Failure Theories for Brittle Materials

& Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading
MEE 311 Machine Design
Kitchanon Ruangjirakit, Ph.D.

Contents
Failure Theories for Brittle Materials
Maximum-Normal-Stress (MNS) Theory
Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM) Theory
Modified Mohr Theory

Selection of Failure Criteria

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics
Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable Loading
Fatigue Failure in Analysis
Endurance Limit
2

Maximum-Normal-Stress (MNS) Theory

The Maximum-Normal-Stress (MNS) Theory says that failure occurs
whenever one of the three principal stresses equals or exceeds the
strength.
For general state of stress, the principal stresses are arranged as 1
2 3, and failure occurs when

1 S ut
Ultimate Tensile Strength

or

3 S uc
Ultimate Compressive Strength

Maximum-Normal-Stress (MNS) Theory

For plane stress with A B , the failure occurs when

A S ut

or

B S uc

The Design Equations are

S ut
A
n

or

S uc
B
n
4

Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr
This theory is based on Coulomb-Mohr theory for ductile material
discussed earlier.
For plane stress, A B.
Coulomb-Mohr for Ductile Material

Coulomb-Mohr for Brittle Material

Modified Mohr
This theory is based on Coulomb-Mohr theory for ductile material
discussed earlier.
Case 1: 0
For plane stress, A B.

A 0 B

Case 1

Sut
n

Suc Sut A B
Suc Sut

Suc

1 A 3 B

1
n
1 0 3 B

Case 3: 0 A B

B
Case 3

1 A 3 0

B
1
A

Case 2: A 0 B
Case 2

and

Suc
n

Selection of Failure Criteria

NOTE: The MaximumNormalStress theory is excluded from the figure above as the other
theories better represent the experimental data.

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

The idea of Damage-Tolerant design assumes that cracks exist in
parts even before the service begins, and that cracks can grow during
service.
Once the crack growth reaches its critical point, then the part is
removed from service.
The tool used for this type of analysis is called Linear Elastic Fracture
Mechanics (LEFM).
8

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

The stress-concentration factors used to identify the maximum
stresses of a part where there is an abrupt change in the part
geometry is useful when all dimensions are precisely known.
However, where there is a crack, flaw, inclusion, or defect of unknown
small radius in a part, the elastic stress-concentration factor
approaches infinity as the root radius approaches zero, thus the
stress-concentration factor approach becomes useless.

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

For an infinite plate loaded by an applied uniaxial
stress , the maximum stress occurs at (a, 0) and
is given by

Griffith showed that the crack growth occurs when

the energy release rate from applied loading is
greater than the rate of energy for crack growth.
Crack growth can be stable or unstable.
10

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

There are three distinct modes of crack propagation.
1. Mode I (the opening crack propagation mode, the most common in
practice)
2. Mode II (the sliding mode, is due to in-plane shear)
3. Mode III (the tearing mode, which arises from out-of-plane shear)

11

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

Consider a mode I crack of length 2a in the infinite plate.

y 0

2r

y 0 as r 0

12

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

It is common practice to define a factor K called the stress intensity
factor.
K a

For mode I crack, K I a

The stress intensity factor is NOT
to be confused with the static
stress-concentration factors Kt
and Kts.
13

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

The stress intensity factor is a function of geometry, size and shape
of the crack, and the type of loading.
For various load and geometric configurations
K I a K I a
where is the stress intensity modification factor

14

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

When the magnitude of the mode I stress intensity factor reaches a
critical value, KIc, crack propagation initiates.
The critical stress intensity factor KIc is a material property that
depends on the material, crack mode, processing of the material,
temperature, loading rate, and the state of stress at the crack site
(such as plane stress versus plane strain).
The critical stress intensity factor KIc is also called the fracture
toughness of the material.
15

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading
For some machine elements, the stresses on the element vary with
time or they fluctuate between different levels. For example, a
bending stress acting on rotating shaft.
These and other kinds of loading occurring in machine members
produce stresses that are called variable, repeated, alternating, or
fluctuating stresses.

16

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading

17

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading

18

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading
When a machine part fails under variable loading condition, the
actual maximum stresses are found to be below the ultimate strength
of the material, and quite frequently below the yield strength. This
type of failure is called Fatigue Failure.
Fatigue failure gives no warning! It is sudden and total, and hence
dangerous.

19

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading
The appearance of the fracture
surface resulting from fatigue failure
is quite similar to the surface of
brittle fracture surface.
The fracture features of a fatigue
failure arise from three stages of
development.

20

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading
Stage I (A)
The initiation of one or more
microcracks due to cyclic plastic
deformation followed by
crystallographic propagation extending
from two to five grains about the
origin.
Cracks are not normally visible to the
naked eye.

21

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading
Stage II (B)
The microcracks become macrocracks
forming parallel plateau-like fracture
surfaces separated by longitudinal
ridges. These plateau-like surfaces are
smooth and normal to the direction of
maximum tensile stress and are called
beachmarks.
The beachmark appearance depends
on the changes in the level or
frequency of loading.
22

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading
Stage III (C)
In the final stage, the remaining
material cannot support the loads,
hence, a sudden, fast fracture occurs.
The fracture surface of the final stage
can be ductile, brittle or a combination
of both.

23

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading

24

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading

25

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading

26

Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable

Loading

27

Fatigue-Life Methods
The three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis are
1. Stress-life method +++
2. Strain-life method and
3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method.

These methods try to predict the life in number of cycles to failure, N.

1 N 103 cycles

low-cycle fatigue

N > 103

high-cycle fatigue

cycles

28

Fatigue-Life Methods
The stress-life method, based on stress levels only, is the least
accurate approach. However, it is the most traditional method, since
it is the easiest to implement for a wide range of design applications.
The strain-life method involves more detailed analysis of the plastic
deformation at localized regions where the stresses and strains are
considered for life estimates. This method is especially good for lowcycle fatigue applications.
The fracture mechanics method assumes a crack is already present
and detected. It is then employed to predict crack growth with
respect to stress intensity.
29

Stress-Life Methods
The fatigue strength can be determined by testing specimens
subjected to specified varying or repeated loads and the number of
cycles are counted to destruction.
The most popular fatigue-testing device is the R.R. Moore high-speed
rotating-beam machine

30

Stress-Life Methods
For steels, S-N diagram exhibits
the so-called endurance limit
(Se) or fatigue limit. If the
materials are subjected to the
stress below this value, failure
will not occur, no matter how
great the number of cycles.
For nonferrous metals and
alloys, there will be no
endurance limit.
31

Stress-Life Methods
For aluminum, there will be no
endurance limit.
The fatigue strength is
reported at a specific number
of cycles, normally at N =
5(10)8 cycles of reversed
stress.

32

Strain-Life Methods
The low-cycle fatigue behavior of a
large number of very high-strength
steels was investigated, and many
cyclic stress-strain plots were
constructed to show the general
appearance of material behaviour for
the first few cycles of controlled cyclic
strain.
In this case the strength decreases
with stress repetitions, as evidenced by
the fact that the reversals occur at
ever-smaller stress levels.

33

Strain-Life Methods
Other materials may be strengthened,
instead, by cyclic stress reversals.
It was reported that the life in
reversals to failure is related to the
strain amplitude /2.
e p

2
2
2
34

Strain-Life Methods
The equation of the plastic-strain line is
p
2

F ( 2 N)c

The equation of the elastic-strain line is

e F

( 2 N)b
2
E

Hence, the Manson-Coffin relationship

between fatigue life and total strain is

( 2 N)b F ( 2 N)c
2
E
35

The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics

Method
The crack growth in fatigue can be divided into 3 phases.
Stage I:

Crystal slip that extends through several contiguous grains

Invisible to the observer
Involves several grains.

Stage II:

Crack extension
The advance of the crack can be observed on micrographs from an electron
microscope.

Stage III:

Final fracture occurs.

When the crack is sufficiently long that KI = KIc for the stress amplitude involved,
(KIc is the critical stress intensity for the undamaged metal) and there is sudden,
catastrophic failure of the remaining cross section in tensile overload. This stage
fatigue is associated with rapid acceleration of crack growth then fracture.
36

The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics

Method
Fatigue cracks nucleate and grow when stresses vary and there is
some tension in each stress cycle. Consider the stress to be
fluctuating between the limits of min and max, where the stress
range is defined as = max min.
The stress intensity is given by
K I a

Thus, for , the stress intensity range per cycle is

K I max min a

K I a

37

The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics

Method
A simplified procedure for estimating the
remaining life of a cyclically stressed part after
discovery of a crack. (on the assumption of
plane strain condition)
Assuming a crack is discovered early in stage II,
the crack growth in region II of can be
approximated by the Paris equation, which is of
the form
da
m
C K I
dN

where C and m are empirical material constants

38

The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics

Method

da
m
C K I gives
By integrating the equation
dN

Nf

1 af
da
dN N f
C ai a

Here ai is the initial crack length, af is the final crack length

corresponding to failure, and Nf is the estimated number of
cycles to produce a failure after the initial crack is formed.
Note that may vary in the integration variable.

39

Endurance Limit
For steels, the endurance limit S e varies between 40% and 60% of the
tensile strength up to approximately 210 kpsi (1450 MPa). Beginning at
about Sut = 1450 MPa, the scatter appears to increase, but the trend seems
to level off at S e = 735 MPa.

Sut 200 kpsi 1400 MPa

0.5Sut

S e' 100 kpsi Sut 200 kpsi

735MPa S 1400 MPa

ut

40