Perspective:

Humanistic: self satisfaction, free will

Individual can determine own mental health
Maslow: hierarchy of need
Top: Self Satisfaction Esteem
Carl Rogers: Unconditional Positive Regard
If you are always praised, then without praise you will feel like shit.
Social Cultural: person vs society ( Lev Vgotsky
Instead of individual, it studies a group of people
Ex: race, culture, family, gender
Social labels/ roles = self- fulfilling prophecy: living up to your label (what others see you as)
Family- Social Perspective: family relationships
Multicultural Perspective: prejudice/ discriminative expressed lead to abnormal behavior.
Ex: taught to look skinny due to the standards of the norm abnormal behavior
Behavioral Perspective:
By observing behavior/ responses = infer abnormal behavior:
Watson: little albert = classical conditioning, rabbit associated with a loud bang. Kid gets scared of rabbit
because of the noise.
Ivan Pavlov: The salvation of dogs- unconditional stimulus: treat, unconditioned response: salvation, neutral
stimulus: bell acquisition

Models: a set of assumptions and concepts that help scientists explain ands interpret observations
Biological perspectives: abnormal behavior by problems with the malfunction of body parts
I. Neuron: control important functions
A. Cerebrum:
I. Cortex: outer layer
II. Corpus Callosum: connects the brains two cerebral hemispheres
iii. Basal ganglia: planning and producing movement
iiii. Hippocampus: regulate emotioms and memory
V. Amygdala: emotional memory
- huntingtons disease: the missing cells in basal ganglia and cortex (suicidal thoughts,
involuntarily body movements )
-transmission of messages
A. Neuron's dendrite > axon > nerve ending (synapse) > electrical impulse > stimulates
neurotransmitters > Receptors of dendrites
B. Neurotransmitters: abnormal chemical activity in the bodys endrocrine system
I. Depression: serotonin, norepinephrine
C. Genetics/ Abnormal Behaviors
I. 30,000 genes/ 1 cell.
ii. Mutation if the genes contribute to mental disorders
- if it is inherited, it started as a mutation due to evolutionary reasons
D. Evolurionary Perspective: genes responsible for them have survived over the course of time
because it helped humans, thrive and adapt
I. Fear responses people to escape disasters > transferred these genes
ii. Controverisal because its impossible to research.
E. Viral infections
I. May lead to schizophrenia
II. Psychodynamic Model: oldest most famous = Sigmund freud: determined by forces that are

unconciously aware
- explore past experiences because it may be tied with to early relationships and traumatic
experiences.
- none are accidental, all by past experiences
A. Anna O. > hypontized, talked about past traumatic experiences
I. Three forces:
-id: pleasure principle: sexual needs pleasure
-ego: unconciously aweks gratification, reality principle: guides us to know whether to express
those impulses
-superego: develops conscience, feeling guilty
II. DEFENSE MECHANISM:
REPRESSION, DENIAL, PROJECTION (IM NOT ANGRY , YOU ARE), RATIONALIZATION,
DISPLACEMENT (YELL AT YOU BECAUSE IM ANGRY AT SOMEONE ELSE), REGRESSION
III. Development
-if theres no development then the child is fixated on a childish act
IIII. Object relations theorists: propose that people are motivated by a need to have relationships
worth with others
V: free association: speak whatever is on mind
-resistence: unwilling to speak about painful experiences
-transference: act the same way towards therapists with their siblings
VI: Relational Psychoanalytic Therapy: therapists are key figures in the lives of patients

III. Behavioral Model

Bandura: self efficacy where one can perform needed behaviors when necessary
IV: Cognitive Model: Albert ellis and Aaron Beck
A. Based on Philip Bermans situation, he adopted negative attitudes and assumptions that
were disturbing and inaccurate towards his parents.
-he seemed to approach everything with expectation of failure and disaster.
B. 28% of todays clinical psychologists identify their approach as cognitive
-the process of human thoughts
-overgeneralize by drawing broad negative conclusion on the basis of a single insignificant
Event
V: Humanistic- Existential Model: pursue philosophical goals such as self- awareness, strong values, a
sense of meaning in life, and freedom of choice.
A. Focus on these broader dimensions of human existence
a. Humanists: (more optimistic)- humans are born kind, friendly and cooperative.
i. Self- actualize: fulfill their potential for goodness and growth.
1. Leads to concern for the welfare of others.
b. Existentialists: humans beings must hae an accrate awareness of
themselves and live meaningful- authentic- lives, to be well adjusted.
1. Either give meaning to live or turn away from responsibilities
(then our lives will be dull)
B. Carl Rogers: Client centered therapy: warm and supportive approach that contrasted
sharply with the psychodynamic techniques.
a. The road to dysfunction begins at infancy
i. Unconditional Positive Regard: continuous compliments
1. Childrens realize their self worth but also recognizes their
own flaws.
ii. Positive Regard: compliments
iii. Conditions of Worth: only worthy if they conform to certain
circumstances.

1. In order to maintain positive self-regard they are selective or

their own which distorts their view of themselves.
b. Philip Berman: He lives the way he view is good. His mother never showed
that he mattered; therefore, he doesn't know worthiness.
C. Gestalt Therapy: Frederick Perl: guide their clients toward self recognitions and self
acceptance.
a. Not using unconditional positive regard challenges and frustrates client.
i. Skillful Frustration: refuse to meet clients demands
1. See how they manipulate others into meeting their needs.
D. Existential Therapy: people are encouraged to accept their tasks. Live with a greater
meaning.
a. self deception: hide from lifes responsibilities and fail to recognize that it is
up to them to give meaning to their lives.
i. Philip Berman: he perceives his parents as selfish, his teachers as
oppressive and he failes to appreciate his choices in life; thus, he
quits as an escape from reality.

VI. Cybertherapy: replaces traditional face to face therapy.

A. Programs continue to seek to reduce EMOTIONAL DISTRESS through typed
conversation between human clients and their computers.
a. People are more open with computers than with real therapists.
B. Emailtherapy: therapists set up online services that invite people with problems to
email their questions and concerns.
C. Visual Therapy: mimic conventional therapy experience, such as setting up an
appointment over skype or any type of webcam.
D. Self Help Groups: provide opportunities for people with similar problems to
communicate with eachother, freely trading information advice and empathy
VII. Social Cultural Model:
A. Philip Berman: social/ cultural being, surrounded by people, member of a family,
participates in relationships and holds cultural values.
a. Sociolcultural Model: Abnormal behavior isbest understood in light of broad
forces that influence an individual.
B. Family- social Persepective:
a. Forces that operate directly on an individual as he or she moves through life,
that is family relationships, social interactions, and community events.
C. Social Labels: people gradualy learn to accept and play the assigned social role
given by the public.
D. Family Social Theorists: concerned with the social environments in which people
operate, including their social and professional relationsips.
a. Definciences in social networks and persons functioning.
i. People who ar isolated and lack social support or intimacy int heir
lives can become depressed when they are pressured and can also
be more depressed over a longer period of time than those we are
living a happy life.
E. Family Systems Theory: family is a system of interacting parts. The members who
converse with one another are unique with each family.
a. Structure and Communication: the way families act together can actually
cause an individual to act in an abnormal manner
1. Its subjective for each family.
i. Enmeshed structure: overinvolved in eahcothers activities, thoughts
and feelings: they are harder to be independent.
ii. Disengagement: rigid boundaries between members: find it hard to
function in a group or to give or request support.

2. Philip Berman: angry and impulsive personal style might be

seen because of disturbed family structure.
- He acts out because of the imbalance of his parents.
Therapy:
a. Group Therapy: a format in which a therapist meets with a
group of clients who have the same problems.
b. Self Help Group: people with similar problems come together
to help and support one another without the direct leadership of a
professional clinician
c. Family Therapy: meets all the members of the family and
points out their problem behaviors. This helps the family change their
ways. The entire family is viewed as the under treatment
i. structural family therapy: therapists try to change the family
power structure
ii. Conkoin famil therapy: therapists try to help members
recognize and change harmful patterns of communication
F. Multicultural Theorists: seek to understand how culture, race, ethnicity, gender and
similar factors influence behavior and thought and how people of different cultures
races and genders differ psychologically.
a. Each culture within a larger society has a distinct set of values and beliefs as
well as external pressures that account for the behavior and functioning of its
members.
b. Noted that prejudice and discrimination faced by many minority groups may
contribute to various forms of abnormal functioning.
c. Treatments: culture- sensitive therapies: minorities
i. Gender sensitive/ feminist therapies

Clinical Assements, diagnosis, and treatmet

I.

Idiographic: individual information about them- clinicians must fully understand them and their
particular difficulties.
a. Assessment: gathering relevant information in an effort to find conclusion.
i. Select the best choice, predict where is the best and observe.
ii. Clinical assessment: determine how and why a person is behaving differently
(abnormally) and how that person can be helped.
iii. They ae separated by their distinct perspectives.
1. Interviews/ tests/ observations
iv. STANDARDIZE: a technique that is used to set up common steps that is always
followed
1. Clinicians must also standardize the way they interpret the results of an
assessment tool in order to be able to understand what particular score
meas.
a. Depends on the population/ norm.
v. RELIABILITY: the consistency of assessment measures. Good assessment toll
wil always yield the same results in the same situation.
1. Test- retest reliability: yields the same results everytime it is taken to the
same people.
2. Interrater reliability: judges independently agree on how to score and
interpret it.
i. Accuracy not correctness.
vi. VALIDITY: accurately measures what is supposed to be measured.

1. Ex: the correct weight of a bag is 10 lbs and is always 10 lbs when
measured on scale. Face validity: (not always correct)
2. Predictive validity: predict future characteristics or behavior.
a. Investigators gather information about the childrens familyhabits/ characteristics and predict whether child will smoke in
high school
b. Concurrent Validity: degree to which the measures gathered
from one tool agree with the measures gathered from other
assessment techniques. Tests should correlate with eachother if
the tests are similar.
II. Clinical Interview: face to face encounter
a. The frist contact between client and clinician.
i. Clinicians use it to collect detailed information about the persons problems and
feelings, lifestyle and relationships and other personal history.
b. Perspective
i. Psychodynamic: might ask about persons memories about past events
ii. Behavioral Interviews: pinpoint information regarding stimulus and responses
iii. Cognitive: assumptions and interpretations that influence the person
iv. Biological: look for signs of brain dysfunction
v. Sociocultural: ask about family, social and cultural environments
c. Unstructured Interview: open eneded questions. Follow the client
d. Structured: prepared questions
i. Interview schedule: a standard setoff questions designed for all itnerviews
ii. Mental status exam: a set f pquestions and overvations that systemically
evaluate the clients awareness, orientation with time and place, attention span
e. Lack validity/ accuracy
i. May be biased, lie in front of the therapist.
ii. Negative about self worth
iii. Respond differently with different interviewers.
1. Each interviewer would draw different conclusison.
III. Clinical Tests: gathering information about a few factors of a persons psychological functioning
a. More than 500 clinical tests are used in the US.
b. Projective Tests: interpret vague stimuli inkblot patterns, project aspects of their own
personality
i. Helps asses their unconscious drives and conflicts
ii. Rorschach Test: inkblots - ex: schizophrenia by seeing images that differed from
those with depression.
iii. Thematic Apperception Test(TAT): given black and white images
a. Asked to make up a story regarding the picrtures
i. Reflect the individual circumstances, needs and
emotions
iv. Sentence= Completion Test: compete series of unfinished sentences in oder to
springboard disuccions
v. Drawings: Draw a person test: usually used to assess the functioning of children
c. Peronsal Inventories: ask range of questions regarding their behavior belifs and feelings.
i. MMPI: 500 self statements labeled true or false
1. Hysteria: physical or mental symptoms avoiding conflicts
2. Psychastenia: obssesions, compulsions, abnormal fears
3. Hypomania: shows emotional excitement, over activity
ii. They have higher validity but not that high
d. Response Inventories: ask peple to provide detailed information about themselves
i. Specific area of functioning (emotion, social skills, cognitive processes).
ii. Affective Inventories: measure the severity of such emitons as anxiety,
depression and anger
1. Beck Depression Inventory: people rate their level of sadness and its
effect on their fucntioing

iii. Social Skills inverntories: behavioral and family social clinicians: show they would
react to a distinct type of situations
iv. Cognitive inverntories: thoughts
e. Psychophysiological Tests: bodily responses as possible indicators of psychological
problems
i. Blod pressure, skin reactions, muscle contraction
ii. Lie detector: polygraph: electrodes attached to various parts of a persons body
detect changes in breathing perspiration and heart rate which the person answer
questions.
f. Neurological/ Neuropsychological tests: behavior caused by damage to the brain or
changes in brain activity
i. Neurological Test: measure brain structure and activity directly
1. EEG: records brain waves ( electrical activity taking palce within the
brain as a result of neurons firings
2. CAT: x rays of the brains structure are taken at different angles and
comnined
3. Pet scan: MOTION PICTURE OF CHEMCAL ACITIITY THROUGH THE
BRAIN.
4. MRI: uses magnetic property of certain hyrodgen atoms in the brain to
create structure
5. FMRI: ^ but neuron activity offering a picture of a functioning brain
ii. Neuropsychological Test: measure cognitive perceptual and motor performances
on certain tasks nd interpret abnormal performances
1. Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test: display simple shape but have to
remember and draw based off memory
g. Intelligence Test: series of tasks requiring people to use various verbal and
nonverbalskills.
i. IQ: mental age over chronological age.
1. 100 types of intelligence tests (high validity)
h. Observations:
i. Naturalistic observation: usually takes placein homes/ schools/ institutions
ii. Analog: focused on children interacting with their parents
i. Self Monitering: person takes note of any unusual behavior that may occur.
IV. Classification System: list of such categories and guidelines for assigning someone to a specific
group.
a. Diagnosis: determine a persons disorder
b. Syndrome: cluster of symptoms that occur together
i. Allows clinicians to assign them to a specific disorder
c. EMIL KRAEPLIN: DSM
d. DMS IV: 400 disorders: 5 axis:
i. Axis 1: Anxiety Disorder/ Mood Disorders
ii. Axis 2: Mental Retardation/ Personality Disoder
iii. Axis 3: general medical conditions
iv. Axis 4: special psychosocial or environmental problems the person is facing
v. Axis 5: requires the diagnostician to make a global assessment of functioning
e. Is the DSM IV EFFECTIVE?
i. ONLY 54% were in agreement, failure to agree suggested deficiencies in the
system
ii. The more often such predictiions are accurate the greater a categories predictive
validity
iii. Some clinicians believed that it is based on weak research
iv. Some also say hat basic assumption that clinical disorders are qualitatively
different from normal behavior.
v. Misleading clinicans when asked to determine whether persons are displaying a
axiety disorder or a mood disorder
1. The question of degree of severity or type

f.

Why labels are bad?

i. Because people will act more like the diagnosis

V. Treatment Decisions: broad information and diagnostic decisions

a. Determining the effective of research is difficult because therapists differ in theriw ays of
defining and measureing success. The variety and complexity of tdays treatments also
present a problem.