Electrical Machines for HEV/EV

S.M.Ferdous
Abstract Electric and Hybrid vehicles are widely used now-adays as an alternative option of transportation instead of
conventional transportation system. The highly developed
automotive industry and the increasingly large number of
automobiles in use around the world are causing serious
problems for the environment and hydrocarbon resources. The
deteriorating air quality, global warming issues, and depleting
petroleum resources are becoming serious threats to modern life.
Progressively more rigorous emissions and fuel efficiency
standards are stimulating the aggressive development of safer,
cleaner, and more efficient vehicles. It is now well recognized that
electric, hybrid electric, and fuel-cellpowered drive train
technologies are the most promising vehicle solutions for the
foreseeable future. Electric propulsion systems are at the heart of
EVs and HEVs. They consist of electric motors, power
converters, and electronic controllers. The electric motor
converts the electric energy into mechanical energy to propel the
vehicle or vice versa, to enable regenerative braking and/or to
generate electricity for the purpose of charging the on-board
energy storage. The ideal characteristics of an electric motor
drive for traction application in an electric and hybrid electric
vehicle are high torque at low speed region for fast acceleration,
hill climbing and obstacle negotiation, and low torque at high
speed for normal driving. To minimize the power rating of the
motor drive, therefore, the energy storage power rating, at the
given vehicle performance, the electric motor drive is required to
have a long constant power range to meet the torque and speed
demand.
Index TermsElectric Drives, Traction, HEV/EV, Constant
Power range operation, Induction Motor Drives, BLDC, PMSM,
SRM, DC Drives.

I. INTRODUCTION

he act of drawing or the state of being drawn i.e. the

propulsion of vehicle is called the Traction and the
system of traction involving the use of electricity is called
Electric Traction System. There are various systems of
traction prevailing in the world such as steam engine drive,
internal combustion engine drive, diesel electric drive, battery
electric drive, straight electric drive and the most recent trend
of hybrid electric drive.
These systems of traction which do not involve the use of
electricity at any stage and called non-electric traction system
such as steam engine drive, internal combustion engine drive
etc. The traction systems which involve the use of electricity
at some stage or the other and called electric traction system
such as diesel electric drive, straight electric drive, battery
driven drive etc.
The group consisting of vehicles which receive power from
a distribution network fed at suitable points from either a
central power station or substations suitably spaced such as

tramways, trolley bus, electric railways etc.The group

consisting of self contained locomotives such as diesel electric
trains, ships, petrol electric trucks and Lorries, battery driven
road vehicles.
Motor drives have been widely used in
applications requiring adjustable speed; good
speed regulation; and frequent starting, braking,
and reversing. Various DC motor drives have
been widely applied to different electric traction
applications because of their technological
maturity and control simplicity.
II. ELECTRIC TRACTION DRIVES
Electric drives are more reliable, flexible and suitable for
traction purpose rather than conventional engine driven
vehicle. But storage of electrical energy is the main
obstruction in this technology as batteries stores a much less
amount of energy compare to the energy stored in fuels.
Therefore the mileage of an electric vehicle is much less than
conventional vehicle. The problem can be solved by
increasing the capacity of the batteries, which is not a good
solution considering the both technical and economical
viability. One possible solution can be obtained by reducing
the power consumption of the traction motor. To reduce the
power rating of the motor with a given vehicle performance
and energy storage, the motor is required to have a long
constant power range to meet the load torque and demand [1]
The ideal characteristic of an electric motor drive for traction
application are high torque at low speed region for fault
acceleration, hill climbing and obstacle negotiation and low
torque at high speed for normal driving. To minimize the
power of the motor as well as the energy storage power rating
as a given vehicle performance, the motor drive is required to
have long constant power rage application [1]. The essential
requirements for electric traction are Traction equipment should be robust and sturdy
enough to withstand continuous vibrations, dust and
humid environment.
Power to weight ratio of the traction motor should be
high so that it occupies less space.
High tractive effort at starting,
It should be possible to overload the motor for a short
period.
Ability of traction motors to apply regenerative
braking during descent.
Coefficient of adhesion should be high.
The traction motors must be capable of withstanding
voltage fluctuations and interruptions of power
supply.

The motors should be amenable to simple speed

control methods.
It is widely agreed that vehicles electrification will lead to
revolutionary improvements on vehicle performance, energy
resource conservation and pollutant emissions. Now a days
research and development of vehicle electrification are widely
proceeding in civilian vehicle, military vehicle, construction
vehicle, rail vehicle farm vehicle etc. As the key component,
electric motor drive and energy storage system play the most
vital role for developing good performance electric drive train
and rapid mass transport vehicles. Proper characteristics,
optimal parametric design and smart configuration and
combination can yield in a compact, reliable, high efficiency
drive system.
III. ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC
TRACTION DRIVES

As it has no smoke, electric traction is most suited for

the underground transportation system. At the same time,
it is proven to be the most environment friendly form of
transportation system. A better safety margin can be
expected from this kind of system.
Due to high starting torque developed, it is possible to
achieve high acceleration rates 1.5 to 2.5 kmphps (i.e. 050 kmph in 10-12 Sec).
Electric drives for traction purpose are available in wide
range of torque, speed and power. Electric motors have
high efficiency, low losses and considerable amount of
overloading capacity. They are adaptable to almost any
operating condition.
Electric drives can be used operate in all four quadrants
of speed torque plane which is very suitable for forward
and backward movements of the vehicle as well as
braking.
Better flexibility in operation and less maintenance
(about 50% less compare to engine driven system) [6].
Saving in energy is another attractive feature for electric
traction as almost 30-40% of energy can be saved by the
unique distinctive feature of regenerative braking.

The main disadvantage of any EV is the lack of ability to store

sufficient amount of energy to run the vehicle. Other than
Main line urban and sub-urban locomotive traction system
where the drive receives its power from main line, any
battery/fuel cell operated EVs hold a very small amount of
energy to run the motor as well as the vehicle compare to any
engine driven vehicle. This one single disadvantage is so
severe that, despite all the attractive features, the EVs are still
lagging behind with respect to engine driven vehicles for
commercial and practical application. It is due to the fact that,
the energy density of any fuel is far greater than any electrical
energy storage system such as battery or recently developed
fuel-cells. The following Table 1.1 can visualize a clear idea
on this subject.

TABLE 1.1: ENERGY STORAGE CAPABILITY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

FUELS AND ELECTROCHEMICAL/ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS [6]
Energy
Energy
Sl.
Name of the Fuel
contain
Contain
No.
(Wh/kg)
(Wh/Litre)
1
Gasoline
12300
9348
2
Natural gas
9350
7480
3
Methanol
6200
4904
4
Kerosene
5300
4500
5
Coal
8200
Battery (Lead6
35
Acid)
Typical
7
rechargeable
40-100
Battery
Electrochemical
8
5-15
Capacitor
9
Flywheel
15
10
Spring
0.1-.0.3
11
Solar Thermal
900 Wh/day
12
Solar PV
500 Wh/day
-

The other limitations are

Small capacity of the battery and the necessity of
frequent charging. the charging time is more or less
very long.
Speed range/mileage is limited.
Limited battery life. Needs to be replaced after 3-4
years at a regular interval.
Regular maintenance is required.
Batteries are costly and their frequent and regular
replacement may not be proven economically viable
and cost effective.
Hazardous and harmful chemicals are present in
batteries. Proper dumping and recycling of these
chemicals must be done properly. Otherwise severe
environmental pollution can be caused which is
harmful for any living organism.
IV. CHARACTERIZATION OF ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR
TRACTION APPLICATION
Ideal profile of torque speed characterization of EV is divided
into two parts i.e. the constant torque region and the constant
power region. The vehicle performance is completely
determined by the profile of tractive effect verses vehicle
speed. For a power source with a given power rating, the
profile of tractive effort versus vehicle speed should be
constant power in the speed range that is the tractive effect
drops hyperbolically with the increase of the vehicle speed as
shown in Figure 1.1

A. MECHANICAL FEATURES

Figure 1.1. Traction Characteristic of an Electrical Motor. [1]

The detailed design of EV and HEV in [5]. The electric motor

in its normal mode of operation can provide constant rated
torque up to its base speed. At this speed the motor reaches its
maximum power limit. The operation beyond the base speed
up to the maximum speed is limited to this constant power
region (Fig.1). The range of constant power operation depends
primarily on the particular motor types and its control strategy.
However, some electric motors deviate from the constant
power operation, beyond certain speed and enter the natural
mode before reaching the maximum speed. The maximum
available torque in the natural mode of operation decreases
inversely with the square of the speed. Although machine
torque in the natural mode decreases inversely with the square
of the speed, for some extremely high speed motors the
natural mode of operation is an appreciable part of its torque
speed profile. Inclusion of this natural mode for such motors
may result in a reduction of the total power requirement [2].
However power electronic controls allow the motor to operate
at any point in the torque-speed plane. It is the profile of this
envelops which determines the drive selection criteria and
design. The overall characteristic curve of the traction motor
along with traction load is shown in Figure 1.3 to explain the
acceleration and operating point (load matching) of both the
drive and the load

B. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 1.2. Acceleration and Final Speed (Balancing Speed) of

electric vehicle. The point of balancing speed is the operating speed
of the motor which determines the final speed of the vehicle. [6]

V. GENERAL FEATURES OF TRACTION MOTORS

The primary requirements of electric motors used for traction
purpose are-

A traction motor must be robust and capable to

withstand continuous vibrations since service
conditions are extremely severe.
The weight of a traction motor should be minimum
in order to increase the payload capacity of the
vehicle. This is achieved by using high speed motors,
upper limit being fixed by excessive centrifugal
stresses.
The traction motor is located underneath a motor
coach. The space underneath a motor is limited by
the size of driving wheels and the track gauge. The
traction motor, therefore, must be small in overall
dimensions specially in its overall diameter.
The traction motor must be totally enclosed type,
particularly when mounted beneath the locomotive or
the motor coach, to provide protection against ingress
of dirt, dust, water and mud etc.
For magnetic circuit of traction motor cast iron,
which cannot suitable continuous vibration, is not
suitable. Use of cast steel or fabricated steel, which
gives more mechanical strength, is made in place of
cast iron. Those parts of the motor, which are not
highly stressed, must be made of pressed or
fabricated steel plates and light alloys.

High starting torque. A traction motor must be

capable of developing high starting torque, specially
when the train is to be accelerated at a reasonably
high rates such as in case of urban and sub-urban
services.
Simple speed control The traction motor must be
amenable to simple speed control as the an electric
train or vehicle have to be started and stopped very
often.
Self
relieving
property
The
speed-torque
characteristic of the motor should be such that the
speed may fall with the increase in load. The motors
having such characteristics are self protective against
excessive overloading as power output of a motor is
proportional to the product of torque-speed.
Possibility of Dynamic and Regenerative braking
The traction motor should be amenable to easy and
simple methods of dynamic and regenerative braking
along with mechanical braking.
Overload capacity Traction motors should be capable
of taking excessive loads as it is subjected to very
arduous and heavy duties.
Parallel running In traction work, usually more than
one motor (two or four motors per car) are required.
Traction motors, therefore, should be of such speedtorque and current-torque characteristics that, when

they are operated in parallel and mechanically

coupled, they share the loads almost equally.
No such motors meet the all the requirements mentioned
above. Most suitable motors for DC traction systems are series
and compound motors whereas for ac traction systems single
phase series and three phase induction motors are employed.
VI. MOTORS USED FOR ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEM
For traction application, the torque density is the most
important criterion of the electric motors, which reflects the
volume and weight of machines at given demand. Table 1.2
lists the typical torque density values for different motor
types. [1].
TABLE 1.2: TYPICAL TORQUE DENSITY VALUES FOR
DIFFERENT MOTOR TYPES [1]
T/Volume envelop
T/Cu mass
Machine Type
(N-m/m3)
N-m/kg-Cu
Permanent Magnet

28860

28.7-48

Induction motor

4170

6.6

Switch Reluctance
6780
6.1
Table 1.2 shows that the PM machines provide the highest
torque density and therefore will potentially have the lowest
weight for given torque and power rating. However, the fixed
flux limits its extended speed range as the feature of field
weakening like brushed DC motors are not available. The
induction motor and switch reluctance motor have the similar
torque densities.
It is obvious that, in case of DC machines with separate field
winding would certainly exhibit more torque density than PM
motors. But at the same time, due to its bulky constructional
features (as it is fitted with commutator, brush assembly and
field winding), it will be heavier than PMDC motor. Most of
the PMDC motors have the brushless commutation technique
using electronic circuitry. If the same brushless commutation
technique is introduced in the conventional DC motors fitted
with separate field winding, it may have been proven to be the
best option for electric traction system.
a) Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor Drive
As mentioned above, since the magnetic field is
excited by high-energy permanent magnets (PMs), the
overall weight and volume can be significantly reduced
for given output torque, resulting in higher torque density.
Because of the absence of rotor winding and rotor copper
losses, their efficiency is inherently higher than that of
induction motors.
However, This motor inherently has a short constant
power range due to its rather limited field weakening
capability, resulting from the presence of the PM field,
which can only be weakened through production of a
stator field component, which opposes the rotor magnetic
field.

Recently, the use of additional field windings to

extend the speed range of PM brushless DC motors has
been developed [7].
b) Induction Motor (IM) Drive
Field orientation control (FOC) of induction motor can
decouple its torque control from filed control. This allows the
motor to behave in the same manner as a separately
excited DC motor. Extended speed range operation with
constant power beyond base speed is accomplished by flux
weakening. However, the presence of breakdown torque
limits its extended constant power operation. At the critical
speed, the breakdown torque is reached. Any attempt to
operate the machine at the maximum current beyond this
speed will stall the machine.
Nevertheless, a properly design induction motor, e.g.
spindle motor, with field orientation control can achieve
field weakened range of about 3-5 times its base speed [9].
c) Switched reluctance Motor (SRM) Drive
Switched reluctance motor (SRM) is gaining much
interest as a candidate of electric propulsion for electric
vehicle (EV) and hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) because
of its simple and rugged construction, simple control ability
of extremely high speed operation and hazard free
operation. These prominent advantages are more attractive for
traction application than other kinds of machines
SRM can inherently operate with extremely long constant
power range. The serial design and simulation results,
performed in the SRM research group at Texas A&M
University, show that the speed ratio can reach up to 6-8
times. This long constant power range makes SRM highly
favorable for vehicle traction application.
VII. CONCLUSION
We can conclude the rating and size of the motor will be
lowered for high speed ratio, which will result in a lower
vehicle speed. This speed can be achieved by introducing a
shunt winding with a provision of switching the field winding
from series to shunt as the motor accelerates. This will yield a
high speed performance along with improved gradeability of
the vehicle.
As a whole as per several studies carried out in the field of EV
and HEV design and analysis, the ideal desirable
characteristic from an electric vehicle when operated at
prolonged constant power range are
longer constant power range operation of the motor effectively
reduces the motor power rating., reduced Power consumption,
improved, fast and rapid acceleration., gradeability of the
vehicle is improved., single and simple gear transmission,
reduction in size and capacity of battery, design of the vehicle
is compact, robust, highly efficient and reliable. So, if any
motor chosen and designed for the purpose of electric traction
is capable of prolonging its constant power range operation, it
would suit most for the traction application as its
characteristics would exactly represent the characteristics
expected from a traction motor.

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