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06
Chapter 1
Basic notions
of calculus on manifolds
1.1 Tangent vectors and tangent bundles.
Let Q be a differentiable (real) manifold of dimension n. We denote by:
q = (q i ), (i = 1, . . . , n), any coordinate system on an open domain of Q.
Tq Q the tangent space of Q at a point q Q, the linear n-dimensional space of
the tangent vectors based (or applied, or attached) at q.
T Q the tangent bundle of Q, the set of all tangent vectors of Q; it is a differentiable manifold of dimension 2n.
Q : T Q Q the tangent fibration of Q, which maps a tangent vector v T Q to
1
the point q Q such that v Tq Q. A fibre is a tangent space: Q
(q) = Tq Q.
F (Q) = C (Q, R) the ring of all smooth real functions on Q. A (real) function
f : Q R is smooth if any local representative y = f (q) in coordinates q is of class
C.
A curve on Q is a smooth mapping : I Q, where I is an open interval of real
numbers containing 0 R. We say that the curve is based at the point q = (0).
We consider two definitions of tangent vector:
(i) A tangent vector v at a point q Q is a derivation on F , that is a mapping
v: F (Q) R such that
v(aF + bG) = a v(F ) + b v(G) a, b R, (linearity)
v(F G) = v(F ) G(q) + F (q) v(G)
(Leibniz rule).
)(0) = D(F
)(0), F F(Q).
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v(F ) = D(F
)(0).
This correspondence does not depend on the choice of the representative curve .
If q Q and q is a local coordinate system on a domain containing the point q, then
the components of v with respect to these coordinates are the numbers defined by
v i = v, dq i
or
v i = D i (0).
In the first definition, a coordinate q i is interpreted as a function. In the second
definition,
q i = i (t),
t I,
are the parametric equations of the curve . It follows that
v(F ) = v, dF = v i i F (q),
i =
.
q i
We denote by
(q i , q i )
or
(q i , qi )
).
q i = i (t)
qi = D i (t).
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),
F F (Q2 ),
or by
T ([]) = [ ].
If v Tq Q1 , then T (v) T(q) Q2 . Thus,
Q2
T = Q1 .
T Q1 T Q2
Q
Q1
2
Q1 Q2
q2 = (q 1 )
i
q2 =
q ,
q1i 1
where the first set of equations is the local representative of in coordinates q 1 = (q1i )
and q 2 = (q2 ) of Q1 and Q2 , respectively.
The functorial rules
T idQ = idT Q ,
T ( ) = T T
hold. The operator T which associates with each manifold Q its tangent bundle
T Q and with each mapping between manifolds its tangent prolongation T is a
covariant functor, called the tangent functor.
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rank [i ] = n1 n2
rank [i ] = n2 n1
rank [i ] = const.
for any local representation of , where n1 = dim(Q1 ), n2 = dim(Q2 ).
prU
Q2 U
id
1.4 Submanifolds.
A submanifold S of a manifold Q is a subset of Q which has a structure of difS. Benenti - Modelli Fisico-matematici
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1.4 Submanifolds.
S a (q) = 0
i S a (q) qi = 0.
F I
q i
I = 1, . . . , N,
at that point. It can be proved that (for further details and references see e.g. [Libermann, Marle, 1987], Appendix 1),
Theorem 1. If F : Q RN has constant rank r in a neighborhood of S = F 1 (0),
then (i) S is a submanifold of codimension r and (ii) Tq S = Ker(Tq F ).
By using this last theorem one can prove:
Theorem 2. Let N and C be submanifolds of S such that N = f 1 (0) and C =
g 1 (0), where f : S Rk and g: S Rc are
subimmersions
(i.e., with constant
rank). If the function (f, g): S Rk+c : x f (x), g(x) is a subimmersion in a
neighborhood of the set N C, then N and C have clean intersection.
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due to a general
property of the linear mappings, Ker(Tx f )Ker(Tx g) = Ker Tx (f, g) . Since N C =
(f, g)1 (0) and the mapping (f, g)
it follows that N C is a
is a subimmersion,
submanifold and Tx (N C) = Ker Tx (f, g) . Furthermore, Tx (N C) = Ker(Tx f )
Ker(Tx g) = Tx N Tx C.
Remark 4. Theorem 2 can be interpreted as follows. Assume that N and C are
described by equations
g a (x) = 0,
f (x) = 0,
where x = (xA ) are coordinates on S. If the matrices
f
,
xA
ga
,
xA
f g a
xA xA
(linearity)
(Leibniz rule).
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We denote by X (Q) the set of the smooth vector fields on Q. It is a module over the
ring F (Q) and an infinite dimensional vector space over R, the sum and the product
by a function being defined by
(X + Y )(q) = X(q) + Y (q),
(f X)(q) = f (q)X(q).
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s = t+s .
0 = idQ
t s = s t
t = ()1 .
X (t, q) = q (t).
X(q) = q (0),
(6)
T T Q
X
Q
TQ
T Q Q
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i.e.,
T Q
X = X
Q .
i
q0j
q ) = 0.
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10
X, [Y, Z] + Y, [Z, X] + Z, [X, Y ] = 0 (cyclic or Jacobi identity).
Thus, the space X (Q) endowed with the Lie bracket is a Lie-algebra.
We say that two vector fields commute if [X, Y ] = 0. Indeed, it can be proved that
Theorem 1. The flows of two (complete) vector fields commute i.e.,
X
t
Ys = Ys
X
t ,
1.9 One-forms.
A one-form on a manifold Q is a mapping : T Q R linear on each tangent space
Tq Q. We use the notation
(v) = v, .
An equivalent definition is the following: a one-form is a linear mapping from vector
fields to functions, : X (Q) F (Q). We shall use the notation
(X) = X, .
The link between these two definition is
X, (q) = X(q), .
The linearity implies that
X, = X i i ,
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where i are functions called the components of (w.r. to the coordinates (q i )). It
follows that
i = i , .
We can define the sum of two one-forms and the product of a one-form with a function
(or a number) in an obvious way.
A special case of one-form is the differential of a function dF . It is defined by
X, dF = XF
and its components are
(dF )i = i F.
It follows that in a coordinate system any one-form can be represented by a linear
combination of the differentials dq i ,
= i dq i .
Thus, a one-form is also called a linear differential form. We call elementary
one-form a one-form of the kind F dG, where F and G are smooth functions on Q.
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1
i ...i dq i1 . . . dq ip ,
p! 1 p
where
i1 ...ip = (i1 , . . . , ip )
are the components of . Here, the partial derivatives i = /q i are of course
interpreted as vector fields (as derivations on functions).
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1.12 Pull-back
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1.12 Pull-back
Let : Q1 Q2 be a smooth mapping. For each p Z we define a linear mapping
: p (Q2 ) p (Q1 )
by setting
= 0,
p > 0,
p = 0,
p < 0.
: (Q2 ) (Q1 ),
called pull-back, with the following properties:
( ) =
idQ = id(Q)
(
) =
Q (Q)
is a contravariant functor from the category of the differentiable manifolds into the
category of the graded algebras, the exterior functor.
Remark 2. If : S Q is the canonical injection of a submanifold S Q, then the
pull-back of a form on Q is the restriction of to S and it is also denoted by
|S. In fact, it is the restriction of : pQ T Q R to the submanifold pS T S.
Remark 3. If in local coordinates the mapping is represented by equations
q2a = a (q i1 ),
then the pull-back of a form is obtained by replacing these functions into its local coordinate representation. It follows that the pull-back is locally represented by
equations
ap
a1
.
.
.
.
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1.13 Derivations.
Definition 1. A derivation of degree r Z on (Q) is a mapping D: (Q)
(Q) satisfying the following rules,
Dp (Q) p+r (Q)
(1)
(p Z)
D(a + b) = aD + bD
D( ) = D + (1)
(a, b R)
pr
p (Q)
[D1 , D2 ] = D1 D2 (1)r1 r2 D2 D1
Indeed, the composition D1 D2 = D1 D2 is linear but it does not satisfy the graded
Leibniz rule, which is instead satisfied by the operator defined in (2).
There are three special important derivations: the differential, the interior product
and the Lie derivative.
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X, df = Xf
(2)
d( ) = d + (1)p d,
p = degree of
Remark 1. In order to show that equations (1) and (2) define a derivation it is
necessary to prove the R-lineraity (this is straightforward) and that the Leibniz rule
(3) is satisfied form functions and 0ne-forms. (i) If and are functions, according
to the ordinary Leibniz rule, d() = d + d. This coincides with (3) for p = 0.
(ii) If is a function and a one-form, then because of the definitions (1) and (2):
d()(X, Y ) =
= X, dY, Y, dX, [X, Y ],
= X, d(Y, ) Y, d(X, ) [X, Y ],
= X, dY, + X, dY, Y, dX, +
+ Y, dX, [X, Y ],
= d(X, Y ) + X, dY, Y, dX,
= (d + d )(X, Y ),
and (3) is fulfilled also in this case: d() = d + d.
Remark 2. According to the definition of commutator, the commutator [d, d] =
2dd = 2d2 is a derivation of degree 2. From (1) and (2) it follows that
ddf (X, Y ) = X, d(Y f ) Y, d(Xf ) [X, Y ]f
= XY f Y Xf [X, Y ]f = 0.
This shows that d2 is trivial on the functions: d2 f = 0. Moreover, if f and g are two
functions then, because of the Leibniz rule for the derivations,
d2 (f dg) = d2 f dg + f d3 g = 0.
Since locally any one-form is the sum of products of the kind f dg = f dg and d2
is local (it is a derivation) the above formula shows that d2 is trivial also on oneforms. Hence, due to Theorem 2 of the preceding section, is a trivial derivation on
any p-form. This proves
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Theorem 1. d2 = 0.
Remark 3. From the Leibniz rule it follows that for an elementary p-form =
F dG1 . . . dGp ,
d = dF dG1 . . . dGp .
Due to the R-linearity and the locality of any derivation, this formula enable us to
compute the differential of any exterior form.
We leave as an exercize the proof of the following
Theorem 2. The pull-back associated with a mapping commutes with the
differential,
d = d
In particular, the differential commutes with the restriction of forms to submanifolds,
d(|S) = (d)|S
Definition 2. A p-form is said to be closed if d = 0, exact if there exists a
(p 1)-form , called potential form, such that = d. An exact form is closed,
since d2 = 0. Conversely, it can be proved that
Theorem 3. (Poincar
e-Volterra lemma). A closed form is locally exact: if
p (Q) and d = 0, then for each point q Q there exists a (p 1)-form on a
neighborhood U of q such that |U = d.
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(1)
iX = X,
iX ( ) = iX + (1)p iX
iX f = f iX
iY iX = (X, Y )
iX iY = iY iX
i2X = 0
In local coordinates,
(5)
iX dq i = X i
(1)
For the Lie derivative there are other two (equivalent) definitions,
(2)
(3)
dX = [iX , d] = iX d + diX
dX = lim
t0
1
t t
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The first one is known as Cartan formula (the Lie derivative is the commutator
of the Cartan product and the differential). The Lie derivative has the following
properties:
(4)
(5)
dX ( ) = dX + dX
[dX , dY ] = dX dY dY dX = d[X,Y ]
[dX , iY ] = dX iY iY dX = i[X,Y ]
For a one-form ,
(6)
d(X, Y ) = dX iY dY iX i[X,Y ]
For a two-form ,
(7)
where p.c. means the sum of the similar terms obtained by all cyclic permutations of
the vector fields.
A form (Q) is said to be invariant w.r. to a transformation : Q Q if
= . It can be proved that
Theorem 1. A form is invariant w.r. to the group t generated by a (complete)
vector field X if and only if dX = 0.
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