PART 8: CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES &

CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES IN ROCK MASS

Construction problems in rock mass is shown in Fig. 8.1. It involves factors of:
a) Rock mass properties (intact rock + discontinuities).
b) In-situ & induced stresses (due to geological conditions e.g. fold & construction
activities).
c) Groundwater conditions.
The above factors, together with the design procedures & construction methods
must be carefully considered so that disturbance induced into the rock mass is as
minimal as possible.
Engineering Structures & Construction Activities:
Disturbance induced into the rock mass (e.g. construction induced stresses) must be
kept to a minimal level!!
WHY??? This is to maintain the integrity & the inherent strength of the rock mass
hence, ensuring long-term stability for the structure. This reduces cost on
stabilisation & maintenance after construction.

Figure 8.1: Construction problems in rock masses consists of intact rock &
discontinuities together with the effect of stress (in situ & induced) & groundwater

Rock material (intact) and rock mass (discontinuous)

Construction in rock mass disruption/disturbance to the rock at the vicinity of the
construction area must be minimised so any induced negative impacts occur in a
controlled manner and covers a smaller area/volume (see the following figure).
As soon as a tunnel is excavated,
surrounding rock mass will be disturbed
formation of yield zone. Design & method of
construction must be carefully considered
so that disturbance to surrounding rock is
reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected
volume).

As soon as a slope is excavated, surrounding rock

mass will be disturbed formation of yield zone.
Design & method of construction must be carefully
considered so that disturbance to surrounding rock is
reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

Stress distribution:

Around circular-shaped tunnel

rectangular-shaped tunnel

Around oblong-shaped tunnel

Loading
at 10 kN

Around a cut slope

Loading
at 100 kN

Around

Loading
at 200 kN

In a rock sample at different level of

stress
Category of rock engineering structure include:
a) Structure foundations: A rock body is used to bear load of a structure (e.g. a
building founded on bedrock). This can be a deep-seated rock mass. Rock is
usually an excellent foundation material but near surface rock can be fractured &
weathered. It is necessary to establish the competence of the rock to bear the
designed load. Important rock properties triaxial compressive strength; strain at
failure & modulus of elasticity.
b) Rock slopes: The basic modes of failure of rock: plane, wedge, toppling, flexural,
etc. Shear strength, types & orientation of weakness planes are among the
important parameters in slope design. The potential for failure in any of these
modes can be identified (Part 5). The need and scope for a more detailed analysis
can then be evaluated.
c) Shafts & tunnels: Stability of these structures depends on discontinuities &
geological structures in rock, in situ stress, groundwater flow, shape of tunnel &
construction technique. Rock properties like triaxial compressive strength, shear

strength, types & orientation of weakness planes are important design

parameters. Method of stabilisation & F.O.S depends on the purpose of the tunnel.
F.O.S. used in designing a tunnel for civil engineering purposes (highways &
railway lines) is usually > 2.0.
d) Underground cavern: Similar to tunnel but larger in size. Methods of excavation &
stabilisation are important e.g. Power house cavern, sport complex etc.

Rock as foundation
Slope cut in rock
Tunnel
excavated in rock
e) Mining: Structure is not permanent. Objective is to extract minerals/precious
stones at maximum rate & safety but, at minimal hazardous & pollution effect.
f) Thermal energy: To extract thermal energy from earths crust. Deep excavation,
rock permeability & rheological characteristics are important.
g) Radioactive waste disposal: Excavation is deep in the earths crust (safety). Rocks
must be massive & impermeable. Method of excavation is important. Permanent
structures.
Effect of Size of Rock Mass Discontinuities on Size of Engineering Structure:
Size of structure being constructed in rock mass is greatly influenced by the size of
structural discontinuities (weakness planes) in the rock mass.
In Fig 8.2: smaller tunnel size means less number of weakness planes intersecting
the tunnel, i.e. more stable. Deeper depth means less weakness planes hence,
tunnel located deep below the surface is more stable.
Size
of
Rock
Mass
Discontinuities and Size of
Engineering Structure:
Properties of rock mass (sifat
massa/jasad batuan keseluruhan)
is important in designing &
construction of a structure in the
field (actual conditions).
The actual rock mass properties
cannot be evaluated using small
size rock samples as in the case
laboratory tests. Laboratory size
samples contain only small-scale weaknesses (e.g. lamination, micro fractures &
voids).
Fig 8.2: Effect of number of discontinuities in rock mass on
size of structure

Fig 8.3: Effect of number of discontinuities in rock mass on size of samples

Fig 8.4: Effect of depth of structure on conditions of
rock mass; at depth means less number of
discontinuities & rock is under confined condition (p
= rgh)
Structural
Discontinuities
(Struktur
Ketakselarasan) in Rock Mass:
Based on size, structural discontinuities/weakness in
rock are categorized into 2 groups:
a) Large-scale discontinuities
- Sizes ranging between few m and km. Affecting
the properties & behaviors of rock mass.
- Stability of slope & tunnel is affected by these
large-scale discontinuities.
- Large size samples in in situ /field tests can
accommodate the effect of these structures
however, not for small samples used in
laboratory tests.
- Types of large-scale discontinuities (discussed in Chapter 5) include fault, joint &
bedding plane/fold.

Inclined bedding planes (folds) in clastic

present in all rock types
sedimentary rocks

Joints & joint sets that

Inclined bedding planes in

in
sedimentary rocks (shale, Labuan)
Labuan)

Thinly bedded & folded sedimentary

than 3 joint sets
rocks (shale, Labuan)
(granite, Lahad)
b) Small-scale discontinuities

Inclined bedding planes

sedimentary rocks (sandstone,

Intersecting of more
is common in rock mass

- measuring from few mm to cm. Direct

effect on rock material properties & but
may have minimal effect on rock mass
(at a larger scale).
- Data obtained from laboratory test on
small size samples can be affected by
these properties. (Bah. 3 kesan
syistositi ke atas batuan jelmaan syis).
- Common types - foliation, lamination,
cleavage, micro-fractures & voids.
- Note: Effect of these discontinuities on
rock material properties will impose
indirect impact on stability of structures
like foundation, slope & tunnel.
Joint can occur in various orientation in rock (granite, Kuantan)

Effect of minerals arrangement (foliation & schistosity)

rearrangement due to
on strength & failure strain of small rock sample
changing of shale to slate

SLATY - minerals
metamorphism;

LAMINATION minerals arrangement due to

where fracture
process of sedimentation, as in sandstone
(a clastic sedimentary rock)

Lamination is plane

SCHISTOSITY (flaky)- minerals rearrangement due

metamorphic rocks
to metamorphism; changing of shale to schist
slaty

Minerals arrangement in

Minerals arrangement in metamorphic

metamorphic

can take place

schistosity &

Failure of rock slopes in

rocks schistosity & slaty

rock slate & schist

Discontinuities in Rock Mass:

Large-scale discontinuities affect the
whole rock body/rock mass i.e. rock
conditions on site. Effect on
engineering structures is that these
discontinuities weaken to whole rock
mass directly.
Small-scale discontinuities affect rock
material properties e.g. properties of
small sample in lab test. Strength of
rock obtained from lab test is usually
higher than the actual strength of rock
mass in the field (in situ strength).
Value of FOS (e.g. > 2.0) used in design is to cater for the weakening effects of
structural discontinuities in rock on engineering structures, as their effects are
difficult to be assessed and rated numerically.