RF BASED AUTOMATIC SPEED LIMITER FOR VEHICLES

Objective:
The objective of this project is to control speed of the vehicle automatically with the help RF
technology.
Scope:
This project is very useful to traffic police department. If the speed of the vehicle is over than
limit value, the speed is automatically controlled. So this project is used to prevent the accident.
Brief Methodology:
This project is designed with RF transmitter and Receiver, Microcontroller, Encoder, Decoder,
Proximity sensor, signal conditioning unit and Relay driver circuit with relay.
Many RF transmitters is placed in the emergency road and traffic rush areas. These RF transmitters
are transmitting the speed limit value through the RF transmitter. The transmitter section consists of
key pad encoder and RF transmitter. The key pad is used to set the speed limit value. Then the set
value is given to encoder to encoded the signal and given to RF transmitter block in which the encoded
signal is modulated with carrier frequency and transmitted through RF transmitter.
The receiver section consists of microcontroller RF receiver, Decoder, Proximity sensor and
driver circuit for relay. The receiver section is attached in the vehicle. The proximity sensor is fixed in
the vehicle wheel to monitor the speed. Proximity sensor is used detect the metals. The metal rod is
fixed in vehicle. So whenever the rod is crossed the sensor it generates the pulse given to
microcontroller.

The RF receiver is used to receive the speed limit value. The value is given to microcontroller through
decoder. The RF receiver removes the carrier frequency and decoder is used to decode the signal then
given to control circuit

RF Based Wireless Remote using RX-TX MODULES (434MHz.)

Summary of the project
This circuit utilizes the RF module (Tx/Rx) for making a wireless remote, which could be used to
drive an output from a distant place. RF module, as the name suggests, uses radio frequency to send
signals. These signals are transmitted at a particular frequency and a baud rate. A receiver can receive
these signals only if it is configured for that frequency.
A four channel encoder/decoder pair has also been used in this system. The input signals, at the
transmitter side, are taken through four switches while the outputs are monitored on a set of four LEDs
corresponding to each input switch. The circuit can be used for designing Remote Appliance Control
system. The outputs from the receiver can drive corresponding relays connected to any household

appliance.

Description
This radio frequency (RF) transmission system employs Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) with
transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operating at 434 MHz. The transmitter module takes serial input and
transmits these signals through RF. The transmitted signals are received by the receiver module placed
away from the source of transmission.
The system allows one way communication between two nodes, namely, transmission and reception.
The RF module has been used in conjunction with a set of four channel encoder/decoder ICs. Here
HT12E & HT12D have been used as encoder and decoder respectively. The encoder converts the
parallel inputs (from the remote switches) into serial set of signals. These signals are serially
transferred through RF to the reception point. The decoder is used after the RF receiver to decode the
serial format and retrieve the original signals as outputs. These outputs can be observed on
corresponding LEDs.

Encoder IC (HT12E) receives parallel data in the form of address bits and control bits. The control
signals from remote switches along with 8 address bits constitute a set of 12 parallel signals. The
encoder HT12E encodes these parallel signals into serial bits. Transmission is enabled by providing
ground to pin14 which is active low. The control signals are given at pins 10-13 of HT12E. The serial
data is fed to the RF transmitter through pin17 of HT12E.

Transmitter, upon receiving serial data from encoder IC (HT12E), transmits it wirelessly to the RF
receiver. The receiver, upon receiving these signals, sends them to the decoder IC (HT12D) through
pin2. The serial data is received at the data pin (DIN, pin14) of HT12D. The decoder then retrieves the
original parallel format from the received serial data.

When no signal is received at data pin of HT12D, it remains in standby mode and consumes very less
current (less than 1A) for a voltage of 5V. When signal is received by receiver, it is given to DIN pin
(pin14) of HT12D. On reception of signal, oscillator of HT12D gets activated. IC HT12D then
decodes the serial data and checks the address bits three times. If these bits match with the local
address pins (pins 1-8) of HT12D, then it puts the data bits on its data pins (pins 10-13) and makes the
VT pin high. An LED is connected to VT pin (pin17) of the decoder. This LED works as an indicator
to indicate a valid transmission. The corresponding output is thus generated at the data pins of decoder
IC.
A signal is sent by lowering any or all the pins 10-13 of HT12E and corresponding signal is received at
receivers end (at HT12D). Address bits are configured by using the by using the first 8 pins of both
encoder and decoder ICs. To send a particular signal, address bits must be same at encoder and
decoder ICs. By configuring the address bits properly, a single RF transmitter can also be used to
control different RF receivers of same frequency.
To summarize, on each transmission, 12 bits of data is transmitted consisting of 8 address bits and 4
data bits. The signal is received at receivers end which is then fed into decoder IC. If address bits get
matched, decoder converts it into parallel data and the corresponding data bits get lowered which
could be then used to drive the LEDs. The outputs from this system can either be used in negative

logic or NOT gates (like 74LS04) can be incorporated at data pins.

Circuit Diagram

COMPONENTS USED
1.

HT12D DECODER
Download Datasheet: HT12D.pdf

HT12D IC comes from HolTek Company. HT12D is a decoder integrated circuit that belongs to 2 12
series of decoders. This series of decoders are mainly used for remote control system applications, like
burglar alarm, car door controller, security system etc. It is mainly provided to interface RF and
infrared circuits. They are paired with 2 12 series of encoders. The chosen pair of encoder/decoder
should have same number of addresses and data format.
In simple terms, HT12D converts the serial input into parallel outputs. It decodes the serial addresses
and data received by, say, an RF receiver, into parallel data and sends them to output data pins. The
serial input data is compared with the local addresses three times continuously. The input data code is
decoded when no error or unmatched codes are found. A valid transmission in indicated by a high
signal at VT pin.
HT12D is capable of decoding 12 bits, of which 8 are address bits and 4 are data bits. The data on 4
bit latch type output pins remain unchanged until new is received.

Pin Diagram

Pin Description
Pin Number

Function

Name

8 BIT ADDRESS PINS FOR INPUT

GROUND (0V)

GROUND

4 BIT DATA/ADDRESS PINS FOR OUTPUT

SERIAL DATA INPUT

INPUT

OSCILLATOR OUTPUT

OSC 2

OSCILLATOR INPUT

OSC 1

VALID TRANSMISSION, ACTIVE HIGH

SUPPLY VOLTAGE; 5V (2.4 12V)

Vcc

2.

HT12E ENCODER
Download Datasheet: HT12E.pdf

HT12E is an encoder integrated circuit of 2 12 series of encoders. They are paired with 2 12 series of
decoders for use in remote control system applications. It is mainly used in interfacing RF and infrared
circuits. The chosen pair of encoder/decoder should have same number of addresses and data format.
Simply put, HT12E converts the parallel inputs into serial output. It encodes the 12 bit parallel data
into serial for transmission through an RF transmitter. These 12 bits are divided into 8 address bits and
4 data bits.
HT12E has a transmission enable pin which is active low. When a trigger signal is received on TE
pin, the programmed addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an
infrared transmission medium. HT12E begins a 4-word transmission cycle upon receipt of a
transmission enable. This cycle is repeated as long as TE is kept low. As soon as TE returns to high,
the encoder output completes its final cycle and then stops.
Pin Diagram

Pin Description
Pin Number

Function

Name

8 BIT ADDRESS PINS FOR INPUT

GROUND (0V)

4 BIT DATA/ADDRESS PINS FOR INPUT

GROUND

TRANSMISSION ENABLE (ACTIVE LOW)

OSCILLATOR OUTPUT

OSC 2

OSCILLATOR INPUT

OSC 1

VALID TRANSMISSION, ACTIVE HIGH

SUPPLY VOLTAGE; 5V (2.4 12V)

3.

Vcc

RF MODULES (434MHz)
Download datasheet: RF Transmitter.pdf
RF Receiver.pdf

The RF module, as the name suggests, operates at Radio Frequency. The corresponding frequency
range varies between 30 kHz & 300 GHz. In this RF system, the digital data is represented as
variations in the amplitude of carrier wave. This kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift
Keying (ASK).
Transmission through RF is better than IR (infrared) because of many reasons. Firstly, signals through
RF can travel through larger distances making it suitable for long range applications. Also, while IR
mostly operates in line-of-sight mode, RF signals can travel even when there is an obstruction between
transmitter & receiver. Next, RF transmission is more strong and reliable than IR transmission. RF
communication uses a specific frequency unlike IR signals which are affected by other IR emitting
sources.

This RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver. The transmitter/receiver

(Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. An RF transmitter receives serial data and transmits
it wirelessly through RF through its antenna connected at pin4. The transmission occurs at the rate of
1Kbps - 10Kbps.The transmitted data is received by an RF receiver operating at the same frequency as
that of the transmitter.
The RF module is often used along with a pair of encoder/decoder. The encoder is used for encoding
parallel data for transmission feed while reception is decoded by a decoder. HT12E-HT12D, HT640HT648, etc. are some commonly used encoder/decoder pair ICs.

Pin Diagram
Receiver Module

Transmitter Module

Pin Description
Transmitter Module
Pin Number

Function
Ground (0V)
Serial Data Input Pin
Supply Voltage (5V)
Antenna Output Pin

Name
GND
DATA
VCC
ANT

Receiver Module
Pin Number

Function
Ground (0V)
Serial Data Output Pin
Linear Output Pin; Not Connected
Supply Voltage (5V)
Supply Voltage (5V)
Ground (0V)
Ground (0V)
Antenna Input Pin

Name
GND
DATA
VCC
VCC
GND
GND
ANT

RESOURCES
All the components and designed PCBs of this Wireless modules are available at STrobotix,
Chandigarh labs and Chawla Radios.
Contact:
STrobotix, Building No. 135/5, Sector-41-B, Chandigarh (opp. to H.No.
1541) Mob: 099882-18770 / 099880-91747 / 099155-29010
Or
Chawla Radios, Sector-46/C, Chandigarh
POWER SUPPLY UNIT

Power supply unit consists of following units:

1) Step down transformer
2) Rectifier unit
3) Input filter
4) Regulator unit
5) Output filter
7.1 STEPDOWN TRANSFORMER:
The Step down Transformer is used to step down the main supply voltage from 230V AC to
lower value. This 230 AC voltage cannot be used directly, thus it is stepped down. The Transformer
consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step down the voltage, the transformer is
designed to contain less number of turns in its secondary core. The output from the secondary coil is
also AC waveform. Thus the conversion from AC to DC is essential. This conversion is achieved by
using the Rectifier Circuit/Unit.

Step down transformers can step down incoming voltage, which enables you to have the
correct voltage input for your electrical needs. For example, if our equipment has been specified for
input voltage of 12 volts, and the main power supply is 230 volts, we will need a step down
transformer, which decreases the incoming electrical voltage to be compatible with your 12 volt
equipment.

7.2 RECTIFIER UNIT:

The Rectifier circuit is used to convert the AC voltage into its corresponding DC voltage. The
most important and simple device used in Rectifier circuit is the diode. The simple function of the
diode is to conduct when forward biased and not to conduct in reverse bias. Now we are using three
types of rectifiers. They are
1. Half-wave rectifier
2. Full-wave rectifier
3. Bridge rectifier
7.2.1 Half-wave rectifier:

In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave

is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output,
it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode
in a one phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply.
7.2.2 Full-wave rectifier: A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of
constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-center
tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-wave rectification. A fullwave rectifier uses a diode bridge, made of four diodes, like this

At first, this may look just as confusing as the one-way streets of Boston. The thing to realize is that the
diodes work in pairs. As the voltage of the signal flips back and forth, the diodes shepard the current to
always flow in the same direction for the output.
Here's what the circuit looks like to the signal as it alternates:

So, if we feed our AC signal into a full wave rectifier, we'll see both halves of the wave above 0 Volts.
Since the signal passes through two diodes, the voltage out will be lower by two diode drops, or 1.2 Volts.

AC Wave In:

AC Wave Out (Full-Wave Rectified):

If we're interested in using the full-wave rectifier as a DC power supply, we'll add a smoothing capacitor
to the output of the diode bridge.

7.2.3 Bridge rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve
full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as
shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge configuration that
provides the same polarity of output voltage for either polarity of input voltage. When used in its most
common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output,
it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC
input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a center-tapped transformer design.
The Forward Bias is achieved by connecting the diodes positive with positive of the battery
and negative with batterys negative. The efficient circuit used is the Full wave Bridge rectifier circuit.
The output voltage of the rectifier is in rippled form, the ripples from the obtained DC voltage are
removed using other circuits available. The circuit used for removing the ripples is called Filter circuit.
7.3 INPUT FILTER
Capacitors are used as filter. The ripples from the DC voltage are removed and pure DC
voltage is obtained. And also these capacitors are used to reduce the harmonics of the input voltage.
The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and discharging. It charges in positive half
cycle of the AC voltage and it will discharge in negative half cycle. So it allows only AC voltage and
does not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Thus the output is free from
ripples.
There are two types of filters. They are
1. Low pass filter
2. High pass filter

7.3.1 Low pass filter:

One simple electrical circuit that will serve as a low-pass filter consists of a resistor in series
with a load, and a capacitor in parallel with the load. The capacitor exhibits reactance, and blocks lowfrequency signals, causing them to go through the load instead. At higher frequencies the reactance
drops, and the capacitor effectively functions as a short circuit. The combination of resistance and
capacitance gives you the time constant of the filter = RC (represented by the Greek letter tau). The
break frequency, also called the turnover frequency or cutoff frequency (in hertz), is determined by the
time constant: or equivalently (in radians per second):
One way to understand this circuit is to focus on the time the capacitor takes to charge. It takes
time to charge or discharge the capacitor through that resistor:

At low frequencies, there is plenty of time for the capacitor to charge up to practically

the same voltage as the input voltage.

At high frequencies, the capacitor only has time to charge up a small amount before

the input switches direction. The output goes up and down only a small fraction of the amount the
input goes up and down. At double the frequency, there's only time for it to charge up half the amount.
Another way to understand this circuit is with the idea of reactance at a particular frequency:

Since DC cannot flow through the capacitor, DC input must "flow out" the path

marked Vout (analogous to removing the capacitor).

Since AC flows very well through the capacitor almost as well as it flows through

solid wire AC input "flows out" through the capacitor, effectively short circuiting to ground
(analogous to replacing the capacitor with just a wire).

It should be noted that the capacitor is not an "on/off" object (like the block or pass fluidic explanation
above). The capacitor will variably act between these two extremes. It is the Bode plot and frequency
response that show this variability.
7.3.2 High pass filter:

The above circuit diagram illustrates a simple 'RC' high-pass filter. we should find that the circuit
passes 'high' frequencies fairly well, but attenuates 'low' frequencies. Hence it is useful as a filter to
block any unwanted low frequency components of a complex signal whilst passing higher frequencies.
Circuits like this are used quite a lot in electronics as a 'D.C. Block' - i.e. to pass a.c. signals but
prevent

any

D.C.

voltages

from

getting

through.

The basic quantities which describe this circuit are similar to those used for the Low Pass Filter. In
effect, this circuit is just a simple low-pass filter with the components swapped over.

The action of the circuit can also be described in terms of a related quantity, the Turn over Frequency,
f0, which has a value

As with the low-pass filter, the circuit's behavior we can be understood as arising due to the time taken
to change the capacitor's charge when we alter the applied input voltage. It always takes a finite (i.e.

non-zero) time to change the amount of charge stored by the capacitor. Hence it takes time to change
the potential difference across the capacitor. As a result, any sudden change in the input voltage
produces a similar sudden change on the other side of the capacitor. This produces a voltage across the
resistor and causes a current to flow thorough it, charging the capacitor until all the voltage falls across
it instead of the resistor. The result is that steady (or slowly varying) voltages appear mostly across the
capacitor and quick changes appear mostly across the resistor. Since we're using the voltage across the
resistor as out output the main properties of the circuit are
Therefore
The Voltage Gain:

The Phase Delay:

Try using the above experimental system to collect results and plot a graph of how the voltage gain, Av,
(and the phase change) depend upon the input frequency and if we check result agrees with the above
formulae. Compare this with a low-pass filter that uses the same component values and you should see
that they give 'opposite' results. In the high-pass filter, the output waveform 'leads' the input waveform
-

i.e.

it

peaks

before

the

input.

7.4 REGULATOR UNIT

7805 Regulator
Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant. The output voltage is maintained
irrespective of the fluctuations in the input AC voltage. As and then the AC voltage changes, the DC
voltage also changes. Thus to avoid this Regulators are used. Also when the internal resistance of the
power supply is greater than 30 ohms, the output gets affected. Thus this can be successfully reduced

here. The regulators are mainly classified for low voltage and for high voltage. Further they can also
be classified as:
i) Positive regulator
1---> input pin
2---> ground pin
3---> output pin
It regulates the positive voltage.
ii) Negative regulator
1---> ground pin
2---> input pin
3---> output pin
It regulates the negative voltage.

Fixed regulators

An assortment of 78xx series ICs

"Fixed" three-terminal linear regulators are commonly available to generate fixed voltages of plus 3 V,
and plus or minus 5 V, 9 V, 12 V, or 15 V when the load is less than about 7 amperes.

7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

The 7805 provides circuit designers with an easy way to regulate DC voltages to 5v.
Encapsulated in a single chip/package (IC), the 7805 is a positive voltage DC regulator that has only 3
terminals. They are: Input voltage, Ground, Output Voltage.
General Features:

Output Current up to 1A

Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

Thermal Overload Protection

Short Circuit Protection

Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

7812 12V Integrated Circuit3-Terminal Positive Voltage Regulator:

The 7812 fixed voltage regulator is a monolithic integrated circuit in a TO220
type package designed for use in a wide variety of applications including local,
onboard regulation. This regulator employs internal current limiting, thermal

shutdown, and safe area compensation.

With adequate heat-sinking it can deliver output currents in excess of 1.0 ampere.
Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, this device can be used
with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

7.5 OUTPUT FILTER

The Filter circuit is often fixed after the Regulator circuit. Capacitor is most often used as
filter. The principle of the capacitor is to charge and discharge. It charges during the positive half cycle
of the AC voltage and discharges during the negative half cycle. So it allows only AC voltage and does
not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed after the Regulator circuit to filter any of the possibly
found ripples in the output received finally. Here we used 0.1F capacitor. The output at this stage is
5V and is given to the Microcontroller. The output voltage overshoots when the load is removed or a
short clears. When the load is removing from a switching mode power supply with a LC low-pass
output filter, the only thing the control loop can do is stop the switching action so no more energy is
taken from the source. The energy that is stored in the output filter inductor is dumped into the output
capacitor causing a voltage overshoot.
The magnitude of the overshoot is the vector sum of two orthogonal voltages, the output voltage
before the load is removed and the current through the inductor times the characteristic impedance of
the output filter, Zo = (L/C)^1/2. This can be derived from conservation of energy considerations.

The initial energy, Ei, is:

Ei = 1/2*(L*Ii^2 + C*Vi^2)

The final energy, Ef, is:

Ef = 1/2*(L*If^2 = C*Vf^2)
The two energies are equal when the load is removed, since the load is no longer taking energy from
the system. Equating the two energies, substituting zero current for the final inductor current, then the
solution for the final voltage Vf is:
Vf = (Vi^2 + (Ii*Zo)^2)^1/2
This is the orthogonal vector sum of the output voltage and the load current times the characteristic
impedance and is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Overshoot Voltage as Vector Sum

The problem becomes worse if the current in the inductor is established by a short circuit on the output
and the short circuit clears. In this case, the initial voltage is zero (short circuit) and the overshoot is
I*Zo, where I can be very large, resulting in a ruinous overshooot
7.6 RF MODULES
The relay subsystem is an electrically-operated switch. It requires a separate electrical supply to
provide power to an output device. It is often used for reversing motors.

Like ordinary switches, relay switches are available as single-pole single-throw (SPST), single-pole
double-throw (SPDT), and double-pole double-throw (DPDT). The circuit diagram shows

a DPDT relay.
The switching is done by a coil of wire (an electromagnet) that creates a magnetic field when a current
passes through it.
The switch contacts in the relay change over due to the force from the magnetic field when a current passes
through the coil.

The reverse biased diode is included because, when relays are switched off, they can generate a back
e.m.f. that can damage the driver. When the relay is switched off the diode conducts current and prevents
the damage.
The driver subsystem that provides the input signal to the relay must be able to supply enough current for
the coil.
A DPDT relay has three pairs of connections known as common (CO), normally open (NO) and normally

closed (NC).
A DPDT relay is often used to reverse a motor. The circuit diagram on the left shows how the motor is
connected to the relay.

Relay circuit for reversing a motor

When the input signal to the relay is high there is no current in the relay coil (as on the left), the positive
side of the battery B1 is connected to the right-hand terminal of the motor, so the current in the motor flows
from right to left.
When the input signal to the relay is low there is current in the relay coil (as on the left) and the switch
contacts change over. So now the positive side of the battery is connected to the left-hand terminal of the
motor, the current in the motor flows from left to right and so the direction of rotation of the motor
reverses.

The circuit diagram shows the basic principles. If it is necessary to stop and start the motor this can be done
with a separate driver or a SPST relay.
A few relays need relatively low currents and can be driven directly from a PIC, 555 Timer IC
or LM324 op-amp. In these cases the relay coil is connected to the input signal and to 0V.
Possible applications

Reversing a motor

Providing electrical isolation between a noisy output device (such as a motor) and the
processing electronics.

Controlling a low voltage a.c. output device, e.g. a low voltage halogen bulb (hotlink to bulb
data sheet, section that refers to halogen bulb)

Making:

Pins of the Rapid 60-0100 DPDT relay

The diagram shows the pin arrangements and numbering for the Rapid 60-0100 DPDT relay. Note the
unusual pin labelling system. The PCB shows the basic circuit. The separate power supply and output
device would be connected to the six upper pins.
Build and test the driver unit that will provide the input signal before building the relay.
Use a 16-pin Dual In Line (DIL) socket for the relay. Before inserting the relay, connect the power
supply and use a voltmeter to check that:

the voltage on pin b is high (the supply voltage);

the voltage on pin a (the blue PCB track) goes high and low in response to the driver unit that
provides the input signal.

Insert the relay the right way round.

7.7 TESTING
Use a multimeter to test the resistance between the switch contacts and make sure that their
resistance changes from high to low when the coil is switched on and off.
Fault finding
If there is a fault, check that:

The voltage on pin b is high

The relay has been correctly inserted

If there is a fault, check the tracks and solder joints.

Alternatives

Pair of SPDT relays can be used to provide forward, reverse, stop and start for a motor this
has the advantage of providing a better brake for a motor but is more expensive.

A L293D IC can also be used to provide forward, reverse, stop and start for two motors this
has the advantage of providing a better brake for a motor, but is more expensive.

If the relay is being used to provide electrical isolation from noise, an alternative is the optoisolator.

RELAYS:
History
Electromagnetic relays were once the main ingredient in automated machinery. Factories used to
control everything from conveyors to robots with huge panels filled with hundreds of relays
clacking away, each in turn. This method had several drawbacks, but for years it was the only
method available.
Recently, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) have replaced banks of relays for
automation needs. Relays are still used in small applications where a PLC would be overkill. They
come in several varieties to suit a wide range of applications.
Relays have a huge number of uses, but a few very common ones constitute the vast majority.
Holding circuits are used to hold power on until the connection is Broken by another signal. This is
achieved by connecting one of the relay's own contacts to its coil once the relay is turned on, it
stays on. . Relays are also useful for allowing one signal to switch connections at two or more
different voltages since the contacts are isolated from each other. But most often, they are used to
switch connections that are at different voltages than the control power.
In many cases, control power and signals generated by sensors are generated at low
voltages. This is for reasons of safety and efficiency. Low voltage signals, however, are inefficient
for doing high-wattage work, so a relay is used to allow the low voltage signal to switch a highervoltage connection to do work, such as pull in a large solenoid, run a motor.
4.7.1 WHAT IS A RELAY?
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit. Relays are one of the oldest, simplest, and yet, easiest and most useful devices. Before the
advent of the mass produced transistor, computers were made from either relays or vacuum tubes,
or both.

The classic electromagnetic relay is a switch

which is thrown by an electromagnet. A
relatively low current applied to the magnet can
throw the switch, allowing a higher current to
flow through that switch. The solenoid of most
automobiles

can

be

considered

an

electromagnetic relay.
In digital applications, it has been surpassed by the solid state relay. These relays have no moving
parts, so they can switch very quickly in response to a control signal. They are built from
semiconductors, and they cannot handle the current that an electromagnetic relay could but their
advantage is speed. High current solid-state relays often require heat sinks to drain excess heat.

4.7.2 Relay Construction

Relays are amazingly simple devices. There are
four parts in every relay:

Electromagnet

Armature that can be attracted by

the electromagnet

Spring

Switching contacts
relays construction
Relay Contact Information:
Relay contacts on most of our kits and in the industrial world are labeled with
NO (Normally Open), NC (Normally Closed), and CT (Common Terminal).
A relay contact is a switch, nothing more, nothing less. It does not provide power; it simply opens
and closes an electrical circuit, just like the light switch on a wall.
When the relay is de-energized or turned off there is an electrical connection between NC and
Common hence normally closed. In the off state there is not a connection between NO and
common, hence normally open.

When the relay is energized or turned on the NO and C makes an electrical connection and the
electrical connection between NC and C is removed.
4.7.3

RELAYS WORKING:

When a current flows through the coil, the

resulting magnetic field attracts an armature
that is mechanically linked to a moving
contact. The movement either makes or breaks
a connection with a fixed contact. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature
is returned by a force approximately half as
strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed
position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is
also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly.
In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application,
this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the
energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a spike
of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. If the coil is designed to be energized
with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates
a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC
cycle.
Relay operation
4.7.4
1.Physical

CHOOSING OF RELAY:
size

and

pin

arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions and pin
arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's catalogue.
2.Coil

voltage

The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil. Many

relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily available. Some
relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated value.
3.Coil

resistance

The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use Ohm's law to
calculate the current:
supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance
For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of 30mA. This is
OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they
will require a transistor to amplify the current.
4.Switch

ratings

(voltage

and

current)

The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to
check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for
example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
5.Switch

contact

arrangement

(SPDT,

DPDT

etc)

Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO) or
"double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the page on switches.
4.7.5

Advantages:

1.The complete electrical isolation improves safety by ensuring that high voltages and currents
cannot appear where they should not be.
2.Relays come in all shapes and sizes for different applications and they have various switch
contact configurations. Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) relays are common and even 4-pole
types are available. You can therefore control several circuits with one relay or use one relay to
control the direction of a motor.
3.It is easy to tell when a relay is operating - you can hear a click as the relay switches on and off
and you can sometimes see the contacts moving.
4.7.6

Disadvantages :

Being mechanical though, relays do have some disadvantages over other methods of electrical
isolation:
1.Their parts can wear out as the switch contacts become dirty - high voltages and currents cause
sparks between the contacts.

2.They cannot be switched on and off at high speeds because they have a slow response and the
switch contacts will rapidly wear out due to the sparking.
3.Their coils need a fairly high current to energize, which means some micro-electronic circuits
can't drive them directly without additional circuitry.
4.The back-emf created when the relay coil switches off can damage the components that are
driving the coil. To avoid this, a diode can be placed across the relay coil, as will be seen in any
Electronics in Meccano circuits that use relays with sensitive components.
4.7.7

Applications:
Relays are used:

1.To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems.
2.To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile.
3.To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit
breakers (protection relays).
4.To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The
latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in
partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room
occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy.
5.To perform logic functions. For example, the Boolean AND function is realized by connecting
NO relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting NO contacts in parallel. The changeover or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND
and NOR are accomplished using NC contacts. Due to the failure modes of a relay compared with
a semiconductor, they are widely used in safety critical logic, such as the control panels of
radioactive waste handling machinery.
6.To perform time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set
of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a
short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used.
A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be

varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork
timer is installed.
.