Chapter 6

Representing a Signal
The convolution method for finding the

response of a system to an excitation takes
advantage of the linearity and timeinvariance of the system and represents the
excitation as a linear combination of impulses
and the response as a linear combination of
impulse responses

The Fourier series represents a signal as a
linear combination of complex sinusoids

Continuous-Time Fourier
Methods

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved.

Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

1

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Linearity and Superposition

Real and Complex Sinusoids

If an excitation can be expressed as a sum of complex sinusoids

the response of an LTI system can be expressed as the sum of

responses to complex sinusoids.


Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier

cos( x ) =
e jx + e jx
2
sin( x ) =
e jx e jx
j2

Conceptual Overview

The Fourier series represents a signal as a sum of sinusoids.

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal below using

only a constant is the solid

Constant
line. (A constant is a

0.6
cosine of zero frequency.)

-4
10
-0.6
x(t)
1.6
Exact x(t)
Approximation of x(t) by a constant
-4
3/21/1768 - 5/16/1830



t0
t0 + T
10
Conceptual Overview

Conceptual Overview

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

plus one real sinusoid of the same fundamental frequency as the

dashed-line signal is the solid line.


plus one sinusoid of the same fundamental frequency as the

dashed-line signal plus another sinusoid of twice the fundamental

frequency of the dashed-line signal is the solid line.

Sinusoid 1
0.6
-4
10
-0.6
x(t)
Exact x(t)
Approximation of x(t) through 1 sinusoid
1.6
1
-4
t0
t0 + T
10

Conceptual Overview


Conceptual Overview


plus three sinusoids is the solid line. In this case (but not in general),
the third sinusoid has zero amplitude. This means that no sinusoid of
three times the fundamental frequency improves the approximation.


plus four sinusoids is the solid line. This is a good approximation
which gets better with the addition of more sinusoids at higher
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Sinusoid 3
0.6
-4
10
-0.6
x(t)
Exact x(t)
Approximation of x(t) through 3 sinusoids
t0
-4
t0 + T
10

Continuous-Time Fourier Series

Definition


10

Orthogonality

The Fourier series representation of a signal x(t)

over a time t 0 < t < t 0 + T is
x (t ) =
c [k ]e
j 2 kt /T
k=
where c x [k] is the harmonic function and k is the harmonic

number. The harmonic function can be found from the signal
using the princple of orthogonality.

11


12

Orthogonality

Orthogonality

Using Euler's identity
(e
j 2 kt /T
t 0 +T
, e j 2 qt /T =
t0
Therefore e j 2 kt /T and e j 2 qt /T are orthogonal if k and q are not equal.
kq
kq

cos 2 T t + j sin 2 T t dt
If k = q,
(e
j 2 kt /T
,e
j 2 qt /T
t 0 +T
)=
cos ( 0 ) + j sin ( 0 ) dt =
t 0 +T
j 2 kt /T
by e j 2 qt /T (q an integer)
dt = T .
c [k ]e
x ( t ) e j 2 qt /T =
t0
j 2 ( kq )t /T
k=
If k q, the integral
j 2 kt /T
c [k ]e
k=
t0
(e
Now multiply the Fourier series expression x ( t ) =
t 0 +T
, e j 2 qt /T =
t0
and integrate both sides over the interval t 0 t < t 0 + T
kq
kq

cos 2 T t + j sin 2 T t dt
t 0 +T
x (t ) e
dt =
t 0 +T
t0
k=
t0
is over a non-zero integer number of cycles of a cosine and a sine

and is therefore zero.

j 2 qt /T
13

c [ k ] e
j 2 ( kq )t /T
dt .

14

Continuous-Time Fourier Series

Definition

Orthogonality

Summarizing
x (t ) =
c [k ]e
j 2 kt /T
and
cx [ k ] =
k=
1
T
t 0 +T
x (t ) e
j 2 kt /T
dt .
t0
The signal and its harmonic function form a Fourier series

FS
pair x ( t )
c x [ k ] where T is the representation time and,
T
therefore, the fundamental period of the CTFS representation of x ( t ) .
If T is also period of x ( t ) , the CTFS representation of x ( t ) is valid

for all time. This is, by far, the most common use of the CTFS in
engineering applications. If T is not a period of x ( t ) , the CTFS
representation is generally valid only in the interval t 0 t < t 0 + T .

15


16

The Trigonometric CTFS

CTFS of a Real Function

The fact that, for a real-valued function x ( t )

c x [ k ] = c*x [ k ]
also leads to the definition of an alternate form of the CTFS,

the so-called trigonometric form.
It can be shown that the continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS)

harmonic function of any real-valued function x ( t ) has the property
that c x [ k ] = c*x [ k ].
x ( t ) = a x [ 0 ] + {a x [ k ] cos ( 2 kt / T ) + b x [ k ] sin ( 2 kt / T )}
One implication of this fact is that, for real-valued functions,

the magnitude of the harmonic function is an even function
where
k=1
ax [k ] =
and the phase is an odd function.
bx [ k ] =

17

2
T
2
T
t 0 +T
x (t ) cos ( 2 kt / T ) dt
t0
t 0 +T
x (t ) sin ( 2 kt / T ) dt
t0

18

The Trigonometric CTFS

CTFS Example #1

Since both the complex and trigonometric forms of the CTFS represent a signal, there
must be relationships between the harmonic functions. Those relationships are
a x [ 0 ] = cx [ 0 ]
bx [0] = 0
*
a x [ k ] = cx [ k ] + cx [ k ]
b [ k ] = j c [ k ] c* [ k ]
x
x
x
, k = 1, 2, 3,
cx [ 0 ] = a x [ 0 ]
a x [ k ] j bx [ k ]
cx [ k ] =
, k = 1, 2, 3,
2
a x [ k ] + j bx [ k ]
*
c
k
=
c
k
=
x [ ] x [ ]

19

CTFS Example #1


20

CTFS Example #2

Let a signal be defined by x ( t ) = 2 cos ( 400 t ) and let

T = 10 ms which is 2T0 .

21

CTFS Example #2


22

CTFS Example #3

Let x ( t ) = 1 / 2 ( 3 / 4 ) cos ( 20 t ) + (1 / 2 ) sin ( 30 t ) and let T = 200 ms.

23


24

CTFS Example #3


CTFS Example #3

25

CTFS Example #3


26

Linearity of the CTFS

These relations hold only if the harmonic functions of all

the component functions are based on the same

representation time T.


27

CTFS Example #4


28

CTFS Example #4

Let the signal be a 50% duty-cycle square wave with an

amplitude of one and a fundamental period T0 = 1.
x ( t ) = rect ( 2t ) 1 ( t )

29


30

CTFS Example #4


CTFS Example #4

31

CTFS Example #4


32

The Sinc Function

Let x ( t ) = A rect ( t / w ) T0 ( t ) , w < T0 . Then
A graph of the magnitude and phase of the harmonic function

as a function of harmonic number is a good way of illustrating it.

FS
x ( t ) = A rect ( t / w ) T0 ( t )
cx [ k ] = A
T0
sin ( kw / T0 )
k
sin ( x )
arises frequently enough
x
sin ( t )
to be given its own name "sinc". That is sinc ( t ) =
.
t
The mathematical form

33

CTFS Example #5


34

CTFS Example #5

Let x ( t ) = 2 cos ( 400 t ) and let T = 7.5 ms which is

1.5 fundamental periods of this signal.

35


36

CTFS Example #5

CTFS Example #5

The CTFS representation of this cosine is the signal

below, which is an odd function, and the discontinuities

make the representation have significant higher harmonic

content. This is a very inelegant representation.


37


38

Convergence of the CTFS

CTFS of Even and Odd Functions

Partial CTFS Sums

x N (t ) =
For an even function, the complex CTFS harmonic function
For continuous signals,

convergence is exact at

every point.

c x [ k ] is purely real and the sine harmonic function a x [ k ] is

zero.
c [k ]e
j 2 kt /T0
k= N
A Continuous Signal

For an odd function, the complex CTFS harmonic function

c x [ k ] is purely imaginary and the cosine harmonic function
b x [ k ] is zero.

39



40


Partial CTFS Sums

For discontinuous signals,

convergence is exact at

every point of continuity.

At points of discontinuity

the Fourier series

representation converges

to the mid-point of the

discontinuity.

Discontinuous Signal


41


42

Numerical Computation of the CTFS


How could we find the CTFS of a signal which has no

known functional description?

Numerically.

cx [ k ] =
1
T
cx [ k ]
(t ) e j 2 kt /T dt
T x
( n+1)Ts
1 N 1
j 2 knTs /T
dt
x ( nTs ) e
T n=0 nTs
Samples from x(t)

Unknown


43



44


The Discrete Fourier Transform
N 1
D F T x ( nTs ) = x ( nTs ) e j 2 nk /N
It can be shown (Web Appendix F) that, for harmonic numbers
k << N
n=0
is an intrinsic function in most modern high-level computer

languages.
c x [ k ] (1 / N ) D F T x ( nTs ) , k << N
where
N -1
D F T x ( nTs ) = x ( nTs ) e- j 2 nk /N
n=0

45

CTFS Properties


46

CTFS Properties

Let a signal x(t) have a fundamental period T0 x and let a

signal y(t) have a fundamental period T0 y . Let the CTFS
FS
Time Shifting
x ( t t 0 )
e j 2 kt0 /T c x [ k ]
T
harmonic functions, each using a common period T as the

representation time, be c x [k] and c y [k]. Then the following
properties apply.
Linearity

FS
x ( t ) + y ( t )
cx [ k ] + cy [ k ]
T

47


48

CTFS Properties

CTFS Properties

Frequency Shifting

FS
(Harmonic Number
e j 2 k0t /T x ( t )
c x [ k k0 ]
T
Shifting)

Time Scaling
Let z ( t ) = x ( at ) , a > 0
Case 1. T = T0 x / a = T0 z for z ( t )
cz [ k ] = cx [ k ]
A shift in frequency (harmonic number) corresponds to

multiplication of the time function by a complex exponential.

Case 2. T = T0 x for z ( t )
If a is an integer,
c x [ k / a ] , k / a an integer
cz [ k ] =
, otherwise
0
FS
c x [ k ]
Time Reversal
x ( t )
T

49

CTFS Properties


50

CTFS Properties

Time Scaling (continued)

Change of Representation Time

FS
With T = T0 x , x ( t )
cx [ k ]
T
FS
With T = mT0 x , x ( t )
c x,m [ k ]
T
c [ k / m ] , k / m an integer
c x,m [ k ] = x
, otherwise
0
(m is any positive integer)

51

CTFS Properties


52

CTFS Properties

Change of Representation Time

Time Differentiation

FS
d
FS
j2 k c x [ k ] / T
( x (t ))
T
dt
FS

53


54

CTFS Properties

CTFS Properties

Multiplication - Convolution Duality
Time Integration

Case 1

Case 1. c x [ 0 ] = 0
FS
x ( t ) y ( t )
cx [ k ] cy [ k ]
T
Case 2

(The harmonic functions c x [k] and c y [k] must be based
cx [ k ]
x ( ) d j2 k / T , k 0
on the same representation time T .)
FS
T
FS
x ( t ) y ( t )
T cx [ k ] cy [ k ]
T
The symbol indicates periodic convolution.

Periodic convolution is defined mathematically by
Case 2. c x [ 0 ] 0
t
x ( t ) y ( t ) = x ( ) y ( t ) d
T
x ( ) d is not periodic

x ( t ) y ( t ) = x ap ( t ) y ( t ) where x ap ( t ) is any single period of x ( t )

55


CTFS Properties

56

CTFS Properties

Conjugation
FS
x* ( t )
c*x [ k ]
T
Parsevals Theorem
2
1
2
x ( t ) dt = c x [ k ]
T T
k=
The average power of a periodic signal is the sum of the
average powers in its harmonic components.

57


58

CTFS Examples

Some Common CTFS Pairs

FS
1
[ k ] , T arbitrary
T
(1 / T0 ) , k / m an integer
FS
T0 ( t )
mT0
, otherwise
0
FS
e j 2 qt /T0
mq
[
]
mT0
FS
sin ( 2 qt / T0 )
( j / 2 ) ( [ k + mq ] [ k mq ])
mT0
FS
cos ( 2 qt / T0 )
(1 / 2 ) ( [ k mq ] + [ k + mq ])
mT0
FS
rect ( t / w ) T0 ( t )
( w / T0 ) sinc ( wk / mT0 ) m [ k ]
mT0
FS
tri ( t / w ) T0 ( t )
( w / T0 ) sinc 2 ( wk / mT0 ) m [ k ]
mT0

59


60

10

CTFS Examples

CTFS Examples

Find the CTFS harmonic function of x ( t ) with T = 10 8.

c x [ k ] = (1 / T ) x ( t ) e j 2 kt /T dt c x [ 0 ] = 10 8
x ( t ) = 12 sin ( 2 t / 0.01) rect ( t / 0.01) 0.02 ( t )
x ( t ) = 12 sin ( 200 t ) rect (100t ) 0.02 ( t )
c x [ k ] = 10 8
Find the CTFS harmonic function of x ( t ) with T = 20 ms.
10
( 35 10 t ) dt = 35 / 2
8
( 35 10 t ) e
8
j 2 10 8 kt
10
sin ( 2 qt / T0 )
( j / 2 ) ( [ k + mq ] [ k mq ])
te
dt = 35 1016
j 2 10 8 kt
dt
10
8
8
10 8
e j 2 10 kt
e j 2 10 kt
c x [ k ] = 35 1016 t

dt
8
j2 10 8 k
0
j2 10 k 0
10 8
j 2 k
8
10 8 e j 2 10 kt
e
c x [ k ] = 35 1016
2
8
8
j2 10 k j2 10 k 0
FS
mT0
FS
sin ( 200 t )
( j / 2 ) ( [ k + 2 1] [ k 2 1])
20.01
FS
rect ( t / w ) T0 ( t )
( w / T0 ) sinc ( wk / mT0 ) m [ k ]
mT0
FS
rect (100t ) 0.02 ( t )
(1 / 2 ) sinc ( k / 2 )
10.02
FS
Using x ( t ) y ( t )
c x [ k ] c y [ k ],
T
FS
12 sin ( 200 t ) rect (100t ) 0.02 ( t )
12 ( j / 2 ) ( [ k + 2 ] [ k 2 ]) (1 / 2 ) sinc ( k / 2 )
0.02
FS
12 sin ( 200 t ) rect (100t ) 0.02 ( t )
j3 sinc (( k + 2 ) / 2 ) sinc (( k 2 ) / 2 )
0.02

10 16 e j 2 k
1 e j 2 k
1 e j 2 k j2 ke j 2 k
c x [ k ] = 35 1016
+
= 35
j2 k
( j2 k )2 1016
( j2 k )2
1 / 2 , k = 0
c x [ k ] = 35 j
2 k , k 0
61

LTI Systems with Periodic Excitation


62


The differential equation describing an RC lowpass filter is
If the excitation is periodic, the response is also, with the

same fundamental period. Therefore the response can be
expressed as a CTFS also.
RC vout ( t ) + vout ( t ) = vin ( t )
If the excitation vin ( t ) is periodic it can be expressed as a
vout,k ( t ) = c out e j 2 kt /T
CTFS,
vin ( t ) =
10 8
c [k ]e
j 2 kt /T
Then the equation for the kth harmonic becomes
in
( j2k RC / T ) c out [ k ] e j 2 kt /T + c out [ k ] e j 2 kt /T
k=
The equation for the kth harmonic alone is
Notice that what was once a differential equation is now

an algebraic equation.
RC vout,k ( t ) + vout,k ( t ) = vin,k ( t ) = cin [ k ] e j 2 kt /T

= cin [ k ] e j 2 kt /T
63



64


Solving the kth-harmonic equation,

cin [ k ]
j2k RC / T + 1
Then the response can be written as
c out [ k ] =
vout ( t ) =
c [k ]e
out
k=
j 2 kt /T
k=
The ratio
cin [ k ]
e j 2 kt /T
j2k RC / T + 1

c out [ k ]
is the
cin [ k ]
harmonic response of the system.
65


66

11

Extending the CTFS

The CTFS is a good analysis tool for systems with
periodic excitation but the CTFS cannot represent
an aperiodic signal for all time

The continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT)
can represent an aperiodic signal for all time

Continuous-Time Fourier
Methods

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved.

Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

67


CTFS-to-CTFT Transition


Below are graphs of the magnitude of c x [ k ] for 50% and 10% duty
Consider a periodic pulse-train signal x ( t ) with duty cycle w / T0
Its CTFS harmonic function is c x [ k ] =
68

cycles. As the period increases the sinc function widens and its
magnitude falls. As the period approaches infinity, the CTFS
harmonic function becomes an infinitely-wide sinc function with zero
amplitude.
kw
Aw
sinc
T0
T0
w=
T0
2
w=
T0
10
As the period T0 is increased, holding w constant, the duty

cycle is decreased. When the period becomes infinite (and
the duty cycle becomes zero) x ( t ) is no longer periodic.

69


70


In the limit as the period approaches infinity, the modified
CTFS harmonic function approaches a function of continuous
frequency f (kf0 ).
This infinity-and-zero problem can be solved by normalizing

the CTFS harmonic function. Define a new modified CTFS
harmonic function T0 c x [ k ] = Aw sinc ( wkf0 ) and graph it
versus kf0 instead of versus k.

( f0 = 1 / T0 )

71


72

12


Definition of the CTFT

Forward
X ( f ) = F ( x ( t )) =
f form
x (t ) e
j 2 ft
x (t ) = F
x (t ) e
j t
( X ( f )) = X ( f ) e
-1
+ j 2 ft
df
form
Forward
X ( j ) = F ( x ( t )) =
dt
Inverse
dt
Inverse
x (t ) = F
( X ( j )) = 21 X ( j ) e
-1
+ j t
Commonly-used notation:
F
x ( t )
X( f )

73

or
F
x ( t )
X ( j )

74

Frequency Content

Some Remarkable Implications
of the Fourier Transform

Highpass

Lowpass

The CTFT expresses a finite-amplitude, real-valued, aperiodic

signal which can also, in general, be time-limited, as a summation

(an integral) of an infinite continuum of weighted, infinitesimal-

amplitude, complex sinusoids, each of which is unlimited in

time.

(Time limited means having non-zero values only for a finite time.)


75

()
(
) , >0
te u ( t ) 1/ ( j + ) , > 0
n!
t e u ( t )
, >0
( j + )
sin ( t ) u ( t )
, >0
( j + ) +
j +
cos ( t ) u ( t )
, >0
( j + ) +
()
F
t
1
n t
e
e
2
0
2
0
F
te t u t
1/ j +
n t
n+1
( )
(
) , <0
( )
(
) , <0
n!
t e u ( t )
, <0
( j + )
sin ( t ) u ( t )
, <0
( j + ) +
j +
cos ( t ) u ( t )
, <0
( j + ) +
F
e t u t
1/ j +

Let x ( t ) = A. Then from the

definition of the CTFT,
n+1
e
e
2
0
2
0
2
, >0
+2
2

76

Convergence and the

Generalized Fourier Transform

Some CTFT Pairs

F
e t u t
1/ j +
Bandpass

77

X( f ) =
Ae
j 2 ft
dt = A e j 2 ft dt
This integral does not converge so,

strictly speaking, the CTFT does not
exist.

78

13

Convergence and the Generalized

Fourier Transform

Convergence and the


Carrying out the integral, X ( f ) = A
Now let approach zero.

2
If f 0 then lim A 2
2 = 0. The area under this
0
+ ( 2 f )
But consider a similar function,

x ( t ) = Ae t , > 0
Its CTFT integral
X ( f ) =
Ae
2
2 .
2 + ( 2 f )
2
df which is A, independent of
2
+
( 2 f )2
the value of . So, in the limit as approaches zero, the

CTFT has an area of A and is zero unless f = 0. This exactly
function is A
e j 2 ft dt
does converge.
F
defines an impulse of strength A. Therefore A
A ( f ) .

79


Convergence and the


80

Convergence and the Generalized

Fourier Transform

By a similar process it can be shown that

1
F
cos ( 2 f0t )
( f f0 ) + ( f + f0 )
2
and
j
F
sin ( 2 f0t )
( f + f0 ) ( f f0 )
2
These CTFTs which involve impulses are called
generalized Fourier transforms (probably because
the impulse is a generalized function).

81


82

Negative Frequency

Negative Frequency

This signal is obviously a sinusoid. How is it described

mathematically?

x(t) could also be described by

x (t ) = A
or
e j 2 f0 t + e j 2 f0 t
2
x ( t ) = A1 cos ( 2 f0t ) + A2 cos 2 ( f0 ) t , A1 + A2 = A

It could be described by x ( t ) = A cos ( 2 t / T0 ) = A cos ( 2 f0t )
But it could also be described by x ( t ) = A cos 2 ( f0 ) t

and probably in a few other different-looking ways. So who is

to say whether the frequency is positive or negative? For the
purposes of signal analysis, it does not matter.
83


84

14

More CTFT Pairs
Negative Frequency

Consider an experiment in which we multiply two sinusoidal
signals x1 ( t ) = cos ( 2 f1t ) and x 2 ( t ) = cos ( 200 t ) to form
The generalization of the CTFT allows us to extend the table

of CTFT pairs to some very useful functions.
x ( t ) = x1 ( t ) x 2 ( t ) . x ( t ) can be expressed using a trigonometric

identity as
()
()
rect ( t ) sinc ( f )
tri ( t ) sinc ( f )
( t ) f ( f ) , f = 1/ T
cos ( 2 f t ) (1/ 2 ) ( f f ) + ( f + f )
x ( t ) = (1 / 2 ) cos 2 ( f1 100 ) t + cos 2 ( f1 + 100 ) t

Now imagine that we continuously change
f1 from a frequency above100 to a
frequency below 100. f1 100 becomes
negative.

F
t
1
F
sgn t
1/ j f
F
T0
f0
85

1 ( f )
()
( ) ( )
sinc ( t ) rect ( f )
sinc ( t ) tri ( f )
T ( t ) ( f ) , T = 1/ f
sin ( 2 f t ) ( j / 2 ) ( f + f ) ( f f )
F
F
u t
1/ 2 f + 1/ j2 f
F
0 T0
f0

86

CTFT Properties

CTFT Properties

If F ( x ( t )) = X ( f ) or X ( j ) and F ( y ( t )) = Y ( f ) or Y ( j )
then the following properties can be proven.
F
x ( t ) + y ( t )
X ( f ) + Y( f )
F
x ( t ) + y ( t )
X ( j ) + Y ( j )
Linearity

Time Shifting
F
x ( t t 0 )
X ( f ) e j 2 ft0
F
x ( t t 0 )
X ( j ) e j t0

87

CTFT Properties


CTFT Properties

F
x ( at )
Time Scaling
Frequency Shifting
x (t ) e
+ j 2 f0 t
F
x ( at )
X ( f f0 )
F
F
x ( t ) e+ j 0t
X ( 0 )
Frequency Scaling

88

89

1 f
X
a a
1
X j
a a
1 t F
x X ( af )
a a
1 t F
x X ( ja )
a a

90

15

The Uncertainty Principle

CTFT Properties

The time and frequency scaling properties indicate that if a signal

is expanded in one domain it is compressed in the other domain.

This is called the uncertainty principle of Fourier analysis.

F
e t
e f
2
Transform of
a Conjugate
F
x* ( t )
X* ( f )
F
x* ( t )
X* ( j )
Multiplication
Convolution
Duality
F
e ( t /2)
2e ( 2 f )
2

91

CTFT Properties

F
x ( t ) y ( t )
X ( f ) Y( f )
F
x ( t ) y ( t )
X ( j ) Y ( j )
F
x ( t ) y ( t )
X ( f ) Y( f )
F
x ( t ) y ( t )
(1 / 2 ) X ( j ) Y ( j )

92

CTFT Properties

In the frequency domain, the cascade connection multiplies

the frequency responses instead of convolving the impulse

responses.


93

CTFT Properties

Transforms of
Periodic Signals
94

CTFT Properties

d
F
j2 f X ( f )
( x (t ))
dt
d
F
( x (t )) j X ( j )
dt
Time
Differentiation
Modulation

1
F
x ( t ) cos ( 2 f0t )
X ( f f0 ) + X ( f + f0 )
2
1
F
x ( t ) cos ( 0t )
X j ( 0 ) + X j ( + 0 )
2
x (t ) =
X[ k ]e
j 2 kfF t
X ( f ) =
F
k=
x (t ) =
X[ k ]e
jk F t
X [ k ] ( f kf )
0
k=
F
X ( j ) = 2
k=

X [ k ] ( k )
0
k=
95


96

16

CTFT Properties

CTFT Properties

x (t )
Parsevals
Theorem
x (t )
dt =
of an Impulse
Duality
df
Integral Definition
X( f )
dt =
X ( 0 ) = x ( t ) e j 2 ft dt
= x ( t ) dt

f 0
1
2
j 2 xy
X ( j )
Total - Area
Integral
df
x ( 0 ) = X ( f ) e+ j 2 ft df = X ( f ) df

t0
X ( 0 ) = x ( t ) e j t dt
= x ( t ) dt

0
1
x (0) =
2
dy = ( x )
F
F
X ( t )
x ( f ) and X ( t )
x( f )
Integration
F
F
X ( jt )
2 x ( ) and X ( jt )
2 x ( )
+ j t
97

1
d =
t0 2
X( f )
X ( j ) d
x ( ) d j2 f + 2 X ( 0 ) ( f )
F
x ( ) d
CTFT Properties

X( 0 ) =
X ( j ) e

X ( j )
+ X ( 0 ) ( )
j

98

CTFT Properties

x(t )dt
x( 0 ) =
X( f )df

99


100

Numerical Computation of the CTFT

It can be shown (Web Appendix G) that the DFT can be
used to approximate samples from the CTFT. If the signal
x ( t ) is a causal energy signal and N samples are taken
from it over a finite time beginning at t = 0, at a rate fs then
the relationship between the CTFT of x ( t ) and the DFT of
the samples taken from it is
X ( kfs / N ) Ts e j k /N sinc ( k / N ) X DFT [ k ]
For those harmonic numbers k for which k << N
X ( kfs / N ) Ts X DFT [ k ]
As the sampling rate and number of samples are increased,

this approximation is improved.

101

17

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Representing a Signal

The convolution method for finding the

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Linearity and Superposition

Real and Complex Sinusoids

If an excitation can be expressed as a sum of complex sinusoids

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier

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The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

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M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Continuous-Time Fourier Series

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

The Fourier series representation of a signal x(t)

where c x [k] is the harmonic function and k is the harmonic

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M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Using Euler's identity

Therefore e j 2 kt /T and e j 2 qt /T are orthogonal if k and q are not equal.

Now multiply the Fourier series expression x ( t ) =

and integrate both sides over the interval t 0 t < t 0 + T

is over a non-zero integer number of cycles of a cosine and a sine

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Continuous-Time Fourier Series

The signal and its harmonic function form a Fourier series

therefore, the fundamental period of the CTFS representation of x ( t ) .

If T is also period of x ( t ) , the CTFS representation of x ( t ) is valid

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The Trigonometric CTFS

CTFS of a Real Function

The fact that, for a real-valued function x ( t )

also leads to the definition of an alternate form of the CTFS,

It can be shown that the continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS)

One implication of this fact is that, for real-valued functions,

and the phase is an odd function.

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The Trigonometric CTFS

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Let a signal be defined by x ( t ) = 2 cos ( 400 t ) and let

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M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Linearity of the CTFS

These relations hold only if the harmonic functions of all

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Let the signal be a 50% duty-cycle square wave with an

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M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

The Sinc Function

Let x ( t ) = A rect ( t / w ) T0 ( t ) , w < T0 . Then

A graph of the magnitude and phase of the harmonic function

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