Teachers' Emotions and Classroom Effectiveness: Implications from Recent Research

Author(s): Rosemary E. Sutton

Source: The Clearing House, Vol. 78, No. 5, The Relevance of Educational Psychology to
Teacher Education (May - Jun., 2005), pp. 229-234
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Teachers' Emotions and

Classroom Effectiveness
from
Implications

Recent

Research

ROSEMARY
E.SUTTON

motivation, and emotions are recogCognition,

nized by psychologists as the three fundamental
classes of mental operations (Mayer, Salovey, and
Caruso 2000), yet most research in educational psychology has focused on the first two classes. Educational psychology textbooks for preservice teachers
contain chapters on learning, problem solving,
assessment, and motivation, but not on emotions
(such as Ormrod 2002). One reason for this is the
"suspicion in Western culture that there is something
wrong with emotions" (Oatley and Jenkins 1996).
Emotions are often thought of as out of control,
destructive, and primitive rather than thoughtful, civilized, and adult. In contrast, recent research has
shown that emotions are an essential part of a productive adult life and are important in understanding
the goals we attain (Tice, Bratslavsky, and Baumeister
2001). In addition, emotion and cognitive processing
are integrated in some areas of the brain (Ochsner
and Barrett 2001), and effective decision making
involves both emotion and cognitive processing
(Damasio 1994). Preservice teachers need to understand that their own and their students' emotions will
permeate the classroom and influence their goals,
motivation, problem solving, and teaching strategies
(Hargreaves 2000; Sutton and Wheatley 2003). In
addition, learning how to modify or regulate emotions while teaching should strengthen beginning
teachers' effectiveness (Sutton 2004).
In this article, I present an overview of current
research on emotions, and discuss teachers' positive
emotions and evidence that expression of positive
emotions helps teachers' effectiveness. I also discuss
teachers' negative emotions and strategies teachers
can use to reduce their negative emotions.

Emotions Are Complex Processes

Most research psychologists believe that emotions are
processes that consist of multiple components, including appraisal, subjective experience, physiological
change, emotional expression, and action tendencies.
The emotion process typically begins with a judgment or appraisal that involves the interpretation of
some interaction in terms of its relevance for the individual's goals or concerns (Roseman and Smith 2001).
Positive emotions (such as happiness and satisfaction)
involve pleasure and occur when one is making
progress toward a goal. Negative emotions (such as
anger and disgust) indicate that goals are thwarted or
personal concerns are heightened. Because goals and
concerns vary among individuals, so do the appraisals
of the same triggering event. For example, if a student
curses at a teacher and refuses to do any work, one
teacher may become angry,perceiving this as a demeaning offense, whereas another teacher may be sad, perceiving this as a deficit that has arisen from parental
neglect or abuse.
The appraisal component of the emotion process is
central to the understanding of culture's role in emotion: "Cultures differ in the kinds of events that attract
attention; arouse immediate pleasant or unpleasant
feelings; are seen as one's own fault or someone else's,
or no one's; or are perceived as obstacles" (Ellsworth
1994, 29-30). This means that when students or teachers from different cultures have a different appraisal of
a classroom event, they will experience different emotions. These different emotions, in turn, are likely to
influence how teachers think about and interact with
students, and can easily lead to cultural misunderstandings. Of course, these differing appraisals also
influence how students interact with other students and

RosemaryE. Sutton is a professorof curriculumand foundationsand directorof assessment at ClevelandState University.Her currentresearchinterestsare teachers'emotions and the consequencesof teachertesting.
229

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The Clearing House

230

their teachers. For example, unexpected events are less

likely to be perceived by Korean students than their
non-Korean peers or teachers as surprising, probably
because of the holistic reasoning common in East
Asians (Choi and Nisbett 2000). This may have particular implications for teachers who deliberately use cognitive surprise as a motivational technique.
The subjective experience of emotions (also called
affect) is a distinct type of private mental state. Thus,
happiness does not feel like frustration or sadness.
Teachers who feel much happiness and little frustration have a different teaching experience than those
who feel constant frustration and little happiness. We
often use metaphors to portray emotions; anger is
described in terms of fire, heat, or blowing off steam
(Gottman, Katz, and Hooven 1997). For example, one
teacher said, "Iwas very angry, and if steam could come
out of my nose and ears, it probably could [sic]" (Sutton and Wheatley 2003, 330).
Physiologicalchangesinclude body temperature, heart
rate, and blood pressure, and emotion expressions
involve facial expressions (Cacioppo, et al. 2000; Keltner and Ekman 2000). These changes are not only felt
by teachers but can be observed by students and may
also influence students' behavior. For example, when
asked how successfully she masked her emotions, one
teacher said:
Not very... they know when I am not myself.And they
know..,. when my body languageis not sayingwhat my
mouth is saying... . Sometimesthey will come and ask
me, are you sure you are ok? (Sutton and Wheatley
2003, 331)

Emotions also involve response or action tendencies.

A teacher may want to laugh out loud at a student's
joke, or feel an impulse to publicly embarrass a student
who is disrespectful. These action tendencies can be
modulated or regulated: the first teacher might keep
his face passive and the second teacher may just quietly say, "Please see me after class." Action tendencies
associated with emotions are often so powerful that
they temporarily override longer-term goals. For example, one teacher said,
Well, if I get really angry . . . it's really hard for me to
cover it up ... and then sometimes I regret [getting

angry]becauseI'malwaystryingto stayin control.When

someone finds the right button to push

that

upsetsme... when I look back... I'mupsetwith myself

for lettingmyselfget upset. (Suttonand Wheatley2003,
331)

The components of the emotion process influence

each other. For example, the subjective experience of
anger is typically associated with specific facial
expressions, action tendencies to strike out, and the
appraisal of blaming others (Roseman 2001). However, these processes are also partially independent.
For example, when angry, some individuals and

May/June 2005

groups have an impulse to move away rather than

moving toward and striking out (Mesquita, Frijda,
and Sherer 1997). The subjective experience of an
emotion process does not always correspond to a
particular physiological response. For example, in a
study of married couples, the more negative husbands reported they felt, the more they were physiologically aroused, whereas for wives, there was no
relationship between the subjective negative affect
and physiological arousal (Levenson, Carstensen,
and Gottman 1994). These cultural and individual
differences in the relationship between the components of emotions may make it difficult for students
to recognize the emotions in their peers and teachers.
For example, while negative physiological arousal
and momentary facial changes associated with emotions are often observed through nonverbal cues,
negative affect is a subjective feeling and cannot be
directly observed. Do students find it more difficult
to recognize teachers' subjective negative affect and
consequently modify their own behavior before the
situation escalates if their teacher does not experience negative physiological arousal when she experiences subjective negative affect?
Recentresearchbased on the multicomponential view
of emotions implies that teachers have different emotional experiences in the classroom in terms of how they
appraisf or interpret common student behaviors, their
physiological responses, and the intensity of their action
tendencies. However, the emotions that all individuals
experience, including teachers, are related to their own
thinking and behavior and influence others. Observers
often respond automatically to momentary involuntary
facial changes associated with emotions (Dimberg,
Thunberg, and Elmehed 2000), and students are aware
of and influenced by teachers' positive and negative
emotions (Sutton and Wheatley 2003).

Sources and Effectiveness of Teachers'

Positive Emotions
Teachers say that much of the joy and pleasure
comes from their interactions with students: watching
them learn and make progress, getting to know them as
individuals, and having former students come back to
talk to them (Sutton and Wheatley 2003). Teachers
often experience particularpleasure when students succeed after struggling initially. For example, a physical
education teacher said:
Oh, it'sgreat... whenyou see students[succeed]who you
know don't have that athleticabilityor those necessary
skills... I haveto sayI enjoymostto see the studentswho
aren'tas well skilledas the otherstudents. . . Shootinga
basket,throwinga ball at the targetaccurately.1
Teachers often enjoy their relationships with students, spending time with them in school and attend-

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Vol. 78, No. 5

Teachers' Emotions and Classroom Effectiveness

ing extracurricular activities (Hargreaves 2000). One

veteran teacher explained:
I go to theirconcerts,I go to their plays.I havestudents
who come backand that'sthe touchstonefor me, that's
what keeps me anchored... And I like the age. I know
a lot of people thinkit'sa difficultage,workingwith 13and 14-year-olds,but I like it.
Teachers also experience positive emotions when
they get everything planned done, when colleagues are
supportive, and when parents respect teachers' judgments and support their efforts (Sutton and Wheatley
2003). Some teachers find teaching unpredictable and
exciting. This is more common for beginning teachers
who can be exhilarated by having their own students
and classrooms (Huberman 1993).
Teachers' positive emotions help them in the classroom. Ninety-seven percent of over four hundred teachers surveyed in Ohio reported that showing positive
emotions made them more effective (Sutton and Knight
2004). Middle school students who believed that teachers cared about them were more likely to be helpful,
cooperative, and to follow classroom rules and norms
(Wentzel 1996). Observational research has indicated
that middle school students were more likely to be mastery oriented and less likely to use task avoidance and
self handicapping strategies in classrooms where teachers communicated positive emotions and humor (Turner, Midgley, et al. 2002; Turner,Meyer,et al. 2003).
Recent experimental research indicates that positive emotions influence thinking by widening the
array of thoughts and actions that come to mind. In
one study, research participants were shown short
film clips that induced positive, neutral, or negative
emotions. They were then asked to imagine themselves being in the situation in which similar emotions would arise and to list the things they would do
right then. This is a way to measure immediate reactions. The participants who experienced the positive
emotions generated significantly more ideas than
those who experienced negative or neutral emotions
(Fredrickson and Branigan 2001). This suggests that
when teachers experience positive emotions in the
classroom, they are able to think of more ideas and a
wider range of behaviors than when they experience
negative or neutral emotions.
Positive emotions can "undo" the subjective and
physiological components of negative emotions and
stress. Caregiversof terminally ill AIDS patients reported
ameliorating their high levels of stress through the use of
positive emotions (Folkman et al. 1997), and cardiovascular recoveryfrom high-arousal negative emotions was
faster for those individuals who experienced positive
emotions (Fredricksonet al. 2000). Thus, positive emotions should help counter the daily experience of negative emotions and stress common to teachers.
Unfortunately, people cannot will themselves into a

231

particular emotion. Emotions unfold from individuals'

appraisals of particular situations, and these appraisals
are the result of unique personal histories and goals
and can be difficult to control (Fredrickson 2002).
However, individuals can seek personal meaning from
situations that they know helped trigger positive emotions at an earlier time. For many teachers, those situations involve observing students learning and making
progress, as well as fostering interpersonal relationships with students. Those teachers more skilled at
finding the personal meaning that elicits more positive
emotions in their work are likely to be more effective
in interactions with students, be able to generate a
wide variety of ideas when teaching, and cope better
with the daily stress of teaching.

Teachers' Negative Emotions and

Down-regulation Strategies
Teachers experience strong negative emotionsespecially anger and frustration-from a number of
sources related to disruptions of their goals. These
include students' violation of rules and poor student
academic work due to controllable factors such as laziness or inattention. Factors outside the classroom that
make it difficult to teach well (such as uncooperative
colleagues and parents) are also sources of negative
emotions (Sutton and Wheatley 2003).
Negative emotions, especially anger, have a moral
component, and can be productive, serving to uphold
accepted standards of moral conduct. About one-third
of teachers believe that the expression of negative emotions such as anger can make them more effective (Sutton and Knight 2004). However, teachers often fear losing control when their anger is intense, so some
teachers use "fake anger" to help control their classrooms. A teacher in his sixth year said,
I guess I used to get angry.I don't reallyget angrynow.
I don't really know why it has changed. I used to be
angrywith them at theirbehaviorin the classroom;now
I think I just act like I'm angry.
Over 90 percent of middle school teachers who were
interviewed talked about holding in anger, gritting
their teeth, lowering their anger back down, stepping
back and breathing, and not letting their frustrations
affect their teaching. They also talked spontaneously
about their losses of control and their regrets about
those incidents (Sutton 2004). These findings are consistent with the literature showing that Americans are
particularly concerned with controlling anger (Tice and
Baumeister 1993).
Teachers' concerns about regulating their anger are
not new. Thirty years ago, teachers talked about their
losses of control with comments such as, "Youmake a
vow that you will never do that again, but then will
come another day when my patience is just worn too
thin and you explode again" (Lortie 1975, 157). Teach-

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232

The Clearing House

ers believe that reducing negative emotions helps them

maintain a focus on academic learning rather than
being distracted with their immediate concerns, helps
them with management and discipline (since "yelling
does not work"), and helps them nurture positive relationships with students (Sutton 2004).
Teachers report using a variety of strategies to help
them manage the negative emotions that arise in the
classroom. Strategies are used to prevent the negative
emotions from becoming fully developed, to manage
one's self in the classroom when the negative emotions
are intense, and to help cope after the incident is over
(Sutton 2004).
Preventative strategies included modifying situations that may lead to negative emotions. For example, some teachers said that on "bad"mornings when
they were concerned that they might "lose it," they
were extra careful to be well prepared so there were
likely to be fewer problems, or that they modified
their lesson plans to have the students doing activities that the teachers found easier. Teachers' negative
emotions frequently arise during management and
discipline problems, and teachers reported modifying the potentially problematic situation by telling a
joke to defuse the situation, or asking students to
take a "time out." These strategies not only improved
the situation, but also helped teachers reduce their
negative emotions and did not interrupt their academic goals (Sutton 2004).
Reappraisal, or changing one's view of the situation,
is a particularly effective way to prevent negative emotions from fully developing (Sutton and Knight 2004).
Teachers reported using self-talk, reminding themselves, "these are kids," and reflecting on previous situations when they had not regulated their emotions,
with poor results (Sutton 2004).
When feeling intense negative emotions in the
classroom, teachers reported behavioral strategies
such as physically moving away from students, pausing, deep breathing, and controlling facial features.
Cognitive strategies included thinking of a serene
place, not taking students' comments personally, and
reflecting on their previous experiences. Some teachers used several strategies simultaneously, such as taking several deep breaths and also talking to themselves about the problems that "losing it" creates
(Sutton 2004).
Talking or venting to colleagues, friends, and family
is the most common strategy used by teachers for coping after the incident triggering the negative emotions
is over (Sutton 2004). The literature on talking about
one's anger suggests that some kinds of venting may
not be productive, as they can escalate the feelings of
being wronged (Tavris 1989). Talking to others about
the situation to help reappraise it-understand it, joke
about it, put it in perspective (such as "don't take it per-

May/June 2005

sonally")-or how to prevent it from reoccurring

should be productive. For example, a teacher with eight
years of experience said talking to his team members
when he was frustrated could be productive, but
mostly it turns into you'reall sort of comparingnotes
on students' performanceand certain behavior. And
they say,well, you know,so and so is doing that for me,
too. Thenyou could spend 20-30 minutesand not have
madeyourselffeel anybetter,but justthinkthat, oh, my
God, this is even more insurmountable.(Q: Thatcould
make it worse, ratherthan helping?) . . . Yeah.Unless
they have . .. a strategy.I teachsciencewith anotherscience teacher,and she would havea strategyfor a particular lesson and say,like, I'vedone this in the past, why
don't you trythis? (Sutton2004, 393)

Effective Teachers and Emotion Regulation

Recent research suggests that teachers' emotion experiences and expression influence their classroom effectiveness. Over 95 percent of teachers reported that
expressing positive emotions makes them more effective, compared to only 35 percent who believe that
expressing negative emotions makes them more effective. Teachers who reported high levels of emotion
intensity in the classroom were less confident about
their teaching effectiveness (Sutton and Knight 2004).
Most teachers use a variety of strategies to reduce their
negative emotions and increase their positive emotions
because they believe it helps them accomplish their
teaching goals (Sutton 2004). Strategies that can help
teachers regulate their emotions are summarized in
appendix A.
Choosing to regulate emotions in the classroom
does not mean that teachers want to eliminate emotion expressions in the classroom. Rather,it means they
seek to find a balance-and this often takes time. As
one teacher in his seventh year said:
I'vegotten much betterat maskingmy emotions in the
classroom.I do like to have some emotion in there. I
don'twantto appearlike a robot;I wantthe studentsto
be interested.I want them to trustme and havefaith in
what I say. I want them to know when I'm not happy
andwhen I am, but going too farone wayor the otherI learnedjust by mistake,by actuallydoing it-and it's
not a good thing to do one way or the other.
Providing preservice teachers with an understanding of the complex nature of emotions, the sources
and consequences of positive and negative emotions,
and strategies for modifying emotions should help
them learn the appropriate balance of emotion
expression in the classroom more quickly. Until
recently, there have been no research resources to
help beginning teachers develop the understanding
and skills necessary to become effective at the emotion-related aspects of teaching. However, that is
changing rapidly, and in this article I provided a brief
overview of current research.

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Vol. 78, No. 5

Teachers' Emotions and Classroom Effectiveness

233

APPENDIX
Emotion Regulation Strategies for Teachers
Strategies

Purpose
Increaseawarenessof one's
own emotions in the
classroom

Record when positive and negative emotions are

experiencedin an emotion teaching diary for one or two
weeks. Look for common patternsin timing, situations,
and so on.

Understandstudents'
perceptions

Ask studentsabout the consequences of emotion expression in the classroom. Students'responses are likely to
vary by grade level and culturalcontext. A group of elementaryschool childrenwere asked, "Whatrule would
you like to make for the teacherto follow?" They frequently replied, "Don't yell at us," as teachers'yelling
made them feel small, sad, ashamed,guilty, hurt,and
embarrassed(Thomas and Montomery1998, 374).

Enhancepositive emotions

Seek situationsthat helped triggerpositive emotions at an

earliertime (keeping an emotion diary will help identify
these). For many teachersthese situationsinvolve focusing on studentlearningand relationshipswith students.

Reduce negative emotions

Preventative
Defuse potentialproblemsituationsby steppingback,
telling a joke, or a similaraction.
Identify and avoid situationsthat are "hot spots."For
example, if studentstalkingwhen they should not leads
to anger and frustration,best friends should be
separated.
In the heat of the moment
Breathedeep, pause, physically move away.
Think of a serene place.
Reappraisingthe situation-remind yourself these are
just kids.
Use nondisruptivediscipline techniquessuch as a
discipline card.
After the incident
Reduce physiological arousalthroughrelaxationor
exercise.
Be carefulthat "venting"does not escalate the negative
feelings.
Reappraiseor think aboutthe situationdifferently,such
as not taking comments personallyor joking about it.
Plan preventatively:Determinehow to reduce the
amountof negative emotion in the classroom by the
teaching strategiesused, commentsmade to students,
and so on.

Key words:emotions,teachers,strategies
NOTE
1. The quotes from teacherscome from an interviewstudywith
thirtyteachersI conducted(detailsarein Sutton2004). If the quotes
have been included in previouslypublishedwork, the appropriate
citationis included.

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Ellsworth,P. C. 1994. Sense,cultureand sensibility.In Emotionand

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