Inquiry Into Amphibious Screw Traction

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers
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Inquiry into Amphibious Screw Traction

Applied Mechanics Group and B. N. Cole
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1961 175: 919
DOI: 10.1243/PIME_PROC_1961_175_060_02
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919
APPLIED MECHANICS GROUP
INQUIRY INTO AMPHIBIOUS SCREW TRACTION

By B. N. Cole, Ph.D., Wh.Sch. (Associate Member)*
T h e paper describes an inquiry into the potentialities of the Archimedean screw as a device for amphibious
travel and traction. T h e proposal is that a hulled machine should be supported by two such screws aligned
beneath the port and starboard sides; the screws being oppositely handed and contra-rotating, so as to
propel the machine either aground or afloat. A major attraction of the scheme lies in the positive action to be
expected of the screws when working in difficult grounds of a loose granuIar, or semi-fluid, nature. T h e
scheme is obviously unsuited to hard and paved surfaces, however, and is not proposed for these conditions. Comparisons are drawn between this and existing types of amphibious machine, with particular
regard to the development of useful tractive effort. Theoretical examination of the rotor properties, for
both aground and afloat conditions of duty, is supported by model-scale experimental work; and design
recommendations are made. Favourable conclusions are reached; though it is necessary to add that the work
has been in the nature of a pilot investigation only, and that full-scale tests would be necessary to reach a
final verdict.
INTRODUCTION
THEGENERAL PROBLEM of amphibious travel involves a

large number of practical difficulties owing to the almost
infinite variability of the media supporting the vehicle in the
course of its work. I n introducing this report, therefore, it
may be helpful to outline the rational subdivisions of the
general problem.
First, it is necessary to distinguish between a machine
which is to operate as a simple vehicle, transporting only
its own weight and payload, and a machine which is to serve
as a tractor, producing a substantial drawbar pull. Secondly,
seven distinct kinds of operating conditions must be recognized. These, in increasing order of firmness, may be
listed as: open and deep water, shallow water and swamp,
deep mud or bog, sand, gravel or shingle, natural firm earth,
and hard paving. Thirdly, whatever the specified selection
from these seven duty conditions may be, the machine
must be reasonably economic in initial cost and subsequent
performance. In practice, it seems that complete versatility
is rarely sought; and indeed it would be difficult to achieve
this, since design features which suit one or two duty
conditions may be completely unsuited to others. For
example, many versions of the wheeled type of vehicle give
good performance in clear water and on hard surfaces, but
dig their own graves-as it has been expressed-when set
to traverse deep mud or other yielding ground.
The present report considers the idea of a hulled machine
which is supported and moved by two oppositely handed,
The MS. of this paper was received at the Institution on 4th April
1960.
University of Birmingham.
* Reader in Mechanical Engineering,

Proc Instn Meek Engrs
1
contra-rotating, Archimedean screws ; these being in

form of hollow, sealed, cylindrical drums on which con
tinuous helical blades are mounted. The idea has been
suggested to meet a particular form of the amphibious
travel problem; namely, when the machine may have to
spend much of its time afloat, but must also be effectiveas a tractor if need be-in shallow water, bog, and sand or
gravel. The envisaged working conditions do not extend as
far as hard or paved surfaces, and it need hardly be said that
the device would become absurd for such conditions as
these. However, the device has certain attractions for the
conditions cited, which occur in many civil engineering
works of construction and land reclamation in swamp or
estuary areas, and in a wide variety of other projects
concerned with the exploitation of natural resources.
The idea of the screw-driven amphibious tractor was proposed in Britain by Lt-Col. H. 0. Nelson as far back as
1948f. It has arisen independently since then in Germany
and a full-scale prototype model, was demonstrated at the
Correspondence was evoked by this statement when quoted in the

summary of the paper published in the November I960 issue of The
Chartered Mechanical Engineer. It is clear that the idea of using
contra-rotating screws, for either land or water duty separately,
antedates 1948. It appears that in the late 1920s an American
Fordson tractor was modified aud equipped with screw rotors f o r duty
over snow and ice, giving good performance at speeds up to 12 mileih,
with an ability to move sledge-mounted lumber tow-loads of up to 20
tons. Independently, and round about the same time, it appears that a
machine was developed in France using the same type of rotor, but this
time of sufficientlylarge size (being hollow sealed drums) togive complete buoyancy for surface travel over clear water, at speeds up to 60
milelh. However, neither of these earlier machines would seem to have
been proposed for amphibious duty.
Vol175 No 19 1961
B. N. COLE
920
Hanover Exhibition of 1957 by a German firm. However, no

technical report from any source appears to have been published so far; and the aim of the present work has thus
been to inquire into the potentialities of the device.
Reference may be made at this point to Appendix I, in
which are listed the apparent advantages and limitations
of the device, and in which comparisons are made with
those of other types of amphibious machine.
The theoretical and experimental work to be described is
confined to operation of the screw device in clear water and
on packed sand, these being taken as the extremes of the
range of working conditions. The view is taken that, if a
screw geometry can be found which is effective for these
two extremes, it should also be capable of dealing with the
intermediate grades of duty by virtue of the positive action
to be expected of the screws.
Notation
Dimensions of single-start screw rotor
d
Base drum diameter, ft.
h
Height of helix blade, ft.
p Helix pitch, ft.
Helix angle at base of blade.
Helix angle at mean height of blade.
Helix angle at top of blade.
/
F
H
M
n
P
R
t
-1
&=EASE
4 in.
V
p
Driving torque per screw, lb/ft.

Advance velocity of tractor, either aground or through
still water, fi/s.
Density of water, 62.4 lb/ft3.
Non-dimensional symbols
a
l+k = l+h/d.
Slip factor (aground performance) = Vlnp.
f
k
h/d = (helix height)/(base drum diameter).
k,, Hydrodynamically effective value of (helix height)/
(base drum diameter).
K P/M.
Rotation factor in hydrodynamic theory = (mean
s
angular velocity of entrained water)/(angular
velocity of screw).
y
W/MV = non-dimensional power per screw in
aground performance.
0
Angle of inclined plane (reckoned from the horizontal)
for climbing travel.
p,
Coefficient of ground friction relative to rotor material.
qe Kinetic energy efficiency (hydrodynamic performance).
qp Propulsive efficiency (hydrodynamic performance).
APPARATUS
er dimensional symbols appearing in aground and hydrodynamic theories

Kinetic energy per second imparted by rotor to water,
ft. lb/s.
Ground reaction normal to helix blade, lb.
Acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s2.
Horsepower required to drive one rotor.
Half weight of tractor, that is, dead weight per
screw, lb.
Angular velocity of screw(s), rev/s.
Drawbar pull per screw (aground), lb.
Reaction component normal to ground surface, per
screw, lb.
Hydrodynamic axial thrust per screw, lb.
Model rotors
The basic geometry adopted for the experimental screw
rotors is shown in Fig. 1. Single-start helices were formed
round hollow drums of 2 in. diameter; the envelope, or
peripheral, diameter being 34 in. The ratio of helix height
to drum diameter, thus arbitrarily standardized at 0,375,
was accepted in the belief that it combined a reasonable
proportion of propulsive cross-section with good mechanical strength. The material of construction was 441/WP
aluminium alloy.
Three helix angles (referred to the radius of the drum, as
in Fig. 1) were used, being 20, 30, and 40.In all, six pairs
of rotors were used, each pair comprising a left- and a righthanded helix. Three pairs of rotors were short, with an
overall length of 13 in. ,while the remaining three pairs were
long, with an overall length of 22.3 in. The right-handed
HELIX ANGLE
& in.TH;CKNESS
AT CREST
&in.THICKNESS AT BASE
Fig. 1. Single-start Archimedean screw

Vol 175 No 19 1961
Proc Instn Mech Engrs

members of the two sets are illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3,

respectivcly. The purpose of using two different lengths
for each helix angle was to discover, in the particular case
of the hydrodynamic tests, the extent to which the torquethrust-speed characteristics depended on overall length,
and hence on the total number of helix convolutions. It is
acknowledged that while the model rotors, as shown in the
figures, were provided with a conical envelope at the forward
ends only, an actual machine would require such envelopes
at both ends of the rotors to assist working in reverse gear.
It was judged unlikely that performance characteristics,
particularly for aground duty, would be strongly dependent
92 1
would be used to estimate performance at finite speeds of

advance.
A torque- and thrust-meter assembly was constructed and
fitted to the side of a suitable tank, as shown in Fig. 4. A
longitudinal section of the assembly is shown in Fig. 5.
The essential element concerned with torque measurement
was a calibrated silver steel rod A, 26 in. long and & in.in
diameter. The twist of this rod under load was registered
F@. 2. Short rotors, having base helix angles

(from left to right} of #Q, 30, and 20"
on the number of starts of the screws; and therefore, for
ease of construction, single-start screws wcre used. Twostart screws would possess a degree of dynamic balance
that cannot exist in single-start screws; but since envisaged
speeds of rotation are of only moderate order, this wouId be
a very minor asset.
Fig. 3. Long rotors
Tank test rig

For duty afloat, the screw rotors have the same function as
more conventional types of screw propeller; and it is thus
desirable that model rotors should be tested in either a
water tunnel or a water channel, so that the effects of
varying speed of advance can be studied. Unfortunately,
neither a tunnel nor a channel of sufficient size was available, and there was no alternative but to limit study of the
hydrodynamic properties of the rotors to the condition of
zero advance speed by spinning the rotors in a large tank of
water. Theoretical analysis, guided by the data so obtained,
by the relative displacement of two discs B and C having

graduated rims; at speed, this displacement was observed
by means of a stroboscopic ffash which was synchronized by
a contactor device. The parasitic torque due to the two
driven-end bearings D and E, though small, was always
determined by a calibration over the full range of speed,
carried out with the rotor running in air; in this way, the
torque absorbed by the rotor itself, when running in water,
could be measured with good accuracy.
Thrust measurement entailed preloading the weight
hanger F, and slowlyraising the rotor speed until the applied
Proc Imtn Mech Engrs
Vol I75 N o I9 1961
B. N. COLE
922
@.4.
Tank rig used for masuring characteristics of rotors at zero advance speed
load was just balanced by the hydrodynamic thrust d e

veloped: balance was indicated as soon as the assembly
began to float axiallywithin an end-play of in. determined
by two stop collars G.
Find speed readings were taken from a revolution
counter engaged over a measured time interval.
Sand bed
A sand bed was laid down so that the performance of the
screw rotors could be tested for the aground state. A local
sand was used, of washed and screened quality, and laid to
form a bed 60 ft long, 4 ft wide, and 5 in. deep. The shear
strength of any sand depends on moisture content and
degree of compaction; and it is upon this shear strength
that the maximum tractive effort of any traction device must
in turn depend. Arrangements were therefore made to vary
both moisture content and compaction.
A variable-speed dynamometer winch was made, so that
a flat sledge of the same alloy as that used for the rotors
might be drawn over the sand bed to determine the coefficient of friction in relation to rubbing speed, contact
pressure, sand state, etc.
Model vehicle
A model vehicle was designed which would be capable of
testing the aground performance of each of the three pairs of
long rotors. An aluminium chassis was used, carrying the
rotors at a transverse centre-line pitch of 11 in., the rotors
being rotated oppositely in directions inward at the top
for normal forward travel. The total weight was about 42 lb,
varying slightly according to the rotors used; and the
centre of gravity was arranged to fall slightly aft of the midlength point of the rotors so as to prevent any possible
tendency for the rotors tonose downwards into the sand bed.
The model was powered by a variable-speed directcurrent motor, rated to give horsepower at 3600 revlmin.
Vo1115 No 19 1961

TORQUE SCALE
923
AND POINTER
THRUST RACE
___
TU
_____
.____
RUBBEK GLAND
WEIGHT HANGER
F&. 5. General layout for hydrodynamic test

A reduction gearbox of 1611 ratio was built on to the motor;
and the complete assembly was suspended between two
self-aligning ball-race bearings, so as to act as a swingingfield dynamometer. The power output of the gearbox
branched mechanically along two contra-rotating shafts,
whence, by way of 312 ratio bevel gears and enclosed mitre
gears, power was supplied to the screw rotors. The overall
speed reduction ratio was thus 21-11, giving a maximum
rotor speed of about 150 revlmin, which was found adequate
for all experimental purposes.
The dynamometer assembly was arranged to pull, at a
known radius from the armature centre-line, against a
calibrated cantilever spring, the deflection of which was
registered by a precision dial-gauge. Tendencies for the
gauge needle to flutter, such as would be caused by slight
inhomogeneities of the sand bed, were damped down by
means of a dashpot connection between the dynamometer
and the chassis. A revolution counter geared to the transmission system enabled motor speed, and hence rotor speed,
to be measured over a measured time interval. In later
modifications the dynamometer was fitted with a resistance
strain gauge, and the counting arrangement correspondingly changed, so as to provide continuous information
during travel to a pen-recorder.
By running the model jacked up, with the rotors clear
of any surface, it was possible to measure the small amounts
of torque and power absorbed by the transmission bearings
outside the actual dynamometer assembly. Thus, by allowing the model to travel over a measured distance along the
sand bed in a measured time, the provisions described
enabled measurements to be made of (1) the power and
torque supplied to the rotors themselves, and (2) the degree
of slip between the rotors and the sand bed.
Figs. 6 and 7 illustrate the above account.
Finally, by attaching a wire from the rear of the model to

the force-measuring member of the dynamometer winch
referred to above, it was possible to measure the maximum
Fig.6. Rear view of tractor model

tractive effort of the machine for any desired state of the
sand bed; the rotors continuing to turn without producing
any forward movement.
Vo1175 No 19 1961
B. N. COLE
924
A comprehensive analysis will consider the case of steady

climbing travel at advance speed V along a plane inclined
at angle 0 to the horizontal, the tractor sustaining a
drawbar pull of 2P. The resulting salient forces, referred
to the duty of one rotor, are indicated in Fig. 8; Fig. 8a
C
b
Fig. 8. Forces shown diagrammatically
a Dead-weight and drawbar forccs.

b Forces acting at mean helix angle.
c Forces acting at base diameter.
Fig. 7. Tractor model, with 30" long rotors$tted,

in motion along sand bed
Sand state was loose and dry.
THEORETICAL A G R O U N D PERFORMANCE
OF T H E SCREW TRACTOR
A reasonable analytical approach to the problem of estimating the required power and driving torque per rotor
when the machine is travelling over yielding ground is
afforded by the following assumptions :
(1) that the screw rotors travel, in effect, along 'pretapped' grooves;
(2) that, accordingly, there is no 'slip', so that the
velocity of advance of the machine is given by V = pn
= 7idn tan $;
(3) that the ground consistency is such that the thin
helix blade sinks in readily, leaving the normal component of the vehicle weight to be supported by the base
drum;
(4) that the coefficient of friction between the material
of the rotor and the ground is constant, regardless of
rubbing speed;
(5) that forces acting on the helix blade are effectively
concentrated at a radius correspondingto the mean height
of the helix above the base drum.
Assumptions (1) and (2) are bold, inasmuch as the power

absorbed by actual ground deformation is overlooked.
Assumptions (3), (4),and (5), in the light of test experience,
are believed to be fairly realistic: in particular, assumption
(5) has been examined analytically, and found to be closely
representative of a wide variety of possible distributions of
ground pressure acting on the embedded helix.
shows the gravitational and drawbar forces, while Fig. 86

and c show the principal ground reactions upon the helix
and drum, respectively.
It is first noted that the drum, supporting a normal force
of M cos 0, will thus experience a frictional drag of pM
cos 0, which will be associated with a rubbing velocity of
rdn sec $.
Secondly, for equilibrium of axial forces (that is, along
a direction parallel to the inclined plane), it is evident that
F cos$,-pF
sin$,-pM
cos0 sin$-M
sinO-P=O
whence the ground reaction F, acting normally to the helix

blade at its mid-height, is given by
F=M(
p cos 0 sin $+sin 0+K

cos &,-p sin $,
(1)
The frictional drag along the helix blade will accordingly

be pF, and this will be associated with a rubbing velocity
of n(d+h) sec.#,
Thirdly, from the geometry of the rotor, reIationships
between the angles $ and $, may be quoted as:
From these considerations, the work per second absorbed

by each rotor in overcoming frictional resistances may be
formulated. I n addition, there must also be supplied to
each rotor sufficient work per second to account for the
increasing potential energy of the machine (MV sin 0 per
rotor) and for the displacement of the drawbar pull (PV
per rotor). It may therefore be shown that the total nondimensional power necessary for each rotor is given by:
Pror Instn Mech Engrs
r701175 No /Y I961
925
addition, the helix height is relatively small, so that k-0,

or a+l, equation (7) assumes its simplest form as:
COS~
+ sin B+K .
. . . . . . . .
(3)
From this expression the horsepower and torque required
for each screw rotor can be estimated, respectively, according to :
H = MVy/55O
. . . (4)
and
T = MVy/2m
. . . (5)
Various special cases stem readily from equation (3). For
example, if the machine acts as a simple vehicle, the ratio K
(which is a measure of the drawbar pull) must vanish. If, in
addition, the machine is travelling over level ground (so
that 6' = 0), equation (3) reduces to:
1
p[(a*- 1) cos2
ll}
'
(6)
Y =.(%+ a cos +-p sin+
++
At this point, the question of an optimum helix pitch,

as represented by the base helix angle 9, may be considered.
Inquiry here centres less upon the idea of rotor efficiency
(which is an ambiguous term in the present context) than
upon the minimum power necessary for meeting a given performance specification. That an optimum value of exists,
which is associated with a minimum power requirement, is
obvious if two extreme cases be contemplated. On the one
hand, C$ may be indefinitely small, so that the specified
speed of advance, V, can only be met by an indefinitely
high rotor angular velocity, calling for an inordinately high
power supply. On the other hand, (b may be so large that,
for the given ground properties as represented by p, the
rotors may be on the point of jamming; excessively high
a very high power
ground reactions calling-again-for
supply : in practice, it would be more likely that the ground
would yield completely, so that the rotors would do no more
than churn, producing no advance speed. Between these two
limits there must clearly be an optimum value of 4.
It would seem most realistic to develop this optimization
for horizontal travel rather than climbing travel; and accordingly equation (3) may be used for the condition that
B = 0. For given values of p, a, and K, the condition that
dyfd+ = 0 leads to the following expression for optimum C$:
pz(a2- 1) sin2 cos +(1 sin2 +)
+p sin +{a[2-a2 sin2 ++(a2- 1) sin4 +]+2Ka2 cos +}
-a2 C O S ~++Ka[(a2+1) sin2 +-a21 = 0
. (7)
Numerical work need not be hampered by the obvious
difficultyof extracting from this equation. It will be noticed
that the result can be regarded as a quadratic in p: therefore, for chosen h e d values of a and K, a number of
4 values may be assumed, for each of which the corresponding value of p can be found by direct calculation.
The resulting curve would therefore represent-for the
chosen values of a and K-the variation of optimum
with ground friction. The case of a simple vehicle is of
course represented by the condition that K = 0; and if, in
IJ. = sin +(2-sin2
4)
. .
(8)
The severest working condition which might be imposed

exceptionally on the machine would be a very firm ground
surface which the edges of the helix blades might barely
penetrate. This would defeat assumption (5), since the
blades would now support, as well as propel, the machine.
Power and torque requirements would obviously increase;
and it may be shown that the non-dimensional power
requirement for a simple vehicle in horizontal travel would
be given by:
1
IJ.
(9)
= p[=+
cos 4k-p sin+h
where, from the geometry of the screw rotor,
+-degrees
Fig. 9. Dimensionless horsepower plotted against

helix base angle
0.375.
--- kk =
= 0.
--
-- Loci of minimum horsepower.
Vol175 No 19 I961
B. N. COLE
926
At need, equation (9) could readiIy be elaborated for the

more general case of climbing travel with a drawbar pull.
As will be evident from the experimental results, the
above analysis should be capable of yielding realistic information on power, torque, and hence in turn, for any
proposed transmission geometry, bearing loads. On the
whole, such estimates would be expected to err slightly on
the low side, by virtue of the fact that the power needed for
the leading convolution of each helix blade to 'tap its own
thread' has been ignored: the extent of this error would
presumably be greater for a low helix angle than for a
relatively high angle.
Further developments of the analysis are possible. For
example, the case of contour travel, for which the machine
might have a pronounced list, can be investigated with a
view to finding the increased driving torque required by the
lower rotor, on which a greater proportion of the total
machine weight would fall. Steering effects can also be
examined with the help of additional assumptions; the
severest case being, as with track-laying vehicles, when one
side is stopped in order to effect a turn by the action of the
other. Examinations such as these provide useful estimates
of the maximum torque and bearing loads arising in the
power transmission line to each rotor.
A variety of specimen curves illustrative of the foregoing
analysis is given in Figs. 9-13, each of which is fully
Fig. 11. Dimensionless horsepower plotted against

coefficient of ground friction relative to rotor material
--- kk == 0.375.
0.
annotated so as to be self-explanatory. In examining these
it is as well to realize that in practice p may rise to as much
as 0.7 under the heaviest duty conditions. With this fact in
mind, a conclusion to be drawn from these diagrams is that,
so far as aground performance is concerned, a practical
choice of optimum helix angle C$ would lie roughly within
the range 30-40", precise choice depending on the details
of the specification to be met. These curves are given nondimensionally so as to be as general as possible, and they
cannot therefore give any quick impression of actual
physical magnitudes. Accordingly, the followingcalculations
are quoted as typical examples of aground duty:
--degrees
Fig. 10. Dimensionless torque plotted against

helix base angle
For p = 0.5 only.
Total machine weight = 3 tons

Rotor base helix angle, (b = 30"
Rotor base drum diameter = 1 ft 6 in.
Ratio of helix height to drum diameter K = 0.375
Ground friction coefficient p = 0.5
Advance speed V = 4.4 ft/s = 3 mile/h.
Vol17.5 No 19 I961
927
OPTIMUM
4 -degrees
Fig. 12. Optimum helix base angle

0.375.
--- kk =
= 0.
0.2
0.4
06
0.8
1.0
I .2
For these data:

(1) Rotor angular velocity = 97 revimin
(2) Horsepower required as simple vehicle in horizontal travel = 78
(3) Horsepower required as simple vehicle climbing an
incline of 6 = 20" (1 in 3.6) = 124
(4) Horsepower required when towing in horizontal
travel, with drawbar pull of 3 tons = 227. (A concessionary
drop to 1+ mile/h would reduce the required horsepower to 114.)
HYDRODYNAMIC P R O P E R T I E S OF
THE ROTORS
A realistic theory for the action of the screw rotors when

propelling the machine in clear water involves many
difficulties. These arise principally (1) fkom the ratio of
length to diameter, which is too great to justify the notion
Fig. 13. Towing performance

0.5.
--- pp =
= 0.3.
of an equivalent actuator disc, and (2) from the concomitant

fact that the flow pattern of the actuated water will be very
complex and likely to extend appreciably beyond the peripheral radius of the helix blade. Further, it cannot be
expected that the hydrodynamicproperties are to be defined
solely by the geometric elements, d, 4, and k, or by the
particular geometry of the leading convolution of the helix.
For instance, with an infinitely long rotor (having, therefore,
an infinite number of convolutions) rotating in a medium of
infinite extent, it is readily apparent that a uniform pattern
of fluid circulation will be created at all sections along
the axis, and that there will consequently be definite values
of input torque and output thrust per unit length of rotor.
From these thoughts it is to be concluded that the torque
Vol175 No 19 1961
B. N. COLE
928
and thrust characteristics of a real rotor will be influenced

by overall length (and thus by the number of convolutions
contained therein) as well as by the more obvious factors
d, $, and k.
Manageable calcdation is possible only if bold simplifying
assumptions be accepted; and, clearly, experimental observation becomes indispensable if such an approach is to
be guided effectively and its inherent errors minimized.
Probably the most fruitful kinds of assumption concern the
flow pattern itself; for this, once assumed, can be reconciled
-in a gross sense, at least-with fundamental considerations of mass flow, energy, and momentum. In the first
instance, it will therefore be supposed that:
(1) the rotor is turning in deep water, unaffected by

any kind of boundary surface;
(2) the actuated water is confined within the helix
annulus, so that a slip surface is conceived to exist at the
peripheral diameter of the rotor;
(3) the axial component of flow velocity is constant
with respect to radius, and that the angular velocity of
flow is also constant with respect to radius so that the
entrained water moves as though it were a solid nut,
having an angular velocity of sn, where n is the angular
velocity of the rotor.
As they stand, these assumptions grossly oversimplifythe
true picture; and they contain no evident means of &stinguishing between the performances of single- and multistart screws, or of describing the length effect mentioned
above. As will be seen, however, these two defects can to
some extent be overcome by the introduction of two factors,
the values of which would depend upon test observation.
Accepting the assumptions for the moment, it can be
shown that, for a velocity of advance Vthrough the medium:
first, from consideration of mass flow and rate of change of
axial momentum, the axial thrust is given by
secondly, from consideration of rate of change of angular

momentum, the necessary driving torque is given by:
T = Pm3d5n2(1--s)s(k+k2)(1+2k+2k2)
2g
tan 4
. . (12)
and thirdly, from further consideration of the flow pattern,
the kinetic energy imparted per second to the water by the
rotor is given by
thus combining equations (12) and (13). For given values

of p, d, n, k, (6, and V , it would thus be possible to determine
the rotation factor s, whence the propulsive thrust t would
follow from equation (ll), and the driving torque from
equation (12): this procedure would ignore all energy
losses.
In practice, water is actuated outside the helix annulus,
and the true slip surface (in so far as this term is permissible)
is roughly conical, as indicated in Fig. 14; and in retaining
__-----
=
d--
-----__
IDEAL
----ACTUAL
Fig. 14. Ideal and actual slip surfaces

for tk s c r m rotor
the basic assumption of a simple helical flow pattern, a

hydrodynamically effective value may be conceived of the
ratio of blade height to drum diameter, Ah, which will
exceed the geometric value k. In addition, to acknowledge
the existence of secondary flow patterns superimposed
on the assumed basic helical flow, also to acknowledge
the existence of shock and hydrodynamic drag at the
various surfaces of the rotor, an efficiency factor T~ may be
introduced, the value of which defines the efficiency of
the rotor when regarded as a device for producing
kinetic energy in a simple helical flow of extent
determined by kh. It is therefore proposed to describe the
behaviour of a real rotor by equations (1l), (12), and (13))
in which k, is substituted for k; and by the supplementary
relationship that
. . .
E =2nq,T
*
(14)
it. being understood that actual values of kh and ve are to
derive from experimental observation. Accordingly, and in
non-dimensional terms, it may be checked that the main
useful results take on the following forms:
non-dimensional thrust per rotor
. . .
(15)
non-dimensional torque per rotor
If the governing assumptions were to stand unquestioned,

it would be logical to formulate the equation E = 2 m T ,
Proc Instn Mech E v s
. .
For given values of
4, k,,
(V/rdn),and
r],
(16)
the consistent
*
Vol175 No 19 1961
INQUIRY lNTO AMPHIBIOUS SCREW TRACTION
value of s in these equations will, by virtue of equation (14),

be calculated from
2[(1+%,+2Rh*)71,+ tan* $1
$2S
(1 2Kh 2kh2 tan2 9)
(V/ndn)z-tan2 4
-(1+2kh+2kh2+tan2 4)= 0 . (17)
In addition, the propulsive efficiency, 5,which is formulable
as (Vt>/(2mT),
may be calculated from
[(1-s) tan ct,-( V / ~ d n )V] /(- r d ~ )
'7* =
(1 2K,+243
(18)
+ + +
The horsepower required to drive each rotor will of course

be estimated from
H = (2nnT)/550
(19)
. . .
0.5
929
Specimen curves of non-dimensional thrust, nondimensional torque, and propulsive efficiency are shown on
a base of non-dimensional advance speed (Vindn) in Figs.
15,16, and 17 respectively; some indication of the influence
of 7, is also given.
Performance prediction on the joint basis of dimensional
reasoning and model testing was held to be a fruitless line of
attack in view of the limitations imposed on the tests-not
least of which was the fact that a finite advance speed could
not be simulated. There was no alternative but to develop
the type of analysis given. Despite its imperfections, the
analysis is straightforward to use, and is believed to be
capable of giving useful, if rough, estimates of full-scale
performance.
It remains only to add that, in the course of estimating
nnn
F&. 15. Dimensionless thrust-speed curves

4 = 30"; I;r = 0.375.
Proc insrtz Meek Engrs
Fig. 16. Dimensionless torque-speed curves

d, = 30"; k = 0.375.
Vol175 No 19 1961
B. N. COLE
930
friction coefficient p for any given state of the bed. Typical

results are shown in Table 1.
Table I. Perry Baw sand

Slider material Aluminium alloy 441/WP
Sand condition Loose
Sand density (dry) 90 Ib/ft3
Sand density (wet) 95 Ib/ft3
p (dry state) 0.51
p (wet state) 0.57
Further examination of the sand, in accordance with British
Standard procedure, revealed that:
Proportion of coarse particles 2 per cent
Proportion of medium particles 58 per cent
Proportion of fine particles 40 per cent
Effective range of particle size 0.08-2.50 mm
nd
)t
F&. 17. Dimensionless speed of advance

+ = 30"; k = 0.375.
full-scale performance afloat, or of designing a machine to

meet a given specification of performance afloat, the drag
characteristics of the proposed hull form, together with the
required drawbar (towing) pull, ifany, must be matched as
efficiently as is possible with the characteristics of the two
rotors. From the viewpoint of design, it may well be that a
compromise has to be effected between the specifications
of performance afloat and of performance aground,
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR
THE AGROUND STATE
Sand-bed friction tests

The aluminium slider (see under Apparatus: Sand Bed,
above) could be loaded with dead weights to vary normal
contact pressure; and by means of the dynamometer
which could be drawn at speeds up to about 4 ftjs over the
sand bed. Within the experimental ranges of normal pressure and rubbing speed, there was no detectable variation in
'Zero speed' tests were found to give completely representative results, corresponding to the conventional condition of limiting friction. This type of test is easy to carry
out, whether in the laboratory or in the field, and accurate
readings are readily obtained. Since mar@ variations in
the state of the bed arose, which could not easily be controlled, it was decided not to rely entirely on the above
figures for p during the model tractor tests, but to determine
the prevailing value of p for each test: variation was,
however, small.
Although the experimental sand was used chiefly in a
loose condition, it is known that the shearing strength and
relative coefficient of friction of any sand depends, not only
upon moisture state, but upon the degree of compaction:
each of these properties increases for a densely compacted
state. For interest, therefore, some comparative figures for
p are quoted in Appendix I1 for two different kinds of sand
and for various metallic rubbing surfaces; indicating the
effects of both relative compaction and of moisture content.
These data were obtained by the shear box method in the
Soil Mechanics Laboratory of Birmingham University.
It is necessary to remember that these comparativelyhigh
values of p are to be associated with severe working conditions for the vehicle. For work over, say, soft clays or muds,
the effective value of p would drop to the order of perhaps
0.25; a definite general figure obviously cannot be given.
Aground performance of the model vehicle

The machine was tested as a simple vehicle in horizontal
travel, using each of the three pairs of long rotors in turn.
The main results of the tests are shown in Fig. 18a, b, and c,
for the 20, 30" and 40" rotors, respectively. In Fig. 18
observed non-dimensional power y is plotted on a base of
vehicle advance speed V, theoretical performances being
shown by appropriate horizontal straight lines. A certain
amount of scatter is apparent, this chiefly reflecting local
inhomogeneities of the sand bed-a factor which was very
difficult to regulate. However, for the 30" and 40" rotors
(Fig. 18b and c) acceptable correlation between theory and
observation was obtained. With the 20" rotors (Fig. 18u),
Vo1175 No 19 1961
observed powers consistently exceeded theoretical expectations. Three facts may be adduced to explain this. First, a
certain proportion of the vehicle weight must in fact be
borne at the tip surfaces of the helix blades, the projected area of which is greatest for these particular rotors : a
modified theory was therefore worked out with the result
shown, it being clear that this effect is minor. Secondly, the
number of helical grooves to be cut per foot of advance is
greatest again with these rotors, increasing the unaccounted
power requirements. Thirdly, and evident only in the tests
themselves, the extent of ground failure and deformation
was most pronounced with these same rotors, clearly
involving further power absorption. Theoretical allowance
for the two latter effects involves obvious difficulties, and
was not pursued.
A feature apparent in each of the three diagrams in Fig.
18 is a slight tendency for actual non-dimensional power
(and therefore of driving torque} to fall off with increasing
advance speed. In conflict with theoretical expectation, this
is nevertheless a welcome effect which might conceivably
be more pronounced with a full-scale machine.
a 20" screws.
Experimental points :
o Sand, wet (p = 0,562).
x Sand, dry (p = 0511).
Theoretical curves :
Modified theory (p = 0.562).
p = 0.562.
--- IL
=z
93 1
0.511.
I
II
Table 2. Performance
,
Dry sand
,
Wet sand
02
0.4
0.8
0.6
b 30" screws.
o Sand, wet (p = 0578).
x Sand, dry (p = 0511).
p = 0378.
= 0'511.
-----
v
c 40' screws,
o Sand, wet (p = 0570).
x Sand? dry (p = 0511).
p = 0.570.
p = 0.511.
---
Fig. 18. Aground p e r f o m a m

1.0
Mean observations of performance are summarized in

Table 2, which also includes measurements of the slip
factor f. The quoted theoretical values of y were in each
case corrected by accepting the observed slip factors and
regarding the advance velocity V in its true light as
frdn tan+. It is apparent from Table 2 that the 40"
rotors are the most economic in power usage, even though
they involve the greatest degree of slip (as represented by
(1-f)). However, the performance 'gap' between the 20"
and 30"rotors is considerably greater than that between the
30" and 40' rotors; and it may be concluded, in conformity
with theoretical expectation, that a practical choice of
optimum helix angle in relation to aground performance wili
lie in the range of 30-40".
As regards ground deformation beneath the rotors, with
consequent tendency for the machine to sink in, this was,
as already stated, greatest for the case of the 20" rotors.
Whilst most pronounced for operation over loose, dry,
sand, the effect was in no way unacceptable. It could not be
paralleled with the self-defeating action of, for example, a
wheeled vehicle working under the same conditions. It
remains only to add that, for operation over wet sand, the
ground deformation characteristics of all pairs of rotors
were relatively small.
Val 175 No 19 1961
B. N. COLE
932
Maximum tractive effort of the model vehicle

Tests were finally made to determine the maximum drawbar
pull of which the machine was capable when working in the
particular experimental sand. The test condition was that
the rotors would continue to turn, the speed of advance
however being zero; readings of rotor torque were also
made. The results are shown graphically in Fig. 19a, b, and
c for the 20", 30", and 40" rotors, respectively; and the
effects of differing sand states are indicated. The main
conclusions are that the maximum drawbar pull will
increase (I) with increasing sand compaction; (2) with
increasing moisture content; and (3) with decreasing helix
angle. In this context, the 20" rotors appear best.
a 20" screws.
x Dry sand, heavily rolled.
Dry sand, loose.
o Dry sand, lightly rolled.

A Wet sand.
b 30"snews.
o Dry sand, lightly rolled.
n Wet sand.
Dry sand, loose.
HYDRODYNAMIC TESTS O N THE

SCREW R O T O R S
As explained under the heading Apparatus above, six

right-handed rotors were tested in the water-tank rig;
this programme including a short and long rotor model for
each of the three helix angles used. Each rotor was tested
for three depths of immersion, and some were tested for
four. These were standardized as follows:
(a) 'Deep immersion', with the rotor a x i s 12 in. below
the undisturbed water surface;
(b) 'shallow immersion', with the rotor axis 3 in.
below the undisturbed water surface;
(c) rotor just immersed, with the helix tip just breaking
the undisturbed water surface;
(d) half-immersion, with the undisturbed water level
coincident with the rotor axis.
Referred to the rotor drum diameter, these depths of axis
immersion may be quoted respectively as 6 4 1%, 0+375d,
and zero. Measurements of torque and thrust at speeds of
rotation up to about 2300 rev/m;l were made; subsequent
to the work programme under report, speeds up to 3000
revlmin were used, and it is worth noting that no cavitation
effects arose within this range.
The main observations may be summarized as follows:
(1) In accordance with all expectation, helix angle had
a very marked effect; for a given angular velocity, both
driving torque and axial thrust increased as r$ increased.
(2) For a given angular velocity and a fixed value of
both driving torque and thrust were considerably greater
for the long rotors than for the short, confirming the
length effect anticipated earlier.
(3) For deep immersion, a l l observed variations of
torque and thrust with angular velocity conformed
closely with the expected 'n-squared' relation.
(4) As axis immersion dropped off-particularly to
conditions (c) and (d) above-both torque and thrust
decreased very markedly; performance was strongly
depressed whenever air entrainment occurred.
+,
Space limitations prevent reproduction of aIl of the

performance curves arising from these tests; but Figs. 20
Dry sand, loose.
and 21, illustrating the thrust and torque characteristics of
Fig. 19. Drawbar pull results
the long 30"rotors, are fairly representative.
Proc Insrtt Mech Engrs
'Do1 175 NO 19 1961
c 40" screws.
0 Dry sand, lightly rolled.
A Wet sand.
933
1000
500
750
1250
IS00
1750
2000
2250
OO
SPEED OF ~ ~ ~ ~ T i ~ ~ , : y - - r e v / m i n
Fig.21. Torque-speed curves for Iong 30" screw
For the case of deep immersion (condition (a)), the

procedure whereby test results were related to theory was
as follows:
(1) logarithmic plots of observed torque and thrust
versus speed of rotation established the zero advancespeed characteristics in forms of (constant)n2;
(2) these results were combined with equations (15)

and (16) to determine, for the case of Y = 0, the consistent values of kh and s: the corresponding value of ve
was then inferred from equation (17).
The outcome of this analysis is summarized in Table 3,

and illustrated in Fig. 22.
Proc Instn Mech Evagrs
V o l l 7 5 No 19 1961
B. N. COLE
934
Table 3. Experimentally inferred values for

kh, s and ve
Helix
angle,
Long
Short
20
Long
Short
Short
kh
.
.
.
30
Screw
length
0.69
0.58
I
0.11
0.125
0.20
0.215
0.13
0.16
0.35
0.35
0.67
0.58
0.63
0.55
0.22
0.24
0'43
0.44
a At base of 30" rotor.
-2
0.4
0.4
0.3
b At helix tip radius of 30" rotor.

0
Ib
20
30
Fig. 23. Flow paths
50
40
4-degrees
Fig. 22. Experimentally inferred values for
kh
and
71e
k geometric=0.375.
Further tests were carried out in order to obtain a rough

cross-check, at least, on these inferred values of tzh and ve.
First, black thread 'tufts' were attached to the rotors, and
arranged to trail (1) at the radius of the base drum, and (2)
at the peripheral radius of the helix blades. Typical microflash photographs of the angles taken up by these tufts in
steady rotation are given in Fig. 23 for the case of the 30"
long rotors; these clearly show the presence of water
velocity components other than those associated with the
idealized model of a solid 'nut': such components must
partly explain the depression of the inferred qe values
below unity. Secondly, a probe, with an attached tuft, was
advanced towards the spinning rotor, at various stations
along its length, to determine the rough shape of the
effective slip surface: the mean values of kh inferred from
this procedure somewhat exceeded the values quoted in
Table 3, but they more strongly confirmed that actuation
of the water extends well beyond the peripheral radius of
the helix blade.
To predict full-scale performance of geometrically
similar rotors, allowing also for the effects of a finite speed
of advance, must be venturesome in view of the limitations
of, particularly, the experimental part of the present work,
However, for the relatively modest speeds to be expected of

the present type of machine, especially when towing, a
reasonable working assumption would be that, for any
rotor geometry, the factors kh and qe remain constant and
independent of advance speed; this appears as the only
feasible course in the circumstances. If this be accepted, the
value of the rotation factor s, appropriate to any desired
speed of advance V for a given rotor, can be calculated from
equation (17), after which consistent estimates of propulsive
thrust, driving torque, and propulsive efficiency stem from
equations (15), (16), and (18) respectively. The characteristics of propulsive efficiency versus advance speed deriving
from this analysis are shown in Fig. 24 for the cases of the
three long rotors: the curves terminate at the points corresponding to V / d n = tan From these curves it appears
that for most purposes the 30" helix angle should be the
most efficient.
An impression of the physical orders of magnitude to be
expected in full-scale performance may be given as follows:
For a pair of rotors geometrically similar to the present
long 30"rotors, but having a base drum diameter of 1 ft 6 in.
the total static thrust at 100 rev/& is to be estimated as
475 lb and the necessary horsepower as about 5.8. At 200
revlmin these quantities would rise to about 1900 lb and
46 h.p., respectively.
+.
V o l 1 R No 19 1961
0 30
0 75
935
(2) The aground and hydrodynamic properties of the

rotors are sufficiently amenable to analysis to make rational
design possible.
(3) While design must vary according to the performance
specification to be met, particularly in regard to whether the
machine is to act as a simple vehicle or as a tractor, it appears
that a helix angle of about 30" gives the best 'all round'
performance and greatest power economy for both aground
and afloat conditions.
(4) Although the experimental work was conlined to a
singlevalue (0.375) for the ratio of helix blade height to drum
diameter, so that no experience was gained for other values,
it is believed that a value of this order represents a good
compromise between the conflicting demands of propulsive
surface and general robustness of construction.
F ~24.
. Hydrodynamic performance curves
Long rotors.
SUMMARY O F CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions reflect what can only be called a

pilot investigation, the limitations of which have already
been well emphasized. A final verdict would clearly require
full-scale tests. It appears, however, tliat :
(1) The proposed type of amphibious machine should be
practicable and effective, either as a simple vehicle or as a
tractor, when operating over waters and terrains up to, but
excluding, hard and paved surfaces. The particular attraction lies in the positive action to be expected of the screw
rotors when working in loose granular, or semi-fluid,
grounds.

n
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work described was carried out in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering of the University of Birmingham,
grateful acknowledgements being due to Professor G. I;.
Mucklow, D.Sc., lately Head of the Department, for his
support. The author also wishes to record his gratitude to
Mr. B. W. Rooks, MSc., D.S.I.R. Research Student, and
to Mr. L. A. B. Stevens, M.Sc., University Research
Student, who gave enthusiastic assistance; also to the
Admiralty and to Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd, for
their financial support. Grateful acknowledgement is also
due to Professor J. Kolbuszewski of the Civil Engineering
Department of Birmingham University.
Vol175 No 19 1961
936
B. N. COLE
APPENDIX I
COMPARISON O F VARIOUS T Y P E S OF A M P H I B I O U S V E H I C L E
Clear water
performance
Types of vehicle
--
Loose sand/
shingle
performance
SwampIbogl
mud
performance
Contribution o
propelling geai
to hull
buoyancy
Tractor
potentiality
Paved and har,

ground
performance
__--___--
(1) Hull, road

wheels, screw
propeller
Good
( 2 ) Track-laying
hulled vehicle
with broad
tracks designed
to propel when
afloat
Poor
(3) 'Marsh buggy'

with very large
rubber-tyred
road wheels or
steel drums in
lieu
Fair
j Bad
Manoeuvrability
Good
Virtually nil
Poor to fair
Good
Limited
Good, though
tracks may
pack with
stones
Good, though
inevitably
wasteful of
power for this
condition
Good aground Negative

but poor afloat
Good
Good
Good in case
of rubbertyred wheels
' Good
Doubtful:
claims seem to
with lowpressure inflated relate only to
rubber drums in shallow water
lieu of wheels
Good
Good
Apparently
good, but it is
uncertain how
long the drums
would survive
heavy duty
Good
Bad, but not

intended for
such duty
High
GQOd
_______
_______Low
Complete
(there is no
hull as such)
Believed
limited
__--_
(4) Truck body
~~
(5) Hull with pair of Good

contra-rotating
hollow screws
___.
Good
Positive
Believed
(though again limited
there seems to
be no hull as
such)
_.___--
Should be
equal to tracklaying vehicle,
with additional
advantage of
crabwise
movement
Positive
A P P E N D I X I1
F R I C T I O N C O E F F I C I E N T S F O R V A R I O U S M E T A L S U R F A C E S AND SANDS
Material
Saunton beach sand (rounded grains)
Dry
Saturated
Cliffe hill sand (crushed granite) (sharp grains)
j-----DGI
Dense
Polished mild steel
Roughenedmild steel
.
.
Aluminium alloy NP 5/6
1
1
0.62
0.66
0-45
Loose
0.32
1 -1
Dense
Loose
0.65
0.60
0.75
040
0.48
052
0.60
0.40
I
I
Dense
Loose
I
1
__
Saturated
Dense
Loose
0.67
0.57
0.67
0.71
0.55
048
~
0.64
_____
0.51
1
'
0.70
0.54
0.64
0.54
Yo1 I15 No 19 1961
937
Communications
Professor F. K. Bannister, Ph.D. (Member), wrote
concerning the manoeuvrability of the vehicle when
operating on loose sand. It seemed possible that in sharp
turns the method of screw propulsion might compare unfavourably with track propulsion, since the screws, already
partially embedded in the sand, might tend to dig themselves in further. It would be interesting to have the authors
views on that.
Mr H. 6. Gear (East Cowes) wrote that a full-scale
research and development model had been built by his
company, based on the findings of the experiments carried
out by Dr B. N. Cole, outlined in the paper. The craft had
a hull length of 18 ft 4 in. supported on helices 15 ft 0 in.
long, and spaced 5 ft 6 in. apart. Each rotor had a drum
diameter of 12 in. and a base helix angle of 30, the blade
height tapering from 2 in. at the forward end to 6 in. at the
aft end. The all-up weight of the craft was approximately
3000 lb. Power was supplied by a petrol engine which drove
each rotor through gearboxes manually controlled to select
high and low gear, forward, neutral and reverse for each
rotor to obtain directional control. High gear was used for
propulsion on the water and low gear on hard ground.
To date no more than purely functional trials to determine the limitations of the craft had been carried out so it
was not possible to confirm the scale model results quoted
in the paper.
However several very interesting characteristics had been
observed during the trials which were considered of general
interest. On the water, speed had been limited owing to the
rotors being overgeared and the high rotational drag had
kept the engine speed too low to obtain sufficient power.
Directional control had been exceptionally good, and the
selecting of forward and reverse on opposite rotors had
enabled pivotal turns to be made. Operation over very soft
mud, soft enough for observers in boots to find themselves
calf deep, had presented no problem; traction had been slip
free and steering satisfactory. Progress over hard wet sand
and shingle had been achieved without difficulty, and beach
inclines up to 1 in 10 negotiated but considerably more
power had been required than when operating on mud.
The only real d;tficult;es found with the handling of the
craft had been during the transition between Water and land
when the beach gradient had been very shallow. Under
those conditions as soon as a rotor touched hard ground the
craft had lurched sideways owing to rolling on the tops of

the helical blades. That had led to a violent rocking and
lurching motion caused by alternate rotors biting into the
sea-bed. Someimprovementhad been achieved by trimming
the blade height to 4 in. such that the rear halves of the
rotors were parallel. Steering had been difficult under those
conditions where the craft had been virtually riding on the
tips of the blades, since the stabilization in yaw usually
gained by the rotors bedding on the supporting medium
had been lacking. Immediately one rotor had been stopped
to enable progress to be made on the remaining driven
rotor the whole craft had travelled sideways, again owing
to rolling on the rotor blades. Selection of forward and
reverse on opposite rotors had given the same effect. From
that it was deduced that considerable advantage could be
gained by fitting an automatic brake to prevent free running
in neutral.
To conclude, that form of traction was quite satisfactor17
for an amphibious vehicle, provided the land was in the
form of mud, sand, or small shingle where the blades could
bury themselves and the weight of the vehicle was taken on
the drums. It was a very uneconomical means of progress
owing to the poor efficiency arising from the large friction
surfaces, and only very low speeds could be expected.
However, it might be possible to develop the transmission
control so that quite reasonable speeds and economy could
be achieved on hard ground, such as metalled or concrete
surfaces, by rolling sideways on the tips of the blades.
Dr E. Markland, B.Sc. (Associate Member), wrote that

although Dr Cole had described his inquiry as a pilot
investigation, he had clearly made a detailed study of the
fundamentals of screw propulsion and was to be congratulated particularly on his theoretical treatment, with its
resulting dimensionless performance curves. One of the
surprising results shown by those curves was the comparatively small effect which the ratio 12 of helix height to rotor
diameter had on the torque and horsepower requirements
for land propulsion. Even with values of k as high as 1.0
there was only a small change in those requirements. He
asked whether it would then be possible to balance the
power requirements for aground and water-borne travel
rather better than had been done in the example with
k = 0.375, where 78 hp was required for land performance
but only 5.8 hp for floating performance at almost the Same
Vol 175 No 19 1961
938
COMiMUNICATIONS
rotor speed. Presumably the power absorption and thrust

in water would depend largely on k, so that if operating
conditions were suitable, a larger value of K would produce
a larger hydrodynamic thrust without appreciably changing
the land performance.
With regard to Table 2, the slip factor f in land performance presumably related to the case of the model
moving on a horizontal surface without drawbar effort.
It would be interesting to know if any experiments had
been made to measure f with a drawbar pull applied,
especially in view of the consideration that measured values
of the dimensionless power y decreased considerably as the
helix angle 4 increased over the whole range of the experiments quoted in Table 2.
La-Col. H. 0.Nelson (Lymington), mote that the
paper had been proved by full-scale trials during the latter
half 01 1960. Although only preliminary trials had been
undertaken in order to test the basic engineering and
characteristics, it was very apparent that the propulsion
had proved the theory and scale tests carried out at the
University of Birmingham.
As yet no long periods of trials have been performed, but
it was hoped to proceed with those in the ncar future.
It had been found, however, that in view of the high
inertia of the experimentalrotors, when immersed in water,
the clutch operation was diflicult to maintain, and excessive
slipping occurred at low rev/&. That was being rectificd
by an overall change of gear ratio of 5.211 from 2.811 which
it was hoped would materially assist the function of the
clutches. Apart fiom that, the behaviour of the craft had
borne out the apparent characteristics very well. The
translation over shingle, sand, and mud were good.
Dr Cole and his team were to be congratulated on their
very concise and painstaking work into that novel application of propulsion.
Professor W. Steeds, O.B.E., B.Sc. (Eng.) (Member),

wrote that in the footnote on the p. 919 of the paper it
was stated that . . .in the late 1920s an American Fordson
tractor was modified and equipped with screw rotors for
duty over snow and ice,. . . and . . .round about the same
time it appears that a machine was developed in France
using the same type of rotor, . . .
It might, therefore, be worth while to mention the
description of the Armstead snow motor given by L. A.
Legros*.
That machine had employed two rotors each 30 in.
diameter at the bottom of the screw. The article was
illustrated by line drawings and a half-tone illustration
showed the machine towing a trailer in snow.
Legros attributed the invention of the machine to
F. R. Burch of Seattle in the State of Washington, U.S.A.
It was clear that that machine must have been conceived
and designed quite early in the 1920s.
* LEGROS,
L. A. 1924 Engineering, Lond., 22nd and 29th February,
7th and 14th March.
froc Instn Mech Eqrs
Legros also gave details of that machine in a paper which

he gave to the Sociit6 dcs Ingknieurs Civils de Francet.
In that paper Legros made no mention of any similar
machine having been developed, or being under consideration, in France and he thought it seemed fairly certain
that Burch must be regarded as the originator of that type
of vehicle.
From the description and weights given by Legros it
seemed clear, however, that the machine would not have
floated.
Mr L. A. B. Stevens (Student), wrote that in subsequent

experimental work with the tractor model concerning
limiting values of drawbar pull, the terms ultimate steady
drawbar pull and maximum drawbar pull were used. The
first might be defined as that steady pull existing &er the
tractor had ceased forward motion, and the screws were
churning in loose sand falling around them; and the second
might be defined as that peak pull existing immediately
prior to the shearing of the ground, with the resultant
stalling of the vehicle, and cessation of forward motion.
In order to determine the maximum drawbar pull
accurately it was essential that the load be gradually
increased as the tractor travelled forward, and in practice
that had been done by interposing an elastic rope between
the measuring equipment and the tractor. The spring
balance had been observed as the tractor proceeded, and
the value of drawbar pull immediately prior to a sudden
decrease in pull, consistent with shearing of the sand, could
readily be taken. The ultimate steady drawbar pull had
been used for comparison of results in experiments on the
lessening of all-up tractor weight, in which the mode of
weight variation precluded forward travel.
With a non-elastic connection between the tractor and
measuring equipment, the pull had increased very rapidly
and then dropped back to the ultimate steady value, so that
estimation of the maximum value could not be made with
any accuracy.
With the tractor model used, and with wet, compacted
sand, the ultimate steady value had sometimes been found
to be of uncertain meaning, since the sand would shear
from under the screws and the tractor bearing housings
had been sufficiently large to support the tractor without
sinking into the compacted sand. Unllke the dry sand, the
wet sand had not fallen around the screws so that finally the
tractor had been supported at the four corners and the
screws had been rotating freely in a trough scooped out by
the helix. Any drawbar pull on the spring balance after the
maximum had been reached had been found to exist even
when the screws had been stopped, and could clearly cxist
only because of the frictional resistance between sand and
bearing housings.
It would be of interest to quote some results fiom those
tests, in order to enlarge the overall picture of aground
performance.
LEGROS,
L.A. 1924 Bull. SOC.Ing. civ. France, January-March.
Vol 175 No 19 1961
In Fig. 19 the maximum drawbar pulls in wet sand for

the three screws were 30, 26 and 21 lb respectively for
the 20", 30"and 40" screws. With the elastic rope technique
the three equivalent maximum values had been found to
be 38, 21 and 16 lb respectively. It would be seen that
only for the 20" helix was there any increase over the
values found using a rigid connection and the ultimate
steady value of drawbar pull. However, it should be noted
that at full speed, which was the condition of the above
values, the advance speed would be quite considerable
with the 30" and 40" screws, and that, coupled with a nonelastic connection to the measuring equipment, would
result in heavy shock loadings when the connecting wire
039
became taut. Under those conditions of rapid shear, the

sand might well exert a much higher strength than occurred
with the gradually increasing load of the elastic rope. For
the 20" screw with its lower advance speed, the maximum
effort was seen to be 27 per cent greater than that found
previously. The tests on weight variation showed that the
ratio of ultimate steady pull to all-up weight increased as
the weight decreased; that being in direct contrast to track
laying vehicles, where the ratio remained sensibly constant.
In addition to that phenomenon, it had been found that the
angle of internal shear of the sand was far greater than that
found with plain shear, suggesting that the helix itself in
some way increased the resistance of the sand to shear.
Author's Reply
Dr B. N. Cole wrote, in reply to the communications, that
he was grateful to all those who had contributed to the
discussion. A number of useful and interesting points had
been raised.
Professor Bannister had asked about the manoeuvrability
of the machine when operating over loose sand. This matter
had been examined in the early stages of planning the tests,
since it was well known that, for track-laying vehicles,
effective turning action was frustrated if the length of track
in contact with the ground was excessive in relation to the
width between port and starboard tracks. Indeed, a situation could be envisaged where turning became impossible;
and the proportions chosen for the model aimed at avoiding
such difficulty. Two types of turning test had been done.
The first had simulated the effects of different rotor speeds
by using, for example, one 40" and one 20" rotor, so as to
give a well-defined turning curve. The second had been
carried out with one rotor stopped, so as to effect a pivotal
turn by the action of the other. Both tests had been satisfactory; and Fig. 25 showed clearly and typically the
efficacy of pivotal turning. It would be noted from Mr
Gear's remarks that exceptionally good directional control
had been observed with a full-size machine.
Turning to other points raised by Mr Gear, the question
of water speed of course involved the problem of matching
the hydrodynamic properties of the rotors as effectively as
possible with the engine characteristics, having due regard
also to the drag characteristics of the hull. No fundamental
difficulty existed here, and it should be possible for a fullsize machine to travel comfortably in the region of 7-8 knots,
and have a considerable capacity for towing drawbar pull
as well. Regarding the fact that aground travel over sand
or shingle required appreciably more power than for travel
over mud, this of course was consistent with statements in
the paper; but it was satisfactory to know that the power
plant of the full-scale tests-having been assessed in the
light of the work under report-had proved adequate for
its purposes so far.
Proc Znstn Mcch Engrs
Mr Gear's further point regarding the difficulty of

transition between water and land for a very shallow beach
gradient was important. This, however, was a problem
common to all forms of amphibious craft (other than aircushion machines, which had little potential for tractive
effort), and there was no evidence that the screw mechanism
faired worse than any other in these condirions. The device
of the automatic brake promised to be of great help in this
matter. The concluding remark about 'uneconomy' of
progress aground had of course to be seen in perspective.
The position was that screw rotors offered a poor prospect
if the sole purpose was to travel, or to pull loads, over firm
grounds only. Equally, the mechanism was unattractive if
the purpose was to drive any kind of full-time 'boat'. The
relative inefficiency of the mechanism in each of aground
and afloat duties was the price that had to be paid for the
amphibious faculty; and this seemed true of all other
solutions proposed so far.
The author agreed with Dr Markland that the relative
insensitiveness of aground performance to helix height
was surprising. There was, however, a compromise to be
made between the apparent hydrodynamic advantage of
using a high value of k and the resulting disadvantage of
mechanical weakness; for unless the helix blades were
thickened up very heavily, their resistance to the severities
of bending deformation aground would be lessened. The
quoted direct comparison of calculations of 78 and 5.8 hp
for aground and afloat working respectively was perhaps a
little misleading, since the latter figure related to the static
thrust produced at 100 rev/min. The former figure related
to an advance speed aground of 3 mile/h; and the power
required for this same modest speed afloat would of course
depend on the requirements of hull drag and towing force.
A general figure could not be given. It was doubtful whether
any profit lay in the idea of trying to make the same horsepower serve a fixed advance speed for both aground and
afloat conditions; and it was unlikely that any amphibious
machine would be capable of satisfling this condition.
Vol I75 N o 19 196I
940
AUTHORS REPLY
Fig.25. Illustration of pivotal turning with 20 rotors

Regarding Dr Marklands closing paragraph, only a few
isolated tests had been carried out to determine the variation
of the aground slip factor with drawbar pull, no general
statement could be made other than that-obviously-this
factor would approach zero in the limit. Mr Stevenss
contribution might prove of interest in this context.
The remarks of Lt-Col. Nelson, who had been responsible for the full-scale project tests, were especially
welcome. The gear ratio changes proposed for improving
full-scale performance would no doubt have great effect.
It would be particularly interesting to know what the
overall performance of a large machine would be over longduration test conditions.
The author was gratehl to Professor Steeds for bringing
Proc Insrn Mech Engrs
forward a number of points of information. As work had

proceeded, it had become clear to all concerned in the
inquiry that various earlier studies had been made of the
same basic mechanism as a means of providing travel and
traction under difficult ground conditions. Professor
Steedss remarks, however, confirmed that the amphibious
application was novel.
Mr Stevenss remarks were helpful. There was indeed
some distinction to be drawn between ultimate steady
drawbar pull and maximum drawbar pull in regard to the
aground performance of a screw machine. It seemed not
unlikely, however, that the potentialities of a full-scale
machine in regard to tractive effort might be better than the
present small model suggested.
Val 175 N o 19 1961

Inquiry Into Amphibious Screw Traction

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Inquiry Into Amphibious Screw Traction

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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

Inquiry into Amphibious Screw Traction

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

>> Version of Record - Jun 1, 1961

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APPLIED MECHANICS GROUP

INQUIRY INTO AMPHIBIOUS SCREW TRACTION

THEGENERAL PROBLEM of amphibious travel involves a

* Reader in Mechanical Engineering,

contra-rotating, Archimedean screws ; these being in

Correspondence was evoked by this statement when quoted in the

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Hanover Exhibition of 1957 by a German firm. However, no

Driving torque per screw, lb/ft.

er dimensional symbols appearing in aground and hydrodynamic theories

Fig. 1. Single-start Archimedean screw

Proc Instn Mech Engrs

INQUIRY INTO AMPHIBIOUS SCREW TRACTION

members of the two sets are illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3,

would be used to estimate performance at finite speeds of

F@. 2. Short rotors, having base helix angles

Fig. 3. Long rotors

Tank test rig

by the relative displacement of two discs B and C having

Proc Imtn Mech Engrs

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Vol I75 N o I9 1961

load was just balanced by the hydrodynamic thrust d e

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INQUIRY INTO AMPHIBIOUS SCREW TRACTION

F&. 5. General layout for hydrodynamic test

Finally, by attaching a wire from the rear of the model to

Fig.6. Rear view of tractor model

Proc Instn Mech Engrs

A comprehensive analysis will consider the case of steady

a Dead-weight and drawbar forccs.

Fig. 7. Tractor model, with 30" long rotors$tted,

Assumptions (1) and (2) are bold, inasmuch as the power

shows the gravitational and drawbar forces, while Fig. 86

whence the ground reaction F, acting normally to the helix

p cos 0 sin $+sin 0+K

The frictional drag along the helix blade will accordingly

From these considerations, the work per second absorbed

Pror Instn Mech Engrs

INQUIRY INTO AMPHIBIOUS SCREW TRACTION

addition, the helix height is relatively small, so that k-0,

At this point, the question of an optimum helix pitch,

IJ. = sin +(2-sin2

The severest working condition which might be imposed

where, from the geometry of the screw rotor,

Proc Instn Mech Engrs

Fig. 9. Dimensionless horsepower plotted against

-- Loci of minimum horsepower.

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At need, equation (9) could readiIy be elaborated for the

Fig. 11. Dimensionless horsepower plotted against

Fig. 10. Dimensionless torque plotted against

Total machine weight = 3 tons

Proc Instn Mech Engrs

INQUIRY INTO AMPHIBIOUS SCREW TRACTION

Fig. 12. Optimum helix base angle

For these data:

A realistic theory for the action of the screw rotors when