Chapter 1 Lecture Outline: A First Look at Anatomy

A First Look at Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of structure.

The word anatomy is derived from Greek and means to cut up or to cut open.

Anatomists examine the relationships among parts of the body along with the structure of individual organs.
Introduction to Anatomy

Physiology

The scientific discipline that studies the function of body structures.

Structure and function cannot be completely separated.

Form is related to function.

Levels of Organization in the Human Body

The simplest level of organization within the body is the chemical level, which is composed of atoms and molecules.

Atoms are the smallest units of matter.

Molecules

Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, such as a protein, a water molecule, or a vitamin.

Macromolecules

Larger and more complex molecules such as DNA and proteins.

At the cellular level, specialized structural and functional units called organelles permit all living cells to share some common
functions.

Large molecules join in specific ways to form cells, the basic units of structure and function in organisms.

The cell is the smallest structural unit that exhibits the characteristics of living things (organisms), and it is the smallest living
portion of the human body.

Tissues

Groups of similar cells with a common function form tissue.

Tissues are precise organizations of similar cells that perform specialized functions.

Organs

Different tissue types that work together to perform specific, complex functions form an organ.

Organ Systems

The organ system level consists of related organs that work together to coordinate activities and achieve a common function.

There are 11 organ systems in the human body.

Organism

All body systems function interdependently in a single living human being, the organism.
The Four Types of Tissues in the Human Body Are:
Epithelial tissue covers exposed surfaces and lines body cavities.

Example: The inner lining of the digestive system

The Four Types of Tissues

Connective tissue protects, supports, and interconnects body parts and organs.

Can be solid (such as bone), liquid (such as blood), or intermediate (such as cartilage).
The Four Types of Tissues

Muscle tissue produces movement.

Skeletal muscle, Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle

The Four Types of Tissues

Nervous tissue conducts impulses for internal communication.

Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Integumentary

Provides protection

Regulates body temperature

Site of cutaneous receptors

Synthesizes vitamin D

Prevents water loss

Skeletal

Provides support and protection

Site of hematopoeisis (blood cell production)

Stores calcium and phosphorus

Allows for body movement

Muscular

Produces body movement

Generates heat when muscles contract

Nervous
A regulatory system that controls body movement
Responds to sensory stimuli

Helps control all other systems of the body

Also responsible for consciousness, intelligence, memory

Endocrine

Consists of glands and cell clusters that secrete hormones, some of which regulate

body and cellular growth

chemical levels in the body

reproductive functions
Cardiovascular

Consists of a pump (the heart) that moves blood through blood vessels in order to distribute hormones, nutrients, gases, and
pick up waste products
Lymphatic

Transports and filters lymph (interstitial fluid)

Initiates an immune response when necessary

Respiratory

Responsible for exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between blood and the air in the lungs
Digestive

Mechanically and chemically digests food materials

Absorbs nutrients

Expels waste products

Urinary

Filters the blood and removes waste products from the blood

Concentrates waste products in the form of urine, and expels urine from the body

Male Reproductive System

Produces male sex cells (sperm) and male hormones (e.g., testosterone)

Transfers sperm to the female

Female Reproductive System

Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and female hormones (e.g., estrogen and progesterone)

Receives sperm from male

Site of fertilization of oocyte

Site of growth and development of embryo and fetus

Anatomical Terminology

Anatomic position is a specific body position in which an individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor.

The head is level, and the eyes look forward toward the observer.

The arms are at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the body.
Anatomical Terminology

A plane is an imaginary surface that slices the body into specific sections.

The three major anatomic planes of reference are the coronal, transverse, and sagittal planes.
Sections and Planes
A coronal plane, also called a frontal plane, is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
Sections and Planes

A transverse plane, also called a cross-sectional plane or horizontal plane, cuts perpendicularly along the long axis of the
body or organ separating it into both superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

A sagittal plane or median plane, extends through the body or organ vertically and divides the structure into right and left
halves.

A sagittal plane in the body midline is a midsagittal plane.

A plane that is parallel to the midsagittal plane, but either to the left or the right of it, is termed a parasagittal (or sagittal)
plane.

A minor plane, called the oblique plane, passes through the specimen at an angle.
Directional Terms of the Body

Directional terms are precise and brief, and for most of them there is a correlative term that means just the opposite.
Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to front (belly side) or back (back side) of the body :

Anterior = In front of; toward the front surface

Posterior = In back of; toward the back surface

Dorsal =At the back side of the human body

Ventral = At the belly side of the human body

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to the head or tail of the body:

Superior = Toward the head or above

Inferior = Toward feet not head

Caudal = At the rear or tail end

Cranial = At the head end

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to the midline or center of the body:

Medial = Toward the midline of the body

Lateral = Away from the midline of the body

Deep = On the inside, underneath another structure

Superficial = On the outside

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to point of attachment of the appendage:

Proximal = Closest to point of attachment to trunk

Distal = Furthest from point of attachment to trunk

Body Regions

The human body is partitioned into two main regions, called the axial and appendicular regions.

the axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk which comprise the main vertical axis of our body

our limbs, or appendages, attach to the bodys axis and make up the appendicular region
Body Cavities and Membranes

The posterior aspect of the body has two enclosed cavities

A cranial cavity is formed by the cranium and houses the brain.

A vertebral canal is formed by the individual bones of the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord.
Body Cavities

Both the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are lined with thin serous membranes, which are composed of two layers:

A parietal layer lines the internal surface of the body wall.

A visceral layer covers the external surface of organs (viscera) within the cavity.

Between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous membrane is a thin serous cavity, containing a lubricating film of
serous fluid.
Body Cavities and Membranes

Constant movement of the organs causes friction.

The serous fluid reduces friction and helps the organs move smoothly against both one another and the body wall.
Body Cavities and Membranes

The median space in the thoracic cavity is called the mediastinum.

It contains the heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels that connect to the heart.
Body Cavities and Membranes

Within the mediastinum, the heart is enclosed by a two-layered serous membrane called the pericardium.
The Thoracic Cavity

The right and left sides of the thoracic cavity contain the lungs; they are lined by a two-layered serous membrane called the
pleura.

The outer layer is the parietal pleura; it lines the internal surface of the thoracic wall

The inner layer is the visceral pleura; it covers the external surface of the lung

The narrow, moist, potential space between them is called the pleural cavity
Abdominopelvic Cavity

The abdominopelvic cavity consists of an abdominal cavity and a pelvic cavity.

The Abdominopelvic Cavity

The peritoneum is a moist, two-layered serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity.

The abdominopelvic cavity is partitioned into 9 smaller, imaginary compartments.

Chapter 13 Lecture Outline: Surface Anatomy

Surface Anatomy

A branch of gross anatomy that examines shapes and markings on the surface of the body as they relate to deeper structures.

Essential in locating and identifying anatomic structures prior to studying internal gross anatomy.

Health-care personnel use surface anatomy to help diagnose medical conditions and to treat patients.
Surface Anatomy

four techniques when examining surface anatomy

visual inspection

directly observe the structure and markings of surface features

palpation

feeling with firm pressure or perceiving by the sense of touch)

precisely locate and identify anatomic features under the skin

percussion

tap sharply on specific body sites to detect resonating vibrations

auscultation

listen to sounds emitted from organs

Cranium

Cranium (cranial region or braincase) is covered by the scalp, which is composed of skin and subcutaneous tissue.
Cranium can be subdivided into three regions, each having prominent surface anatomy features.
the frontal region of the cranium is the forehead
covering the frontal region is the frontalis muscle, which overlies the frontal bone
the frontal region terminates at the superciliary arches

Face The Auricular Region

Composed of the visible surface structures of the ear as well as the ears internal organs, which function in hearing and
maintaining equilibrium.

Auricle, or pinna, is the fleshy part of the external ear.

Within the auricle is a tubular opening into the middle ear called the external auditory canal.

The mastoid process is posterior and inferior to the auricle.

The Face Orbital (or Ocular) Region

Includes the eyeballs and associated structures.

Surface features protect the eye.

Eyebrows protect against sunlight and potential mechanical damage.

Eyelids close reflexively to protect against objects moving near the eye.

Eyelashes prevent airborne particles from contacting the eyeball.

The superior palpebral fissure, or upper eyelid crease.

Asians do not have a superior palpebral fissure

The Face Nasal Region

Contains the nose.

the bridge; it is formed by the union of the nasal bones

The fleshy part of the nose is called the dorsum nasi.

The tip of the nose is called the apex.

Nostrils, or external nares, are the paired openings into the nose.

Ala nasi (wing of the nose) forms the flared lateral margin of each nostril.
The Face Oral Region

Inferior to the nasal region.

Includes the buccal (cheek) region, the fleshy upper and lower lips (labia), and the structures of the oral cavity (mouth) that
can be observed when the mouth is open.

The vertical depression between your nose and upper lip is called the philtrum.
The Face Mental Region

The mental region contains the mentum, or chin.

The mentum tends to be pointed and almost triangular in females.

Males tend to have a squared-off mentum.

Triangles of the Neck

Neck/cervical region/cervix is a complex region that connects the head to the trunk.

Spinal cord, nerves, trachea, esophagus, and major vessels traverse this highly flexible area.

Neck contains other organs and several important glands.

Neck can be subdivided into anterior, posterior, and lateral regions.

The Anterior Region of the Neck

Has several palpable landmarks, including the larynx, trachea, and sternal notch.

The larynx.

found in the middle of the neck

composed of multiple cartilages

thyroid cartilage

Adams apple

Inferior to the larynx are the cricoid cartilage and trachea.

Terminates at the sternal (jugular) notch of the manubrium and the left and right clavicles.
The Nuchal Region

The posterior neck region.

Houses the spinal cord, cervical vertebrae, and associated structures.

The bump at the lower boundary of this region is the vertebra prominens.

Superiorly along the midline of the neck, is the ligamentum nuchae, a thick ligament that runs from C7 to the nuchal lines of
the skull.
Left and Right Lateral Portions of the Neck

Contain the sternocleidomastoid muscles which partitions the neck into two clinically important triangles, an anterior triangle
and a posterior triangle.

Each triangle houses important structures that run through the neck.

Triangles are further subdivided into smaller triangles.

Anterior triangle lies anterior to the sternocleidomastoid muscle and inferior to the mandible.

subdivided into four smaller triangles

the submental, submandibular, carotid, and muscular triangles

The Submental Triangle

The most superiorly placed of the four triangles.

Inferior to the chin in the midline of the neck.

Partially bounded by the anterior belly of the digastric muscle.

Contains some cervical lymph nodes and tiny veins.

With illness these lymph nodes enlarge and become tender.

Palpation can determine if an infection is present.

The Submandibular Triangle

Inferior to the mandible and lateral to the submental triangle.

Bounded by the mandible and the bellies of the digastric muscle.

The submandibular gland is the bulge under the mandible.

The Carotid Triangle

Bounded by the sternocleidomastoid, omohyoid, and posterior digastric muscles.

The strong pulsation is the common carotid artery.

Contains the internal jugular vein and some cervical lymph nodes.
The Muscular Triangle

Most inferior of the four triangles.

Contains the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles, as well as the lateral edges of the larynx and the thyroid gland.

Also contains cervical lymph nodes which are present throughout the neck.
The Posterior Triangle

Lateral region of the neck.

Posterior to the sternocleidomastoid muscle.

Superior to the clavicle inferiorly.

Anterior to the trapezius muscle.

Subdivided into two smaller triangles.

the occipital triangle
supraclavicular triangle

The Occipital Triangle

Larger and more posteriorly placed.

Bounded by the omohyoid, trapezius, and sternocleidomastoid muscles.

Contains the external jugular vein, the accessory nerve, the brachial plexus, and some lymph nodes.
Supraclavicular Triangle

Also called omoclavicular and subclavian.

Bounded by the clavicle, omohyoid, and sternocleidomastoid muscles.

Contains part of the subclavian vein and artery as well as some lymph nodes.
Thorax

The superior portion of the trunk sandwiched between the neck superiorly and the abdomen inferiorly.
Consists of the chest and the upper back.
On the anterior surface of the chest are the two dominating surface features of the thorax.
the clavicles and the sternun

The Clavicles

Paired clavicles and the sternal (jugular) notch represent the border between the thorax and the neck.

On the superior anterior surface where they extend between the base of the neck on the right and left sides laterally to the
shoulders.

Left and right costal margins of the rib cage form the inferior boundary of the thorax.

Costal angle (costal arch) is where the costal margins join to form an inverted V at the xiphoid process.

On a thin person, many of the ribs can be seen.

Most of the ribs (with the exception of the first one) can be palpated.
The Sternum

Palpated readily as the midline bony structure in the thorax.

The manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process may also be palpated.

Sternal angle can be felt as an elevation between the manubrium and the body.

Sternal angle is clinically important because it is at the level of the costal cartilage of the second rib.

it is often used as a landmark for counting the ribs

The Abdomen

On the anterior surface of the abdomen, the umbilicus (navel) is the prominent depression or projection in the midline of the
abdominal wall.

In the midline of the abdominal anterior surface is the linea alba, a tendinous structure that extends inferiorly from the
xiphoid process to the pubic symphysis.

The left and right rectus abdominis muscles and their tendinous insertions are referred to as six-pack abs.

The superior aspect of the ilium (iliac crest) terminates anteriorly at the anterior superior iliac spine.

Attached to the anterior superior iliac spine is the inguinal ligament, which forms the lower boundary of the abdominal wall.
The Inguinal Ligament

Terminates on a little anterior bump on the pubis called the pubic tubercle.

Superior to the medial portion of the inguinal ligament is the superficial inguinal ring.

a superficial opening in the lower anterior abdominal wall

represents a weak spot in the wall

can be palpated to detect an inguinal hernia

Shoulder and Upper Limb Region

Clinically important because of frequent trauma to these body regions.

Vessels of the upper limb are often used as pressure sites and as sites for drawing blood, providing nutrients and fluids, and
administering medicine.
Shoulder

The scapula, clavicle, and proximal part of the humerus collectively form the shoulder. The acromion is the bump on your
anterior shoulder.

The rounded curve of the shoulder is formed by the thick deltoid muscle, which is a frequent site for intramuscular injections.

Axilla

Commonly called the armpit, is clinically important because of the nerves, axillary blood vessels, and lymph nodes located

there.

The pectoralis major forms the fleshy anterior axillary fold, which acts as the anterior border of the axilla.
The latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles form the fleshy posterior axillary fold, which is the posterior border of the

axilla.
Arm
The brachium which extends from the shoulder to the elbow on the upper limb.
On the anterior side of the arm, the cephalic vein is evident in muscular individuals as it traverses along the lateral border of
the entire upper limb.

This vein originates in a small surface depression, bordered by the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles, called the
clavipectoral triangle.

Arm

The basilic vein is sometimes evident along the medial side of the upper limb.
Brachial artery becomes subcutaneous along the medial side of the brachium, and its pulse may be detected here.
Clinically important in measuring blood pressure.

The Arm and Elbow

The biceps brachii muscle becomes prominent when the elbow is flexed.

Located on the anterior surface of the elbow region, the cubital fossa is a depression within which the median cubital vein
connects the basilic and cephalic veins.

The cubital fossa is a common site for venipuncture (removal of blood from a vein).
The Arm and Elbow

The bulk of the posterior surface of the brachium is formed by the triceps brachii muscle.

Three bony prominences are readily identified in the distal region of the brachium near the elbow.

The lateral epicondyle of the humerus is a rounded lateral projection at the distal end of the humerus.

The olecranon of the ulna is palpated easily along the posterior aspect of the elbow.

The medial epicondyle of the humerus is more prominent and may be easily palpated.
Forearm

The radius, the ulna, and the muscles that control hand movements form the forearm, or antebrachium.
Proximal part of the forearm is bulkier, due to the fleshy bellies of the forearm muscles.
Distally, the forearm becomes thinner as you are palpating the tendons of these muscles.
The styloid processes of the radius and ulna are readily palpable as the lateral and medial bumps along the wrist, respectively.

The Forearm

Tendons of the extensor pollicis brevis, abductor pollicis longus, and extensor pollicis longus muscles mark the boundary of
the triangular anatomic snuffbox.

Palpate the pulse of the radial artery here.

Palpate the scaphoid bone in this region.

Gluteal Region

The inferior border of the gluteus maximus muscle forms the gluteal fold.

The gluteal (natal) cleft extends vertically to separate the buttocks into two prominences.

In the inferior portion of each buttock, an ischial tuberosity can be palpated; these tuberosities support body weight while
seated.

The gluteus maximus muscle forms most of the inferolateral fleshy part of the buttock.

The gluteus medius muscle may be palpated only in the superolateral portion of each buttock.
The Thigh

Many muscular and bony features are readily identified in the thigh, which extends between the hip and the knee on each
lower limb.

An extremely important element of thigh surface anatomy is a region called the femoral triangle.

The femoral triangle is a depression inferior to the groove that overlies the inguinal ligament on the anteromedial surface in

the superior portion of the thigh.

The femoral artery, vein, and nerve travel through this region, making it an important arterial pressure point for controlling
lower limb hemorrhage.
Thigh and Knee

On the distal part of the anterior thigh, are the three parts of the quadriceps femoris as they approach the knee.

Still on the anterior side of the thigh, three obvious skeletal features can be observed and palpated:

(1) The greater trochanter is palpated on the superior lateral surface of the thigh;

(2) the patella is located easily within the patellar tendon; and

(3) the lateral and medial condyles of both the femur and tibia are identified and palpated at each knee.
Foot and Toes

The phalanges, metatarsophalangeal joints, PIP and DIP joints, and toenails are obvious surface landmarks readily observed
when viewing either the lateral side or the dorsum of the foot.

The medial surface of the foot clearly illustrates the high, arched medial longitudinal arch.

At the distal end of the medial longitudinal arch, the head of metatarsal I appears as a prominent bump.
Chapter 3 : Embryology
Embryology

The study of the developmental events that occur during the prenatal period
Embryology

Begins with Fertilization:

A single fertilized cell divides by mitosis to produce all of the cells in the body.
The Prenatal Period

The first 38 weeks of human development

between fertilization and birth.

The pre-embryonic period:

first 2 weeks of development

zygote becomes a spherical, multicellular structure.

The embryonic period:

third through eighth weeks

all major organ systems appear.

The Prenatal Period

The Fetal Period:

Includes the remaining weeks of development prior to birth

The fetus continues to grow

Its organs increase in complexity

The Stages of Embryogenesis

Cleavage:

zygote divides by mitosis

forms a multicellular structure called a blastocyst.

Gastrulation:

blastocyst cells form three primary germ layers

basic cellular structures from which all body tissues develop.

Organogenesis:

three primary germ layers arrange themselves in ways that give rise to all the organs within the body.
Gametogenesis

Following birth, an individual undergoes maturation.

the body grows and develops

the sex organs become mature

the sex organs then begin to produce gametes

Chromosomes

Human somatic cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46.

22 pairs of autosomes

one pair of sex chromosomes.

Autosomes contain genetic information for most human characteristics.

Homologous chromosomes:

pair of similar autosomes

Diploid Cells

A cell is said to be diploid if it contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.

2N = 46
The Sex Chromosomes

The pair of sex chromosomes determines whether an individual is female (XX) or male (XY).

One member of each pair of chromosomes is inherited from each parent.

Gametogenesis

Begins with meiosis.

Produces secondary oocytes in the female.

Produces sperm in the male.

Meiosis

A type of cell division

Starts with a diploid parent cell

Produces haploid daughter cells (sperm or eggs/ova).

Meiosis I

Meiosis results in the formation of gametes (sex cells).

In meiosis I:

homologous chromosomes are separated after synapsis

crossing over occurs.

In meiosis II:

sister chromatids are separated

sequence of phases resembles mitosis.

Prophase I

Homologous, double-stranded chromosomes in the parent cell form pairs (synapsis).

Tetrad:

Pair of homologous chromosomes

Crossing over

occurs between the maternal and paternal chromosomes.

Metaphase I

Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up above and along the equator of the cell.

Forms a double line of chromosomes.

Alignment is random with respect to maternal or paternal origin.

Anaphase I

Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to the opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase I and Cytokinesis

Nuclear division finishes

The nuclear envelopes re-forms

The cytoplasm divides

Two new haploid cells are produced

Prophase II

Resembles the prophase stage of mitosis.

In each of the two new cells:

nuclear membrane breaks down

chromosomes collect together.

Crossing over does not occur in this phase.

Metaphase II

The double-stranded chromosomes form a single line in the middle of the cell.

Spindle fibers extend from the centrioles at the poles to the centromere of each double-stranded chromosome.
Anaphase II

The sister chromatids of each double-stranded chromosome are pulled apart at the centromere.

Each chromatid (single strand) is pulled to the opposite pole of the cell.
Telophase II and Cytokinesis

The single-stranded chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the cell.

A cleavage furrow forms

Cytoplasm in both cells divides

Produces a total of four haploid daughter cells.
These daughter cells mature:
sperm in males
oocytes in females.

Oogenesis

In females, the sex cell produced is called the secondary oocyte.

This cell will have 22 autosomes and one X chromosome.

Oogenesis

Oogonia:

parent cells that produce oocytes

reside in the ovaries

are diploid cells.

All the oogonia start the process of meiosis and form primary oocytes prior to birth.

They are arrested in Prophase I and remain this way until the female reaches puberty.

Each month usually only one becomes a secondary oocyte.

Oogenesis

When the primary oocyte completes the first meiotic division, two cells are produced.

Division of the cytoplasm is unequal.

The secondary oocyte receives the bulk of the cytoplasm and is the cell that is arrested in Metaphase II.

The second cell, which receives only a tiny bit of the cytoplasm, is called a polar body.

The polar body is a nonfunctional cell and eventually degenerates.

Oogenesis

Only the secondary oocyte has the potential to be fertilized.

The secondary oocyte is ovulated

The corona radiata and the zona pellucida form protective layers around the secondary oocyte.
Oogenesis

If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, it degenerates about 24 hours after ovulation, still arrested in metaphase II.

If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, it first finishes the process of meiosis. Two new cells are produced, and as before, the
division of the cytoplasm is unequal.

The cell that receives very little cytoplasm becomes another polar body and eventually degenerates.

The cell that receives the majority of the cytoplasm becomes an ovum which can be fertilized.
Oogenesis

Typically, only one secondary oocyte is expelled (ovulated) from one of the two ovaries each month.

The left and right ovaries alternate ovulation each month.

Spermatogenesis

The parent or stem cells that produce sperm are called spermatogonia.

Spermatogonia are diploid cells that reside in the the testes.

Each one first divides by mitosis to make an exact copy of itself called a primary spermatocyte.
Spermatogenesis

Primary spermatocytes then undergo meiosis and produce haploid cells called spermatids.

Spermatids contain 23 chromosomes, but they still must undergo further changes to form a sperm cell.

In spermiogenesis, spermatids lose much of their cytoplasm and grow a long tail called a flagellum.
Spermatogenesis

The newly formed sperm cells are haploid cells that exhibit a distinctive head, a midpiece, and a tail.

From a single spermatocyte, four new sperm are formed.

All sperm have 22 autosomes and either an X chromosome, or a Y chromosome.

Fertilization

Two sex cells fuse to form a new cell containing genetic material derived from both parents.

Restores the diploid number of chromosomes.

Determines the sex of the organism.

Initiates cleavage.

Occurs in the widest part of the uterine tube (the ampulla).

Fertilization

Millions of sperm cells are deposited in the female reproductive tract during intercourse.

Only a few hundred have a chance at fertilization.

Only the first sperm to enter the secondary oocyte is able to fertilize it.

The remaining sperm are prevented from penetrating the oocyte.

Cleavage

Shortly after fertilization, the zygote begins to undergo a series of divisions.

Divisions increase the number of cells in the pre-embryo, but the pre-embryo remains the same size.

During each succeeding division, the cells are smaller and smaller.
Cleavage

Before the 8-cell stage, cells are not tightly bound together

after the third cleavage division, the cells become tightly compacted into a ball called a morula (16 cells).
Blastocyst formation

Zona pellucida begin to disintegrate as morula enters the uterus.

Blastocyst cavity develops.

Pre-embryo now a blastocyst:

Trophoblast

Inner cell mass or embryoblast

Implantation

Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst burrows into and embeds within the endometrium.

Begun about day 7; done by day 9

Trophoblast cells invade

Trophoblast subdivides

Cytotrophoblast

Syncytiotrophoblast
Formation of Bilaminar Germinal Disc

By day 8, embroblast begins to differentiate

Hypoblast layer: adjacent to blastocyst cavity

Epiblast layer: adjacent to amniotic cavity

Together called bilaminal germinal disc

Formation of Extraembryonic membranes
Amnion

Eventually encloses the entire embryo in a fluid-filled sac called the amniotic cavity to prevent desiccation.
The amniotic membrane is specialized to secrete the amniotic fluid that bathes the embryo.

Chorion
The outermost extraembryonic membrane, is formed from rapidly growing cells.
These cells blend with the functional layer of the endometrium and eventually form the placenta.
The Placenta

Functions in exchange of nutrients, waste products, and respiratory gases between the maternal and fetal bloodstreams.

Transmission of maternal antibodies to the developing embryo or fetus.

Production of hormones to maintain and build the uterine lining.

Embryonic Period

Begins with establishment of the three germ layer

By process of gastrulation

Ends at about week 8

Main organ systems laid in

Gastrulation

Occurs during the third week of development immediately after implantation.

One of the most critical periods in the development of the embryo.

Cells of the epiblast migrate and form the three primary germ layers:

Ectoderm

Mesoderm

endoderm.

Trilaminar structure now called an embryo

Primitive streak formation

Dorsal surface of the bilaminar germinal disc

Depression on surface of epiblast

Cephalic end: primitive node

Primitive pit

Invagination

Inward movement of cells

Cells from epiblast detach, move from primitive streak to area between epiblast and hypoblast.

Forms mesoderm

Other migrating cells replace the hypoblast: form endoderm

Remaining cells in epiblast become ectoderm

Folding of the Embryonic Disc

Begins late third and fouth weeks

Some areas grow faster than others.

Cephalocaudal folding:

Helps form head and buttocks

Transverse (or lateral) folding

Helps form trunk

Neurulation: differentiation of ectoderm

Notochord forms in area of primitive streak

This induces neurulation

Neural plate, Neural folds, Neural Groove, Neural tube

Differentiation of Mesoderm

Five categories:

Notochord

Paraxial mesoderm

Somites: most bone, muscle, cartilage, dermis, CT

Intermediate mesoderm

Urinary and reproductive systems

Lateral Plate Mesoderm

Cardiovascular, lining of body cavities, CT of limbs

Head Mesenchyme

CT and musculature of face

Differentiation of Endoderm

Linings of digestive, respiratory and urinary tracts.

Thyroid,parathyroid, thymus, most of liver, pancreas and gallbladder.

Organogenesis

Once the three primary germ layers have formed, and the embryo has undergone folding, organogenesis begins.

The upper and lower limbs attain their adult shapes, and the rudimentary forms of most organ systems have developed by
week 8.

By the end of the embryonic period, the embryo is slightly longer than 2.5 centimeters (1 inch), and yet it already has the

outward appearance of a human.

Chapter 5 Lecture Outline: Integumentary System
The Integument
n
The skin that covers your body.
n
Skin is also known as the cutaneous membrane.
n
Integumentary system consists of the skin and its derivativesnails, hair, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.
The Integument
n
Is the bodys largest organ.
n
Its surface is covered by an epithelium that protects underlying body layers.
n
The connective tissues contain blood vessels that provide nutrients and provide strength and resilience to the skin.
n
Smooth muscle controls both blood vessel diameter and hair position.
n
Neural tissue supports and monitors sensory receptors in the skin
2 Distinct Layers
n
A layer of stratified squamous epithelium called the epidermis.
n
A deeper layer of dense irregular connective tissue called the dermis.
n
deep to the dermis is a layer of areolar and adipose connective tissue called the subcutaneous layer, or hypodermis
Thick Skin
n
Thick epidermis is found on the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and corresponding surfaces of the fingers and toes.
n
All five epidermal strata occur in thick skin.
Thin Skin
n
Thin epidermis covers most of the body.
n
Lacks the stratum lucidum
n
Has only four specific layers.
n
Contains the following accessories: hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands.
Functions of Skin
n
protection
n
prevention of water loss
n
temperature regulation
n
metabolic regulation
n
immune defense
n
sensory reception
n
excretion
Skin Color
n
Hemoglobin is an oxygen-binding protein present in red blood cells. Upon binding with oxygen, hemoglobin exhibits a bright
red color.
n
Melanin is a pigment produced and stored in cells called melanocytes.
n
the two types of melanin occur in various yellow, reddish, tan, brown, and black shades
n
Carotene comes primarily from diet.
Friction Ridges
n
Found on the fingers, palms, soles, and toes.
n
Formed from large folds and valleys of both dermal and epidermal tissue.
n
Help us grasp objects, and they
n
Increase friction so that items do not slip easily from our hands.
n
Our feet do not slip on the floor when we walk.
Friction Ridges
n
Friction ridges can leave noticeable prints on touched surfaces.
n
Each individual has a unique pattern of friction ridges.
n
Fingerprints have become a valuable tool for law enforcement in identifying individuals.
Skin Markings
n
Nevus (mole)
n
Freckles
n
Hemangioma

n
n

capillary hemangiomas (strawberry-colored birthmarks)

cavernous hemangiomas (port-wine stains)

Layers of the Dermis

n
Composed of cells of the connective tissue proper and primarily of collagen fibers, although both elastic and reticular fibers
are also present.
n
Other components of the dermis are blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles, nail roots, sensory nerve
endings, and muscular tissue.
2 Major Regions of Dermis
n
Superficial papillary layer
n
Deeper reticular layer
Lines of Cleavage
n
Tension lines in the skin identify the predominant orientation of collagen fiber bundles.
n
Clinically and surgically significant because cuts can result in slow healing and increased scarring.
Innervation and Blood Supply
n
The dermis has extensive innervation.
n
Monitor sensory receptors in the dermis and epidermis, and control both blood flow and gland secretion rates.
n
Tactile corpuscles and tactile (Merkel) cells perceive touch sensations, and work with a variety of other sensory nerve
endings in the skin.
n
This rich innervation allows us to be very aware of our surroundings and to differentiate among the different kinds of sensory
signals from receptors in the skin.
Nails
n
n
n

Scalelike modifications of the epidermis that form on the dorsal surfaces of the tips of the fingers and toes.
Protect the exposed distal tips and prevent damage or distortion during jumping, kicking, catching, or grasping.
Hard derivatives formed from the stratum corneum layer of the epidermis.

Hair
n
Found almost everywhere on the body except the palms of the hands, the sides and soles of the feet, the lips, the sides of the
fingers and toes, and portions of the external genitalia.
n
Most of the hairs on the human body are on the general body surface rather than the head.
3 Kinds of Hair
n
During our lives, we produce three kinds of hair:
n
lanugo
n
vellus
n
terminal hair
Functions of Hair
Protection, Heat retention , Prevents the loss of conducted heat from the scalp to the surrounding air, Facial expression, Sensory
reception , Visual identification , Chemical signal dispersal
Hair Color
n
Result of the synthesis of melanin in the matrix adjacent to the papillae.
n
Variations in hair color reflect genetically determined differences in the structure of the melanin.
n
Environmental and hormonal factors ; Age ; Gray hair
Hair Growth and Replacement
n
Sometimes hair loss may be temporary as a result of one or more of the following factors: exposure to drugs, dietary factors,
radiation, high fever, or stress.
n
Thinning of the hair, called alopecia can occur in both sexes, usually as a result of aging.
Exocrine Glands of the Skin
n
Sweat (sudoriferous) glands produce a watery solution that performs several specific functions.
n
merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands
n
apocrine sweat glands
n
Sebaceous glands produce an oily material that coats hair shafts and the epidermal surface.

Other Integumentary Glands

n
Ceruminous glands
n
Mammary glands
n
modified apocrine sweat glands
Burns
n
Major cause of accidental death, primarily as a result of their effects on the skin.
n
Usually caused by heat, radiation, harmful chemicals, sunlight, or electrical shock.
n
The immediate threat to life results primarily from fluid loss, infection, and the effects of burned, dead tissue.
n
Burns are classified according to the depth of tissue involvement.
Classification of Burns
n
First- and second-degree burns are called partial-thickness burns.
n
Third-degree burns are called full-thickness burns.
n
first-degree burns involve only the epidermis and are characterized by redness, pain, and slight edema
n
an example is sunburn
Classification of Burns
n
Second-degree burns involve the epidermis and part of the dermis.
n
The skin appears red, tan, or white, and is blistered and painful.
n
An example is a scald.
Classification of Burns
n
Third-degree burns involve the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer, which are often destroyed.
n
Regeneration may occur from the edge only, due to the absence of dermis.
n
Skin grafting is required to prevent abnormal connective tissue fibrosis and disfigurement.
n
Dehydration is a major concern because the entire portion of skin has been lost, and water cannot be retained.
n
Must be aggressively treated for dehydration.
Aging of the Integument
n
Skin repair processes take longer due to reduced number and activity of stem cells.
n
Skin forms wrinkles and becomes less resilient.
n
Skins immune responsiveness is diminished.
n
Skin becomes drier due to decreased sebaceous gland activity.
n
Altered skin and hair pigmentation.
Aging of the Integument
n
Sweat production diminishes.
n
Blood supply to the dermis is reduced leading to impaired thermoregulation.
n
Hair thinning and loss.
n
Integumentary production of vitamin D3 diminishes.
n
Development of skin cancers.
Skin Cancer
n
The most common type of cancer.
n
The greatest risk factor is exposure to UV rays of the sun.
n
The highest incidence is in people who have had severe sunburns, especially as children.
Chapter 6: Cartilage and Bone Connective Tissue
General Osteology /Arthrology
n
Definitions:
n
Osteology: the study of bones
n
Bones: organs of the skeletal system
n
Skeletal System: bones and associated cartilages
n
Arthrology: the study of joints
n
Point of movement (fulcrum)
n
Endoskeleton: internal skeleton
n
endo- = inside
n
Versus exoskeleton
Skeletal System
n
Composed of dynamic living tissues

n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

Osseous tissue, cartilage, fibrous CT, blood, nervous tissue.

Continually rebuilds and remodels itself
Changes over a lifetime
Interacts with all of the other organ systems.
Includes:
bones of the skeleton
Cartilage
Ligaments
other connective tissues that stabilize or connect the bones.

Functions:

Supports our weight.

n
Interacts with muscles to produce movements.
n
Protection
n
Blood cell formation
n
Red bone marrow
n
Mineral storage
n
Calcium
n
phosphate
Cartilage Connective Tissue
Characteristics:
n
Weaker than bone
n
More flexible than bone
n
Cells in an abundant matrix.
n
Cell Types
n
Chondroblasts
n
Chondrocytes in lacunae
n
Avascular
3 Major Functions of Cartilage
n
Supporting soft tissues.
n
Providing a gliding surface at articulations (joints)
n
Providing a model for the formation of most of the bones in the body.
Types of Cartilage
n
Three types of cartilage:
n
Hyaline cartilage
n
Most abundant kind
n
Has a perichondrium (membrane)
n
Associated with synovial joints
n
Most bones first modeled in hyaline cartilage
n
Fibrocartilage
n
Has collagen fibers
n
Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis
n
Elastic cartilage
n
Has elastic fibers
n
Ear, respiratory tubing
Growth Patterns of Cartilage
n
Two main types:
n
Interstitial Growth
n
Appositional Growth.
n
Interstitial Growth.
n
Chondrocytes in lacuna undergoes mitosis.
n
Two chondrocytes in one lacuna
n
Will push apart, form separate lacuna
Growth Patterns of Cartilage
n
Appositional Growth.
n
Undifferentiated cells divide (mitosis)
n
One daughter cell remains a stem cell, one differentiates into a committed cell.

n
Committed cell further differentiates into chondroblast
n
Located at edge of cartilage
n
Both types common during growth
n
Later, mostly appositional
n
In adult, usually no growth unless for repair
Bone
n
Bones are organs
n
Bones are composed of all tissue types.
n
Their primary component is osseous connective tissue.
n
The matrix is sturdy and rigid due to calcification (also called mineralization).
Functions of Bone
n
Support.
n
Protection.
n
Movement
n
Hemopoiesis
n
Storage of minerals.
n
Energy Reserves (marrow)
Support and Protection
n
Bones provide structural support and serve as a framework for the entire body.
n
Bones protect many delicate tissues and organs from injury and trauma.
Movement
n
Muscles attach to the bones of the skeleton
n
contract and pull on bone
n
functions as a series of levers.
Hemopoiesis
n
Blood cell production in red bone marrow
n
located in some spongy bone.
n
Red bone marrow contains stem cells
n
form all of the blood cell types.
Storage of Mineral and Energy Reserves
n
More than 90% of the bodys reserves of the minerals calcium and phosphate are stored and released by bone.
n
Calcium: needed for
n
muscle contraction
n
blood clotting
n
nerve impulse transmission.
n
Phosphate: needed for
n
ATP utilization
n
structure of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)
Classification of Bone by Organization
n
Axial
n
Skull
n
Vertebral column
n
Thorax
n
Sternum
n
ribs
n
Appendicular
n
Pectoral
n
Girdle
n
appendage
n
Pelvic
n
Girdle
n
appendage
Classification of Bone by Shape
n
Long
n
Short
n
Flat
n
Irregular
n
Surface features vary

Structure of Long Bone

n
Diaphysis
n
Epiphysis
n
proximal
n
distal
n
Metaphysis
n
Epiphyseal line
n
Articular cartilage
n
Medullary cavity
Structure of Long Bone
n
Endostium: lines marrow cavity, incomplete
n
Osteoprogenitor cells
n
Osteoblasts
n
Osteoclasts
n
Periostium: covers bone everywhere but articular surfaces
n
Two layers
n
Fibrous layer: outermost, dense irregular CT
n
Site of tendon attachment
n
Inner layer: next to compact bone
n
Osteoblasts present in young bone
n
Anchored to bone by perforating fibers (collagen)
Flat Bones of the Skull
n
Two layers of compact bone
n
Inner table
n
Outer table
n
Region of spongy bone sandwiched between them
n
Called the diploe
n
Both layers of compact bone are covered by periosteum
Four Types of Bone Cells
n
Osteoprogenitor cells
n
stem cells derived from mesenchyme which produce other stem cells and osteoblasts
n
Osteoblasts
n
produce new bone, and once osteoblasts become entrapped in the matrix they produce and secrete, they differentiate into
osteocytes
n
Osteocytes
n
mature bone cells
n
Osteoclasts: not derived form osteoprogenitors
n
Related to macrophages
n
Formed from multiple cells; are multinucleated
n
are involved in bone resorption
Osteoclasts
n
Located in Howships lacuna
n
Ruffled edge contacts bone
n
Secrete hydrochloric acid
n
Dissolves minerals

osteolysis

Lysosomes

Secrete enzymes that dissolve matrix

Composition of Bone Matrix

Organic components: one third

Cells

Collagen fibers

Ground substance

Inorganic components: two thirds


Calcium phosphate

Hydroxyapatite crystals: calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide

Types of Osseous Tissue

Compact

Dense, cortical

Spongy

Cancellous, trabecular
Compact Bone Microanatomy

Osteon (Haversian) system: basic unit

Central (Haversian) canal

Concentric lamellae

Contain collagen fibers

Osteocytes

Lacunae

Canaliculi: permit intercellular communication

Cylinder that runs with long axis of long bone

Compact Bone Microanatomy

Perforating canals (Volkmann canals)

Contain blood vessels, nerve

Run perpendicular to central canals, connect them

Circumferential lamellae

Internal to periostium

External circumferential lamellae

Internal to endosteum

Internal circumferential lamellae

Run the entire circumference

Interstitial lamellae

Remains of osteons

Spongy Bone Microanatomy

No osteons

In trabeculae:

Parallel lamellae

Osteocytes in lacunae

canaliculi
Ossification

Osteogenesis: bone formation and development

Begins in the embryo: By the eighth through twelfth weeks:

the skeleton begins forming:

from mesenchyme

or from a hyaline cartilage model of bone.

These models are replaced by hard bone

Continues during childhood and adolescence.

In the adult, ossification continues.

Intramembranous Ossification

Also called dermal ossification

Produces:

the flat bones of the skull (cranial vault)

some of the facial bones (zygomatic bone, maxilla), the mandible (lower jaw)

the central part of the clavicle (collarbone).

It begins when mesenchyme becomes thickened and condensed with a dense supply of blood capillaries.
Intramembranous Ossification

1. Ossification centers form in thickened mesenchyme

Osteoprogenitors develop, become osteoblasts

2. Osteoid (bone matrix) calcifies

Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes

Intramembranous Ossification


3. Woven bone (primary bone) forms, periostium forms (from mesenchyme)

4. Lamellar bone (secondary bone) replaces woven bone; compact and spongy bone form
Endochondral Ossification

Begins with a hyaline cartilage model

Produces most of the other bones of the skeleton

Long bone will be used as an example.

Endochondral Ossification

Steps:

1. Cartilage model develops:

Chondroblasts become chondrocytes

Perichondrium develops

2. Cartilage calcification, bone collar develops in shaft

Chondrocytes hypertrophy, then die

Blood vessels grow toward cartilage

Osteoblasts under perichondrium form bone

3. Primary Ossification center forms:

Periosteal bud: osteoblasts and blood vessels

12th week: most have formed

Endochondral Ossification

Steps:

3. Secondary Ossification centers:

In epiphysis

Some form post-natally

4. Cartilage replaced by bone

Except articular cartilage, epiphyseal plate

5. Epiphyseal plate ossifies:

Forms epiphyseal line

Between 10 and 25

Last clavicle
Epiphyseal Plate Morphology

Hyaline cartilage

5 zones: from epiphysis to diaphysis

Zone of resting cartilage

Small chondrocytes in cartilage matrix

Looks like healthy cartilage

Secures epiphyseal plate to epiphysis

Zone of proliferating cartilage

Chondrocytes here are undergoing rapid mitosis

Stack up in columns
Epiphyseal Plate Morphology

Zone of hypertrophic cartilage

Chondrocytes stop dividing

Start hypertrophy

Absorb matrix

Zone of calcified cartilage

Few cells thick

Calcification of matrix

Kills the chondrocytes

Zone of ossification

Invasion by capillaries and osteoprogenitor cells

Bone Growth

Interstitial growth occurs in the epiphyseal plate as chondrocytes undergo mitosis

Growth in length

Appositional growth occurs within the periosteum.

Growth in diameter, thickness

Bone Remodeling


The continual deposition of new bone tissue and the removal (resorption) of old bone tissue.

helps maintain calcium and phosphate levels in body fluids, and can be stimulated by stress on a bone

occurs at both the periosteal and endosteal surfaces of a bone

Relative rates differ with age, bone

Blood Supply and Innervation

Bone is highly vascularized, especially in regions containing red bone marrow.

Kinds of blood vessels

Nutrient artery and the nutrient vein

supply the diaphysis of a long bone

Metaphyseal blood vessels

Diaphyseal face of epiphyseal plate

Periosteal blood vessels

Supply superficial osteons on diaphysis.

Effects of Hormones

Control and regulate growth patterns in bone by altering the rates of both osteoblast and osteoclast activity.

Growth hormone (Pituitary gland): affects bone growth by stimulating the formation of another hormone, somatomedin
which is produced by the liver.

Somatomedin: directly stimulates growth of cartilage in the epiphyseal plate.

Effects of Hormones

Thyroid hormone (Thyroid gland): stimulates bone growth.

Growth hormone and thyroid hormone regulate and maintain normal activity at the epiphyseal plates until puberty.

Calcitonin (Thyroid gland): inhibits osteoclast activity.

Parathyroid Hormone (Parathyroid gland): increases blood calcium levels, stimulates osteoclast activity

Sex Hormones: gonads

Increase rate of bone formation

Production associated with puberty

Effects of Vitamins

Vitamin A: activates osteoblasts

Vitamin C: normal synthesis of collagen

Vitamin D: absorption and transport of calcium and phosphate

Chapter 7 Lecture Outline: Axial Skeleton
Skeletal System
The bones of the skeleton form an internal framework to support soft tissues, protect vital organs, bear the bodys weight, and help
us move.
Typically, there are 206 bones in an adult skeleton, although this number varies in some individuals.
A larger number of bones are present at birth, but the total number decreases with growth and maturity as some separate bones fuse.
Skeletal System

The axial skeleton is composed of the bones along the central axis of the body,

the skull

the vertebral column

the thoracic cage

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the appendages

upper and lower limbs

the bones that hold the limbs to the trunk of the body.
The Skull

Cranial bones form the rounded cranium, which completely surrounds and encloses the brain.

Facial bones form the bones of the face. They also

protect the entrances to the digestive and respiratory systems as well as

provide attachment sites for facial muscles

The Mandible

The lower jaw is formed by the mandible.

The prominent chin of the mandible is called the mental protuberance.

Cavities of The Skull

The largest cavity is the cranial cavity, which encloses, cushions, and supports the brain.

The skull also has several smaller cavities, including the orbits (eye sockets), the oral cavity (mouth), the nasal cavity, and the
paranasal sinuses.
Markings of the Skull

Numerous bone markings

canals

fissures

foramina

passageways for blood vessels and nerves

Sutures of the Skull

Sutures are immovable fibrous joints that form the boundaries between the cranial bones.

Dense regular connective tissue seals cranial bones firmly together at a suture.

Allow the cranium to grow and expand during childhood.

In adulthood, when cranial growth has stopped, the sutures fuse and are obliterated.
Sinuses

Have a mucous lining that helps to humidify and warm inhaled air.

Cause these skull bones to be lighter.

Provide resonance to the voice.

Auditory Ossicles

Three tiny ear bones called auditory ossicles are housed within the petrous region of each temporal bone.

the malleus

the incus

the stapes
Hyoid Bone

Slender, curved bone located inferior to the skull between the mandible and the larynx (voice box).

Does not articulate with any other bone in the skeleton.

Serves as sites for attachment for tongue and larynx muscles and ligaments.
Fontanels

The regions between the cranial bones are thickened, fibrous membrane remnants that are not yet ossified.

Sometimes referred to as the soft spots on a babys head.

They close by 15 months of age.

When a baby travels through the birth canal, the cranial bones overlap at these fontanels, in order to ease the babys passage.

Newborns frequently have a cone-shaped head due to this temporary deformation.

The Vertebral Column

Composed of 26 bones, including

24 individual vertebrae and the

fused vertebrae that form both the sacrum and the coccyx

The vertebral column has several functions:

providing vertical support for the body

supporting the weight of the head

helping to maintain upright body position

helping to transfer axial skeletal weight to the appendicular skeleton of the lower limbs

housing and protecting the delicate spinal cord and providing a passageway for spinal nerves connecting to the spinal cord
Three Main Spinal Curvature Deformities

Kyphosis is an exaggerated thoracic curvature that is directed posteriorly, producing a hunchback look.

Lordosis is an exaggerated lumbar curvature, often called swayback, that is observed as a protrusion of the abdomen and
buttocks.

Scoliosis is an abnormal lateral curvature that sometimes results during development when both the vertebral arch and body
fail to form, or form incompletely, on one side of a vertebra.

scoliosis is the most common spinal curvature deformity.

Thoracic Cage

Consists of the thoracic vertebrae posteriorly, the ribs laterally, and the sternum anteriorly.

Acts as a protective cage around vital organs, such as the heart, lungs, trachea, and esophagus.

Provides attachment points for many muscles supporting the pectoral girdles, the chest, the neck, the shoulders, the back, and
the muscles involved in respiration.
Ribs

Both males and females 12 pairs

Ribs 17 are called true ribs. At the anterior body wall, the true ribs connect individually to the sternum by separate
cartilaginous extensions called costal cartilages.

Ribs 812 are called false ribs because their costal cartilages do not attach directly to the sternum. The costal cartilages of
ribs 810 fuse to the costal cartilage of rib 7 and thus indirectly articulate with the sternum.

The last two pairs of false ribs (ribs 11 and 12) are called floating ribs because they have no connection with the sternum.
Chapter 9 Lecture Outline:Articulations
Articulations

A joint, or articulation, is the place of contact between bones, between bone and cartilage, or between bones and teeth.
Naming of Joints

Usually derived from the names of the articulating bones.

Mobility and Stability in Joints

Motion permitted ranges from none to various extensive motions.

Structure determines both its mobility and its stability.

more mobile = less stable

Classification of Joints

Type of connective tissue that binds the articulating surfaces of the bones.

Whether a space occurs between the articulating bones.

Classification of Joints

A fibrous joint occurs where bones are held together by dense regular (fibrous) connective tissue.

A cartilaginous joint occurs where bones are joined by cartilage.

A synovial joint

has a fluid-filled synovial cavity

bones are enclosed within a capsule

bones are joined by various ligaments

Classification of Joints

Functionally based on the extent of movement they permit:

Synarthrosis is an immovable joint.

Amphiarthrosis is a slightly movable joint.

Diarthrosis is a freely movable joint.

Fibrous Joints

Most are immovable or only slightly movable.

Have no joint cavity.

Three types.

gomphoses

sutures

syndesmoses
Types of Fibrous Joints
Syndesmoses

Fibrous joints in which articulating bones are joined by ligaments only.

Allow for slight movement.

classified as amphiarthroses

Cartilaginous Joints

Bones are attached to each other by cartilage.

Lack a joint cavity.

Two types.

synchondroses

symphyses

symphyses are amphiarthrose

Synovial Joints

Freely movable articulations

Classified as diarthroses

Bones are separated by a space called a joint cavity

Most of the commonly known joints in the body

glenohumeral (shoulder) joint

temporomandibular joint

elbow joint

knee joint
General Anatomy of Synovial Joints

Basic features:

articular capsule

joint cavity

synovial fluid

articular cartilage

ligaments

nerves

blood vessels
General Anatomy of Synovial Joints Accessory Structures

Bursae

fibrous, saclike structure that contains synovial fluid and is lined by a synovial membrane

Fatpads

often distributed along the periphery of a synovial joint

act as packing material and provide some protection for the joint

fill the spaces that form when bones move and the joint cavity changes shape

Tendons

attaches a muscle to a bone

help stabilize joints

Types of Synovial Joints

Classified by the shapes of their articulating surfaces

Types of movement they allow

uniaxial if the bone moves in just one plane

biaxial if the bone moves in two planes

multiaxial (or triaxial) if the bone moves in multiple planes

Types of Synovial Joints

From least movable to most freely movable, the six specific types of synovial joints are:

planar (gliding) joints

hinge joints

pivot joints

condyloid (ellipsoid) joints

saddle joints

ball-and-socket joints
Arthritis

A group of inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints that occur in various forms.

swelling of the joint

pain

stiffness

Most prevalent crippling disease in the United States.

gouty arthritis
osteoarthritis
rheumatoid arthritis