backfill of c- , soils as above. Here we assume that backfill is pushing the wall
away from fill. So as we start excavation, the wall yields and lateral stresses 3
will keep decreasing (shown in dotted). Finally the lateral pressure reduce to a
level that the Mohrs circle touches strength envelope. This is limiting conditions
at which pressure can not reduce any further or its Mohrs circle cross strength
envelope, which is impossible. The stresses so induced are plotted on Mohrs
Circle and followed the well known Mohrs/Coulumbs shear strength equation
( =C+ n tan )

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=c+ n tan

R=

h
(1+ A)/2

(1- A)/2

v
h

From small triangle, A = C/tan , B = (1+ A)/2 and R = (1- A)/2 ------------ (i)
But from fig R = (A+B) sin --------------------------------------------------------------(ii)

b.

Comparing eqn (i) & (ii) we get (1- A)/2 = (A+B) sin --------------------------(iii)
By putting values of A & B in eqn (iii) we get,
(1- A)/2 = ((C/tan + (1+ A)/2)* sin
(1- A)/2 = C/tan * sin+ 1 sin/2+ A sin/2
(1- A) = 2C cos + 1 sin+ A sin
A(1+ sin) = 1(1- sin) - 2C cos
A = 1(1- sin)/ (1+ sin) - 2C cos /(1+ sin)
PA = 1* ka- 2C ka where, 1 = *z and ka = (1- sin)/ (1+ sin)
or Ka= tan2 (45-/2)
Passive Earth Pressure (c- , soils). Lets consider a case for wall with horizontal
backfill of c- , soils. Here we assume that backfill is being pushed by the wall
towards fill. Therefore lateral earth pressure 3 will keep increasing due to
pushing of backfill by wall with passive pressure p and thus failure occur due to
compression of soil. The stresses so induced are plotted on Mohrs Circle and
followed the well known Mohrs/Coulumbs shear strength equation
( =C+ n tan )

=c+ n tan
R=

C
C/tan

3
(1+ p)/2

(p- 1)/2

p n

A
From small triangle,
A = C/tanB , B = (1+ p)/2 and R = (p- 1)/2 ------------ (i)
But from fig R = (A+B) sin --------------------------------------------------------------(ii)
Comparing eqn (i) & (ii) we get (p- 1)/2 = (A+B) sin --------------------------(iii)
By putting values of A & B in eqn (iii) we get,
(p- 1)/2 = ((C/tan + (1+ p)/2)* sin
(p- 1)/2 = C/tan * sin+ 1 sin/2+ p sin/2
(p- 1)= 2C cos + 1 sin+ p sin
p(1- sin) = 1(1+ sin) + 2C cos
p = 1(1+ sin)/ (1- sin) +2C cos /(1- sin)
Pp = 1* kp + 2C kp where, 1 = *z and kp = (1+ sin)/ (1- sin)or Kp= tan2 (45+/2)

Alternately
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Lets starts with simple case of horizontal ground level and zero wall friction.

(C - )

h = K v

Consider an element located at depth Z initially h K 0 v as wall moves away h

decreases and finally the soil fails. The state of stress for soil mass as it moves away from the
backfill from static equilibrium to plastic equilibrium is shown below:

v Pa
2

h = K0 v
h = P a = Ka v
For the circle touching the strength envelope, h is minimum and is equal to Pa.

C/tan

Sin

From ABC

C Cot

1 3
2

Here 1 v & 3 Pa h

Pa
v Pa

Therefore Sin C Cot v

2
2

Cos
v Sin Pa Sin v Pa
Sin
2 C Cos v Sin Pa Sin v Pa
2 C Sin

Pa 1 Sin v 1 Sin 2 C Cos

1 Sin
Cos
2C
Pa
1 Sin
1 Sin

&

Pa v Ka 2C Ka

1, (Active earth pressure)

Pp K p v 2C K p

-------2, (Passive earth pressure)

Equation no one is called Bells Equation for active earth pressure for
cohesive soils.
From equation- 1 at ground surface z = 0

Pa K a Z 2C K a 0
2C K a

at the base of wall

Pa K a H 2C K a

Stress diagram is shown below:

2C Ka

A
2Z0

Z0

H
+
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60.6kn/m

10

At certain depth zo, Pa = 0

K a Z 2C K a 0
Z0
Z0

2C K a

Ka

2C

Ka

As indicated in the figure up to a depth Z 0

2C
Ka

the soil is under tension. Since soil

cannot sustain tension a tension crack is generally formed at top to a depth of

2C
. If the
Ka

crack is filled with water then the pressure of this water on wall must be given due
consideration.
From fig it is clear that up to a depth of 2Z0 the net pressure on the wall is zero i.e. a cohesive
soil can stand without any lateral support up to a depth, 2Z 0

4C
Ka

Therefore, the critical Hc an unsupported vertical cut in clay is given as: 2Z0 = Hc

Hc

4C
Ka

For computation of lateral stress in case of cohesive soils, theve pressure are neglected &
whole +ve pressure below depth z is taken into consideration.

6.

Unsupported cuts in (c-) soil

Unsupported excavations would theoretically be possible in (c-) soils if the lateral
pressure (3 for the active case) would not exceed the strength of the soil. The general
expression for the horizontal stress for the active is given as:

Pa K a H 2C K a

(d)

At ground surface, h = 0. Thus,

3 = -2cKa

(Tension)

This implies the formation of a crack as depicted in Fig. 12.15a given below. The
corresponding pressure distribution based on Eq. (d) is shown in Fig. 12.15 b.
The theoretical depth of the crack ht can be determined by recognizing that, at the
bottom of the crack, 3 = 0 or Pa =0. Thus, from Eq. (d),
0 = ht Ka -2cka or

ht = 2c /

ka

(12-17)

The theoretical maximum depth Hc of unsupported excavation may be calculated as the

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point where the tension forces equal the cohesive strength. Hence, from
Figure 12.15 b , Hc = 2 ht.
Though the above equation provides a theoretical depth to which an excavation may be
made without lateral support, it should be used cautiously. Surface moisture that may enter the
crack may induce hydrostatic stresses or may decrease the shear strength of the soil. Hence,
the unsupported excavation to such depths should be for short duration at best. Even then,
judgment reflecting on the potential consequences from unsupported excavation is indeed
warranted.
In general it is advisable to minimize the use of cohesive backfill when ever possible.
With changes in moisture content the pressure induced by highly cohesive soils may change
significantly. If the clay dries out and shrinks then the pressure on the wall will reduce. On the
other hand a dry soil may take up moisture and swell thus exerting tremendous pressure on
the wall.
a.

At Rest Earth Pressure. Let us consider the mass of soil shown in Figure 2.1. The

mass of soil bounded by a frictionless wall AB that extends to infinite depth. An element
located at a depth z will be subjected to a vertical pressure v and horizontal pressure h. For
the case considered here, v and h are effective and total pressures and there are no shear
stresses on the vertical and horizontal planes.
A

v
z
h=Ko v

Unit weight =
= c+ ntan

Fig- 2.1

If the wall AB is static-that is, if it does not move either to the right to or the left of its initial
position-the soil mass will be in a state of elastic equilibrium. The ratio of the horizontal stress
to the vertical stress is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, Ko, or Ko = h/v -------------(2.1)
Since v = *z, so, h= Ko (*z) -----------------------------------------(2.2)
For granular soils, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be represented by the
empirical relation (Jaky, 1944), Ko = 1- Sin ------ (2.3)
Brooker and Ireland (1965) recommended the following equation for Ko in normally
consolidated clays, Ko = 0.95- Sin -------------- (2.4)
Also
(1)
For -soils
(a)
For horizontal backfill, ko = (1- sin )
(b)
For sloping backfill, ko = (1- sin )( 1+ sin)= ko (1+ sin)
(2)
For c-soils (Brooker & Ireland)
(a)
For 0<PI<40, ko =(0.4+0.007*PI)
(b)
For 40<PI<80, ko = (0.68+0.001*PI)
The angle in Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4) is the drained angle of friction.
For over consolidated clays, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can
be approximated as, Ko (over consolidated) = Ko (normally consolidated) * OCR-------(2.5)
where OCR = over consolidation ratio ------------------------------------------(2.6)
OCR = (pre-consolidation pressure)/present effective overburden pressure
For normally consolidated clays, another empirical equation for K o suggested by
Alpan (1967):
Ko = 0.19 + 0.233 log (PI) --------------------(2.7)
where PI = plasticity index
Figure 2.2 shows the distribution of earth pressure at rest on a height H. The total force per
unit width of the wall, Po is equal to the area of the pressure diagram.
So Po = Ko H2 ------------------------------------------(2.8)

Unit weight of soil =

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b.

Earth Pressure at Rest for Partially Submerged Soil

Figure 2.3a shows a wall of height H. The ground water table is located at a depth H1
below the ground surface. For z H1 the lateral earth pressure at rest can be given as
h= Ko (*z). The variation of h with depth is shown by the triangle ACE in Figure-2.3 a.
However, for z H1 (Below GWT)

A
Unit weight of soil =

Fig-2.3
z

H1

H1

C
H

Ko H1
H2

Saturated Unit
weight of soil = sat

+
B

F
Ko ( H1 + / H2)

Ko H1

I GWT

=
G J

H2

K
wH2

Ko( H1+/ H2)+wH2

60.
6kn
/m2
The pressure on the wall is found from the effective stress and pore water pressure
components in the following manner:
Effective vertical pressure = /v = H1 + '(z - H1) ------------------- (2.9)

(a)

(b)

where ' = sat - w = the effective unit weight of soil

So, the effective lateral pressure at rest is
/h = Ko /h = Ko {(H1 + '(z - H1)} -------------------------------------(2.10)
The variation of /h with depth is shown by CEGB in Figure 2.3 a.
Again, the lateral pressure due to pore water is, u = w(z-H1)--- (2.11)
The variation of u with depth is shown in fig 2.3 b
Hence, the total lateral earth pressure at any depth z H1 is equal to
h = /h +u = Ko {(H1 + '(z - H1)}+ w (z - H1) -----------------------(2.12)
The force per unit width of the wall can be found from the sum of areas of the pressure
diagrams in Figures 9.3a and b and is equal to
Po = {(1/2*Ko H21)+( Ko H1H2)+ ( Ko / + w)H22} ----------------(2.13)
(Area ACE) (Area CEFB) (Area EFG&IJK)
c.
General Comments on Earth Pressure Coefficient at Rest
While designing a wall that may be subjected to lateral earth pressure at rest, care must
be taken in evaluating the value of Ko. Sherif, Fang, Sherif (1984), based on their laboratory
tests, have shown that Jaky's eqn for Ko eqn (2.3), gives good results when the backfill is
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13

loose. However, for a dense sand backfill, eqn. (2.3) grossly underestimates lateral earth
pressure at rest. This is due to the process of compacting backfill. For that reason, they have
recommended the following design relationship.
Ko = (1-sin )+( d/ d(min) -1)*5.5 ------------------------------------(2.14)
where d = actual compacted dry unit weight of the sand behind the wall
d(min) = dry unit weight of the sand in the loosest state
Example:
Data: As shown on fig

= 125 pcf
= 35o

Req: Calculate fol:

H = 30 ft

ko, ka, kp
PO,Pa, Pp
location of pressures.
Solution:
a.

= 120 pcf
= 35o

H1=10 ft

Values of k
ko = 1- sin = 1- sin 35o = 0.43
ka = tan2 (45-/2) = tan2 (45-35o/2) = 0.27
2

PO

kp= tan (45+/2)= tan (45+35 /2)= 3.69

b.

Po = * Ko H2 = *0.43*125*302= 24187 lb/ft2

Ko H

Loc of Po = H/3=30/3= 10 ft from base of wall.

H
c.

Pa

Pa = * Ka H2 = *0.27*125*302= 15187 lb/ft2

Loc of Pa = H/3=30/3= 10 ft from base of wall.

d.

Ka H

Pp = * Kp (H1) 2 = *3.69*120*102= 22140 lb/ft2

H1

Loc of Pp = H1/3=10/3= 3.33 ft from base of wall. Pp

Kp H1

Example:
3m

= 16kn/m3
= 30o
c=0

3m

= 18kn/m3
= 35o
c=0

Data: As shown on fig

Req: Calculate active force per unit of wall
for Rankins state. Also find location of resultant.
Solution

1.

Calculation of Ka
a.

For top layer Ka1

Ka1 = 1-sin30o/1+sin30o = 0.33

b.

For Bottom layer Ka2

Ka2 = 1-sin35o/1+sin35o = 0.27
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14

2.

Calculation of Pa
a.

For top layer Pa1

at z=0, v=0 but at z=3m, v1= 16*3=48kn/m2
So a1= Ka1*v1 = 16*3* 0.33= 16 kn/m2
and

b.

Pa1 = *3*16= 24 kn/m2

For Bottom layer Pa2

3
2

at z=3, v=3*16 =48kn/m (just below top layer)

16kn/m2

and a2= Ka2* = 0.27*48= 13 kn/m2

13kn/m2

at z=6m, /v2= v1+ /v2 = 48+3*(18-9.81)=72.6kn/m2 3

/a2 = Ka2* /v2 = 0.27*72.6= 19.7 kn/m2
c.

d.

Pressure due to water-u

At z=0, u=0
At z=3m, u=0
At z=6m, u= 3*9.81=29.43kn/m2
Total active pressure,

19.7kn/m2

Pa =(*16*3)+13*3+ 19.7-13(3*1/2)+ *29.43*3

29.43kn/m2

= 24+39+10+44.14 =117.15 kn/m2

e.

Location of pressure By taking moment at the base of wall.

117.15*z= 24(3+3/3)+39*3/2+10*3/3+44.15*3/3=208.15

z= 208.15/117.15= 1.78 m

= 18.2
kn/m3
= 10o

Example:
An unsupported cut as shown in fig with the given

H = 4.2 m

soil properties, find

a. Stress at top and bottom of cut
b. Max depth of potential tension crack
c. Max un-sported excavation.

Solution
As we know that major & minor principal stresses are decided on the basis of their
magnitudes. Here, a is greater in magnitude, so considering it as major principal stress,
hence, stresses would be calculated basing ona.

a.

Stresses at Top and Bottom

Stresses at point A (Top)- As h = 0, so a = h Ka - 2cka
a= -2cka = (2*25) tan (45-50) = -41.95 kn/m2

Stresses at point B (Bottom)- As h = 4.2 m,

b.

7.

a = h Ka - 2cka= 18.2*4.2 tan2 (45-50) 2*25 tan (45-50) = 11.87 kn/m2

Max depth of Potential Tension Crack

ht = 2c / ka = (2*25) /18.2tan2 (45-50) = 3.27 m

c.
Max Un sported Excavation As we know that Hc = 2 ht,
so Hc = 2 *3.27 = 6.54 m
Rankines Theory
Coulombs and Rankine are the best-known theories which are used to compute the

magnitude and direction of forces which act on the retaining wall due to the backfill behind it.
These theories are frequently referred to as the classical earth pressure theories. The theory
proposed by Rankine in 1857 is based on the following assumptions:

Frictional forces between backfill and retaining wall are zero. ( the implication of this
assumption is that shear stresses on the vertical and horizontal planes are zero i.e.,
these planes are principal planes)

The back of the wall is vertical,

The surface of the backfill is horizontal.

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15

The backfill is a homogeneous, isotropic, dry and cohesion-less material.

The failure surface is plane.

The wall yields about the base and satisfies conditions of plastic equilibrium.

The basic concept behind Rankines theory can be depicted by Mohrs circle. Consider the
element shown in Fig.12.3, subjected to the geostatic stresses shown. The value for 1 could
/

be approximated as the product of the average unit weight times depth, namely, 1 =
/

h. If

the wall were to move to the left, thereby creating a case of active stress, the value for 1

would become the major principal stress and at failure the minor principal stress h is equal
/

to the active earth pressure. The corresponding Mohr circle for this case is depicted by circle-I
in Fig. 5. On the other hand, if the wall were to push against the backfill i.e., move towards the
backfill, a case of passive pressure would be developed. The vertical stress would then
become the minor principal stress 3 and the lateral stress would thus become the major
/

principal stress which at failure is the passive earth pressure. The Mohr circle for this condition
is depicted by circle- 2 in Fig. 5.
The pressures on retaining wall vary linearly with depth, as indicated by Fig. 12.7.
The corresponding resultant pressures, active and passive, can be calculated for a unit length
of retaining wall as
Pa = 0.5

H ka = 0.5 * H 2 tan 2 (45 - /2)

Pp = 0.5

H kp = 0.5 * H 2 tan 2 (45 + /2)

The corresponding slip planes for the active and passive cases are shown in Figure
12.5c and 12.5d. The orientation of these planes can be best being understood using
the concept of pole. For active case point 3 represents pole. A line drawn from this point
to the point representing state of stress on failure plane yields the orientation of failure planes
for the active state. It is to be pointed out that once the lateral stresses in this case drop to the
active value, shear failure along an infinite number of planes behind the wall is imminent and at
the instant the soil is said to be in a state of limit equilibrium. Since the state of stress in backfill
is known for either at rest condition or the active condition, retaining walls are designed for the
limit equilibrium conditions and such design is called limit design.

8.

Effects of Surcharge loads

Concentrated or uniformly distributed loads, commonly referred to as surcharge loads, acting

on the surface of the backfill, will:
o

Increase the lateral pressure against the, retaining wall.

Move the point of application of the resultant pressure upward.

a.

Effect of UDL Surcharge

Figure 12.17 shows uniformly distributed surcharge q (kN/m2) acting on the surface of the
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backfill. The vertical stress 1 on an element within the soil backfill at a depth h is equal to
h + q. Correspondingly, the lateral stress 3 for a (c-) soil, is

Pa K a H 2C K a
9.

Rankin Analysis Backfill with Uniform Surcharge

If the backfill is horizontal & carries a uniform surcharge q-kn/m2, the vertical stress at

any depth will increase by q. The increase in lateral pressure for active case therefore will be
kaq as shown below:

q kN/m2
3

K a H 2C K a

Example

q=12kn/m2

Find the passive resistance (Pp) of given frictionless

Retaining wall as shown in fig. Also calc the location

= 15 kn/m3
= 25o
c=10 kn/m2

of passive resultant.
Solution
a. Calculation of K

5m
0

Kp = 1+sin25 /1-sin25 = 2.45

2.

Calculation of Stresses
a.

914kn/m

Passive Resistance/Stresses
at top of layer, z=0, v =q= 12 kn/m2 (surcharge)

60.6kn/m2

244.3kn/m2

p = 2.45*12+2*102.45= 60.6 kn/m2

at bottom of layer, z=5m, v =q+h = 12+15*5 =87kn/m2
p = 2.45*87+2*102.45= 244.35 kn/m2
b.

Passive Resistance
Pp = 60.6*5+244.3*5*1/2= 303+610.9 = 914 kn/m

c.

Location of Resultant. Taking moment of pressure diagram about wall base.

914*z = 303*5/2 + 611*5/3= 757.5+1018.3 = 1775.83 = z=1775.83/914 =1.94m

Q

b. Effect of Point load Surcharge (by Boussinesqs equation)

x=mH

To determine lateral pressure on wall due to point load

z=nH
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H

17

Q placed at surface of the backfill as shown in fig.

If the load Q is placed on the plane of section as shown;
We can substitute y=0 and =0.5 in vertical stress distr
equation developed by Boussinesq. This is modified as

x =Q/2(3x2*z/R5) -------------(A)
where R= (x2+z2)1/2
Substituting x=mH & z=nH in eqn (A), we get
x =3Q/2 H2 {m2 n/(m2+n2)5/2}-------------- (B)
The horizontal stresses expressed by eqn (B), does not include restraining effect of wall.
Therefore the eqn has been modified as per real time situation as under:x =1.77Q/H2 {m2 n2 /(m2+n2)3} for m> 0.4-------------- (C)
x =0.28Q/H2 {n2/(0.16+n2)3} for m 0.4-------------- (D)
For concentrated surcharge loads Q such as may be induced by a continuous footing,
railroad tracks, and the like, running parallel to the wall, it is possible, although rather
laborious, to estimate the increased stresses on the wall based on Boussinesqs equation,
consistent with the theory of elasticity for a semi-infinite homogeneous soil mass. However,
graphical methods given below are more expedient for this purpose.
Experimental data indicate that Boussinesqs formula for lateral stress gives acceptable
results where the wall movement is compatible to soil deformations within the backfill. On the
other hand, if the retaining wall is totally rigid such that the soil deformation is greatly restricted
by the rigid boundary, the horizontal stress approaches a value twice that given by
Boussinesqs equation. This effect becomes less noticeable as the distance of Q relative to
the wall increases.

c. Effect of Point load Surcharge (by graphical method)

The line of action of the active thrust induced by the concentrated surcharge loads Q is
commonly based on empirical procedures. Such a procedure gives acceptable results for
cohesion less backfill; it may be illustrated with the aid of Fig 12.19. When the concentrated
surcharge load is located to the left of point C, the active thrust Pa may be determined by
drawing lines ED and FD parallel to lines AG and AC, respectively. The point of application
of Pa is one-third the distance FE from point F, as indicated in Fig. 12.19a. But when load Q
is located to the right of the failure plane, as indicated in Fig. 12.19b, line ED is parallel to line
AC. The point of application of Pa is one-third the distance EA from point F, as shown in
Fig. 12.19b. We noted that the line of action of the resultant thrust moves up the wall as the
load Q approaches the wall. Furthermore, the lateral thrust as well as the overturning effect
decreases as the load Q moves away from the wall.

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Q=150Kn
x=mH

Example Find the lateral force Pa due to backfill and

point load 1.5m away from back face of wall as shown in fig. z=nH
Solution (for point load)

=18kn/m3
c=12.5kn/m2
=150

Here x=1.5m, H= 5m, z= 0-5m (for n= 0.2,0.4,0.6,0.8,1.0)

Divide H in five equal parts for calc pressure per unit of wall.
m= x/H = 1.5/5=0.3 i.e less than 0.4
Therefore we will use
x =0.28Q/H2 {n2/(0.16+n2)3} for m 0.4
x =0.28*150/52 {0.22/(0.16+0.22)3} = 1.68*5= 8.4kn (for n= 0.2)
x =0.28*150/52 {0.42/(0.16+0.42)3} = 1.68*4.88= 8.2kn (for n= 0.4)
x =0.28*150/52 {0.62/(0.16+0.62)3} = 1.68*2.56= 4.3kn (for n= 0.6)
x =0.28*150/52 {0.82/(0.16+0.82)3} = 1.68*1.25= 2.1kn (for n= 0.8)
x =0.28*150/52 {12/(0.16+12)3} = 1.68*0.41= 0.69kn (for n= 1.0)
Now lateral force P due to point load will be
P= (0+8.4)*1+ (8.4+8.2)*1+ (8.2+4.3)*1+ (4.3+2.1)*1 + (2.1+0.69)*1= 23.35kn/m of wall ht
2
2
2
2
2
For geostatic stresses ka = tan2(45- /2)= 0.626
At top lateral stresses, h = 2*12.50.626=2*12.5*0.7= 19.75kn/m2
At bottom of wall, h = 18*5*0.626-2*12.5*0.79= 36.6 kn/m2
Pressure on wall= 19.75*5+16.85*52/2= 98.75+210.6= 309.35kn/m of wall ht
For resultant Pressure location taking moments at base of wall
Z= (98.75*5/2)+(210.6*1.67)/309.6=246.87+351.7=598.57/309.6=1.93m from base.
q= kn/m

d. Effect of line load Surcharge (by Boussinesqs equation)

x=mH

To determine lateral pressure on wall due to line load

q placed at surface of the backfill as shown in fig.
If the load q is placed on the plane of section as shown;

z=nH

Eqn (D) is modified as

x =4q/ H {m2 n/(m2+n2)2} for m> 0.4-------------- (E)

x =0.203q/H {n/(0.16+n2)2} for m 0.4-------------- (F)
Example A line load of 50kn/m is located at a distance of 3m from back
face of retaining wall 4.5m high. Determine lateral force P on wall due to line load.

q= 50kn/m

x=3m

Solution
Here x=3m, H= 6m, z= 0-6m (for n= 0.25,0.5,0.75,1.0)
Divide H in four equal parts of 1.5 m for calc pressure on wall.

z=nH

m= x/H = 3/6=0.5 i.e more than 0.4

H=6m

Therefore we will use

x =4q/ H {m2 n/(m2+n2)2} for m> 0.4
x =4*50/ *6 {0.52 0.25/(0.52+0.252)2} = 10.61*0.64= 6.8kn (for n= 0.25)
x =4*50/ *6 {0.52 0.5/(0.52+0.52)2} = 10.61*0.5= 5.3kn (for n= 0.5)
x =4*50/ *6 {0.52 0.75/(0.52+0.752)2} = 10.61*0.28= 3.0kn (for n= 0.75)
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x =4*50/ *6 {0.52 1.0/(0.52+12)2} = 10.61*0.16= 1.7kn (for n= 1.0)

Now lateral force P due to point load will be
q/area

P= (0+6.8)*1.5+ (6.8+5.3)*1.5+ (5.3+3)*1.5+ (3+1.7)*1.5 = 24kn/m of wall width

2
2
2
2
m1
e. Effect of strip load Surcharge (by Boussinesqs equation)

To determine lateral pressure on wall due to strip load

q/area placed at surface of the backfill as shown in fig.
If the load q is placed at distance m1 from wall back of
of height H with width as m2. The horizontal stress

m2

at depth z on wall due to strip loading is given as

x =q/H(-sin*cos 2), angles & as defined on fig-------------- (G)
for actual soil behavior conditions eqn (G) can be modified as
x =2q/H*{(-sin*cos 2)}, -------------- (H)
The force P per unit width of wall can be obtained by integ eqn (H)
For z & H this is given as

q= 1500psf

P= q/90{H(2 1)}, where is in deg and given as

1 = tan-1(m1/H) & 2 = tan-1((m1+m2)/H)
Example A strip loading as shown in fig; m1= 10ft, m2 = 5ft

H = 12ft

Calculate x at 2/ interval of H.
Also determine lateral force P on wall due to strip load.
Solution
Calculation of x by using eqn (H)
x =2q/H*{(-sin*cos 2)}
Calculation of x
m1 m2 = tan-1(m1+ m2/2)/z = {tan-1(m1+ m2)/z}-{ tan-1(m1)/z} x=2q/z*{(-sin*cos 2)}
10
5
80.910
3.710
5657lb/ft
0
0
10
5
72.25
6.9
5225lb/ft
10
5
64.360
9.20
4629 lb/ft
10
5
57.380
10.60
4000 lb/ft
10
5
51.340
11.310
3402lb/ft
0
0
10
5
46.17
11.5
2877 lb/ft
Calculation of P
Using eqn given above as, P= q/90(2 1) and
1 = tan-1(m1/H) & 2 = tan-1(m1+m2/H)
1 = tan-1(m1/H)= tan-1 (10/12)= 39.80
2 = tan-1((m1+m2)/H))= tan-1 ((10+5)/12)= 51.340
Now, P= q/90{H(2 1)}= 1500/90{12(51.34-39.8)}= 2308 lb/ft of wall width
z
2
4
6
8
10
12

10.

Cohesion less Backfill and Inclined Surface

Let us now consider cohesion less mass with a sloping surface behind a smooth vertical

retaining wall. Assume this condition to be depicted by Fig. 12.8a. The lateral stresses acting
on the vertical faces of the element (i.e., the faces parallel to the wall) are parallel to the
inclined surface. Thus, any such planes experience not only normal but also shear stresses.
These planes, therefore, are no longer principal planes as was the case for horizontal ground
surface.
For the following analysis Rankine made an additional assumption i.e., the vertical stress
acting on any plane and the lateral stress acting on the element are conjugate stresses.
This assumption implies that the lateral earth pressure is parallel to the surface of the backfill
slope. The corresponding resultant pressure on the wall could be determined with the aid of
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Mohrs circle. Figure l2.8c symbolizes an active state of stress. The magnitude of the vertical
stress is depicted by the distance OC; the lateral stress, acting parallel to the sloped surface, is
represented by the distance OA. Hence, from Fig. 12.8c we have:

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Equation 12-9 is Rankines expression for the active lateral pressure at depth H.
Equation 12-10 is Rankines expression for the passive case.
For a given sloped surface and uniform soil properties Ka becomes a constant. Thus,
the intensity of load, or stress, varies linearly with depth. Hence, as before, the total resultant
active force may be given by Eq. 12-9. Again, we noted that the direction of the resultant is
parallel to the sloped surface. For the case of level surface, Eqs. 12-9 and 12-10 reduce to
Eqs. 12-5 and 12-6, respectively.
11.

Rankine State for Sloping Backfill (In short)

The coefficient of active earth pressure will be:

Ka = Cos {(Cos - Cos2 - Cos2 )/ (Cos + Cos2 - Cos2 )}

Kp = Cos {(Cos + Cos2 - Cos2 )/ (Cos - Cos2 - Cos2 )}

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12.

Rankin Analysis, R/W with submerged Backfill

At A

v 0

At B

v sat H

v sat H w H
n K a v
K a sat H w H

Pa H K a sat H w H
K a H w H
13.

at base.

Active Earth Pressure Partially submerged Backfill

A
B

Dry

H1

Sat
C

H2
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Assuming that '' is same for dry & saturated granular fill:

At ' A' v 0
At ' B' v d H 1
Pa

K a d H1

At ' C ' v d H 1 sat H 2

d H 1 sat H 2 w H 2

d H1 H 2

h K a d H 1 K a H 2
h K a d H 1 K a H 2 w H 2

Pa

at base.

Lets assume that Moist > Saturated

Therefore Ka sat > Ka moist.
The shape of pressure diagram for such a case will be
A

At A v 0 Pa 0

At B v m H 1 Pa K a1 m H 1
At int erface

Pa K a 2 m H 1

At ' C '

v m H 1 sat H 2
v m H 1 sat H 2 w H 2
m H1 H 2
K H K H
h

a2

a2

K a1 m H 1

H1

H2

C
K a2 m H 1

H K a 2 m H 1 K a 2 H 2 w H 2 Pa

14.

Active Earth Pressure against Inclined Back Retaining Wall

A

R
F1

Consider a retaining wall with H/3

inclined back as above. Rankines analysis can be extended to
solve such problem by computing
active earth pressure against a vertical plane C D. Let F 1
D
be the force due to active earth pressure. The weight & its location of wedge BCD, W can be
determined.
The resultant of F1&W gives the required force R. Similarly if the backfill is inclined
then the active force against plane 'CD' is lot and let it be F1. The resultant of F1& weight W is
R which is required force against the wall as shown below.
A

F1
H

F1 = Ka H12

15.

H/3
D

Coulombs Analysis of lateral Earth Pressures (inclined back & inclined fill)
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In 1776 Coulomb introduced an expression for determining the active thrust on retaining walls.
Coulomb knew about effect of both cohesion and friction on shear strength of soil.

He

observed a number of retaining wall failures and he concluded that when ever a retaining wall
fails a certain mass of soil breaks off in the form a wedge and exerts pressure on wall thus
concluding that the retaining wall shall be designed for the MAXIMUM pressure exerted by this
mass of soil. Although he observed that the failure surface is not plane but for simplicity of
analysis he assumed that the failure surface is plane and the soil is cohesion less. He did this
in order to simplify somewhat the mathematically complex problem introduced when cohesion
and non-planer sliding surfaces are considered. He did, however, account for the effects of
frictional interaction between the soil backfill and the face of the retaining wall. Due to relative
motion between soil and the wall shear forces develop at interface. In active zone the soil
tends to move down along wall face as the wall moves away from the backfill. This downward
motion imparts a downward drag force on the wall. The magnitude of this shear force depends
on the friction angle between the wall & the soil w and is called angle of wall friction.
Typically for concrete.

w = 2/3

In case of passive earth pressure the soil moves up as it is pushed by the wall & in the process
it exerts an upward shear force on the wall. The direction of this frictional force depends on the
direction of motion of soil mass and shall be evaluated carefully.

16.

Coulombs Assumptions
a.

Backfill is dry, cohesion less isotropic, homogeneous and elastically undeformable but breakable.

b.

The slip surface is plane which passes through the heel of the wall.

c.

The sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body and the value of earth pressure is
obtained by considering the limiting equilibrium of sliding wedge as a whole.

d.

The position and direction of resultant earth pressure are known. The resultant
force acts on the back of the wall at 1/3rd the height of the wall form the base and
is inclined at

e.

(angle of wall friction) to the normal to the back)

Back of the wall is rough and relative movement of the wall and soil takes place
which develops frictional forces that influence the direction of resultant pressure.

According to Coulombs theory, the thrust is induced by the sliding wedge, as shown in Fig.
12.l0a. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the sliding wedge analysis. The
corresponding force polygon is shown in Fig. 12.l0b. The development of Coulombs equation
follows from this basic relationship. From Fig. 12.l0b, using the Law of Sines, we have

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Explanation of Force Polygon Angles

W = Wt of wedge
F = Resultant of Normal and Shear forces on the plane.
Pa = Active Pressure.
H = Ht of wall.
= Inclination of back face of wall
= Angle of force Pa with normal, friction angle between soil and wall.
= Internal friction angle, or angle of friction with normal.
= Angle of failure plan with horizontal.
i = Slope of backfill with horizontal

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Example: A retaining wall as shown in Fig, below with soil properties. Find Pa and Pp.

Note: Solve examples 9.1-9.8 Braja M. Das (Principles of Geotechnical Engineering)

17.

Coloumbs Solution for R/W with Inclined Back and Inclined Back fill
Consider a RW as shown below the geometry of problem has changed but will we have

two unknown R& Fa, and one known quantity W the weight of wedge as shown.

-ii
Fa
w

W
H

Normal to
inclined surface

Fa

- w

180-( - ) ( - w )
W
R

The vector diagram is shown above.

-

By applying sine law to force diagram.

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Sin180 w

Sin
Fa

Sin
Sin180 w

Fa W

From ABC

&
Also

W AD BC 1
2

H
H
Sin
AB
AB
Sin
AD
Sin 180
AB
AD AB Sin 180
AD

H
Sin 180
Sin

(i )

Also from sine law:

AB
BC

Sin( i )
Sin ( i )
Sin ( i )
Sin ( i )
Sin ( i )
H
BC

Sin
Sin ( i )
BC AB

(ii)

Sin Sin ( i )
1
H2

2
2
Sin ( i )
Sin

( B)

Putting values of eqn- B in eqn- A, we get

Fa

Sin Sin ( i)
Sin
1
H2 2

2
Sin ( i) Sin180 w
Sin

To determine maximum value of Fa we differentiate above equation with respect to and

equate it to zero. The resulting equation for maximum Fa is,

Fa Max

18.

1
H2
2

Sin 2

Sin w Sin i

Sin Sin ( w ) 1

Sin w Sin i

Culmanns Method

The following graphical procedure was devised by Karl Culmann in (1875). It is used to
determine the magnitude and the location of the resultant earth pressures, both active and
passive, on retaining walls. This method is applicable with acceptable accuracy to cases where
the backfill surface is level or sloped, regular or irregular and where the backfill material is
uniform or stratified. Also, it considers such variables as wall friction, cohesion less soils, and
with some procedural modifications, cohesive soils and surcharge loads, both concentrated
and uniformly distributed. It however, requires that the angle of internal friction of the soil be a
constant for the total backfill. The procedure presented here is limited to cohesion-less soils.

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Reference is made to Fig. 12.20 in describing the procedure for determining the active

pressure for a case of cohesion less soil by Cullmans method:a.

Select a convenient scale to show a representative configuration of retaining wall

and backfill. This should include height and slope of the retaining wall, surface
configuration of the backfill, location and magnitude of concentrated (line)
surcharge loads, uniformly distributed surcharge, and so on.

b.

From point A draw line AC, which makes an angle of with the horizontal.

c.

Draw line AD at an angle of from line AC. Figure 12.20 shows the angle to
be the angle between the vertical and the resultant active pressure.

d.

Draw rays AB1, AB2, AB3, and so on, that is, assumed failure surfaces.

e.

Determine the weight of each wedge, accounting for variations, if the backfill is a
layered system, for variable moisture content, and so on.

f.

Select a convenient scale and plot these weights along line AC. For the distance
from A to W1 along line AC equals W1 similarly, from the W1 to W2 along line AC
equals W2, and so on.

g.

From each of the points located on line AC, draw lines parallel to line AD, to
intersect the corresponding assumed failure surfaces; that is, from W1 will
intersect line AB1, then from W2 will intersect line AB2 and so on.

h. Connect these points of intersection with a smooth line, Culmanns curve.

i.

j.

Parallel to line AC; draw a tangent to Culmanns curve. In Fig. 12.20 point E
represents a tangent point. More than one tangent is possible if Culmann line is
irregular.
From the point of tangency, draw line EF parallel to line AD. The magnitude of
EF, based on the selected scale, represents the active pressure Pa. Several
tangents to the curve are possible; the largest of such values becomes the value
of Pa. The failure surface passes through E and A, as Fig. 12.20.

Surcharge loads and their respective effects on the location of the resultant are accounted
for as described in the previous section. Examples 12.5 and 12.6 further enhance this
explanation.

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Figure 12.21 illustrates the procedure for determining the passive resistance via culmanns
method.

The approach is similar to that for the active pressure, with some notable differences:
(1) Line AC makes an angle of ' ' degrees below rather than above the horizontal;
(2) The reference line makes an angle of

with line AC, with

measured magnitude as

indicated in Fig. 12.21.

For the assumed sliding wedges, the weights W 1, W2, and so on, are plotted along line
AC. From these points, lines are drawn parallel to the reference line to intersect the
corresponding rays, as shown in Fig. 12.21. The Culmann line represents a smooth curve
connecting such points of intersection. A tangent to the Culmann curve parallel to line AC is
drawn, with the resultant earth pressure being the scaled value of line FE, as shown in fig.

Example: A retaining wall with backfill as shown in fig-12-22, with the given data as:Ht of wall= 7 m, =30o, line load = 100 kn/m, =18.2 kn/m3, =900
Find the active thrust by Culmans method.
For convenient calculation of wedge weight; the bases for all the wedges are taken same.
Hence, the weight of all the wedges equals 127.4 kN, as shown in Fig. 12.23. The
corresponding points along AC are shown in Fig. 12.22 for an arbitrary scale of 1 cm = 100 kN.
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From these points lines are drawn parallel to line AD so as to intersect rays AB1, AB2, AB3, and
so on. Note that a similar line is drawn for the line load by connecting these points of
intersection with a smooth curve (Culman curve) and drawing a tangent to this curve parallel to
line AC, we obtain the Pa, which is equal to the corresponding scaled value FE. The scale for
FE = 1.85 cm for 185 kN. The point where 'Pa' acts is determined as described in the
preceding section and as shown in Fig. 12.24. Line EG is parallel to line AC, and line GE is
parallel to the failure plane. Pa therefore acts at one-third distance FE from point E, a total of
4.25 m above point A.

19.

Design of Gravity Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability for earth or other material where

conditions disallow the mass to assume its natural slope, and are commonly used to hold back
or support soil banks, coal or ore piles and water.
Retaining walls are classified, based on the method of achieving stability, into six
principal types.

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a.

Gravity Retaining Walls. The gravity wall depends upon its weight, as the name
implies, for stability. The tensile stresses are avoided by proper proportioning of
the wall.

Keys

b. Cantilever Walls. The cantilever wall is a reinforced-concrete wall that utilizes

cantilever action to retain the mass behind the wall from assuming a natural slope.
Stability of this wall is partially achieved from the weight of soil on the portion of the
base slab.

c.

Counter fort Retaining Walls. A counter fort retaining wall is similar to a

cantilever retaining wall, except that it is used where the cantilever is long or for
very high pressure behind the wall and has counter forts, which tie the wall and
breast together, built at intervals along the wall to reduce the bending moments
and shears. As indicated in Fig, the counter fort is behind the wall and subjected
to tensile forces.

d.

Buttressed Wall. A buttressed retaining wall is in compression instead of tension

as shown in figure.

e.

Crib Walls. These are built-up members of pieces of pre-cast concrete, metal or
timber and are supported by anchor pieces embedded in the soil for stability.

f.

Bridge Abutments. These are retaining with wing wall extensions to retain the
approach fill and provide protection against erosion.
Approach Slabs
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Approach Fill

20.

Gravity Retaining Walls

a.

Common Proportions
Retaining wall design proceeds with the selection of tentative dimension, which
are then analyzed for stability and structural requirements and are revised as
required. Since this is trial process, several solutions to the problem may be
obtained all of which are satisfactory. A computer solution greatly simplifies the
work in retaining wall design and provides the only practical means to optimize
the design.
Gravity-wall dimensions may be taken as shown in figure below. Gravity walls,
generally, are trapezoidal-shaped but also may be built with broken backs. The
base and other dimensions should be such that the resultant falls within the
middle one-third of the base. The top width of the stem should be on the order of
0.30 m. If the heel projection is only 100 to 150 mm, the Coulmb equation may
be used for evaluating the lateral earth pressure, with the surface of sliding taken
along the back face of the wall. The Rankine solution may also be used on or
along the back face of the wall. The Rankine solution may also be used on a
section taken through the heel. Because of the massive proportions and resulting
low concrete stresses, low-strength concrete can generally be used for the wall
construction.
0.30 m to H/12

Minimum
batter
1:48

Slope change to
reduce concrete

H
D to D

H/B to H/b

0.5 to 0.7 H

D to D

A critical section for analysis of tensile flexure stress will occur through the junction of
the toe portion at the front face of the wall.
(a)

(b)

b.

Stability of Wall. Gravity retaining walls must provide adequate stability against
sliding. The soil in front of the wall provides a passive-earth pressure resistance
as the wall tends to slide into it. If the soil is excavated or eroded after the wall is
built, the passive-pressure component is not available and sliding instability may
occur. If there is certainty of no loss of toe soil, the designer may use the passive
pressure in this zone as part of the sliding resistance. Additional sliding stability
may be derived from the use of a key beneath the base.

c.

Design of Gravity Retaining Wall. A gravity retaining wall is a structure which

resists lateral earth pressure by its weight.
A retaining wall is considered safe, if it is safe against:
(1)

Overturning (2)

Sliding

(3)

Bearing failure

The proportioning should be such that no tension should develop anywhere in wall.
d
a

Pv
w

Pa

- 35 -Literature Review

36

Consider a retaining wall as shown in the figure. Let R be the reaction from base acting
at distance x from toe of the wall O. The total active force can be split into its horizontal and
vertical components Ph and Pv respectively. The passive earth pressure Pp is ignored since it is
supporting and less. The wall will be safe against overturning if the resultant passes though
middle third of the base. Taking moment of all forces about O
Rv * x = W*a + Pv*d- Ph*b
x = (W*a + Pv * d - Ph * b) / Rv
Where Rv = W + Pv
The eccentricity of R from the centre of base is given as:
e = B/2 - x
We must ensure that e < B/6 so that there is no overturning.

FOS
a.

b.

FOS against overturning.

FOS against sliding, FOS

Re sistingMoment
OverturningMoment
W Pv d
a
1.5
Ph b

Rv tan
1.5 where = friction angle between wall
Ph

base and soil.

c.

FOS against bearing capacity

f m ax
f m in

Rv
1
B
R
v 1
B

6e

B
6e

The maximum stress should not exceed bearing capacity of soil.

- 36 -Literature Review