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As the scale of devices becomes small, thermal control and heat

dissipation from these devices can be effectively accomplished


through the implementation of microchannel passages. The small
passages provide a high surface area to volume ratio that enables
higher heat transfer rates. High performance microchannel heat
exchangers are also attractive in applications where space and/or
weight constraints dictate the size of a heat exchanger or where
performance enhancement is desired. This survey article provides
a historical perspective of the progress made in understanding the
underlying mechanisms in single-phase liquid flow and two-phase
flow boiling processes and their use in high heat flux removal
applications. Future research directions for (i) further enhancing
the single-phase heat transfer performance and (ii) enabling practical implementation of flow boiling in microchannel heat
exchangers are outlined. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4005126]

the theoretical concepts, generating experimental data sets,


enhancing heat transfer performance while reducing pressure
drop, and extending the use of microchannels to new applications.
Figure 2 shows the publication histogram for research related to
flow boiling in microchannels. Until 2004, research was conducted
only at a few academic institutions as the basic questions regarding
the viability of flow boiling were being examined. The interest
since 2005 has somewhat leveled off, indicating some degree of
saturation in our efforts in this field. The focus of research during
this period was on the fundamental issues, mechanisms, and performance characterization. A breakthrough is awaited to yield
higher heat transfer coefficients, higher critical heat flux (CHF)
values, and stable operation before the flow boiling technology in
microchannels can be implemented in practical devices.
This paper is organized to provide a historical perspective followed by the state-of-the-art developments in the two major topics
in microchannels: single-phase flow and flow boiling. Condensation is not covered in this paper. A brief overview of research conducted in the last three decades is presented first, highlighting
some of the important contributions in the respective fields. This
is followed by a more in-depth review of the research contributions made in the last 5 years in each area. With over several thousand publications reported over this time, it is truly a formidable
task to cover all the advancements published in this field.
Although every effort has been made, the author is painfully
aware that there may have been inadvertent omissions of some
important publications. Excellent review articles covering the
developments in microchannel research, giving the details of
experiments, their uncertainty levels, and model/correlation
descriptions have been published periodically and readers are
encouraged to read these for an exhaustive coverage of the earlier
work [228].

Keywords: microchannels, review, single-phase flow, flow boiling,


enhancement, heat transfer modeling

Single-Phase Liquid Flow

History, Advances, and Challenges


in Liquid Flow and Flow Boiling
Heat Transfer in Microchannels:
A Critical Review
Satish G. Kandlikar
ASME Fellow
Rochester Institute of Technology,
Rochester, NY 14623
e-mail: sgkeme@rit.edu

Introduction
Smaller channel size in a heat exchanger provides higher surface area to volume ratio and results in higher heat and mass transfer rates and lower equipment size. Automotive and aerospace
industries embraced the use of smaller sized passages in compact
heat exchangers to meet the weight and size constraints, while
high performance requirements in cryogenic industries, for example, necessitated the use of millimeter-sized passages in equipment with relatively large heat transfer rates and higher
effectiveness requirements.
Tuckerman and Pease [1] in 1981 demonstrated for the first
time the high heat flux removal capability of up to 800 W/cm2
achieved with microchannels in single-phase and two-phase flows.
After almost three decades, such high heat flux removal is now
being accomplished in practical devices, although much of the
work has been conducted in the last several years. A brief historical survey highlighting research in the areas of single-phase and
two-phase cooling with microchannels, followed by recommendations for future work, is presented in this paper.
After a slow start, research interest in microchannels has
increased significantly in the last decade. Figures 1 and 2 show
histograms of technical publications in each year related to singlephase liquid flow and flow boiling, respectively. Application of
microchannels with single-phase liquid flow for heat removal was
investigated at only a few places in the world until 1996. Starting
in 1997, the pace accelerated until 2008. It seems to have reached
a plateau, with 2009 numbers falling below the 2007 level. The
main thrust during this period was on understanding the fundamental mechanisms. Research is now focused on further refining
Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division of ASME for publication in the
JOURNAL OF HEAT TRANSFER. Manuscript received July 8, 2010; final manuscript
received February 16, 2011; published online January 10, 2012. Assoc. Editor: Prof.
Michael K. Jensen.

Journal of Heat Transfer

Historical Development TimelineSingle-Phase Liquid


Flow. The developments in single-phase flow in microchannels
may be divided into two aspects: fluid flow and heat transfer.
Major milestones in our understanding in these fields are summarized in Fig. 3, covering a 25-year period. Starting with the Tuckerman and Pease [1] work in 1981, the next research emphasis was
on the design and implementation aspect during 19861988
[2932]. This was followed by research focused on fundamental
understanding during the 11-year period, 19922002 [3339].
Major emphasis during this period was on validation of continuum
theory for incompressible fluid flow in microchannels. The period
20032004 reflects a renewed interest in this field, with a number
of specialty conferences dealing with microscale phenomena
emerging during this period. The focus shifted on channel classification and fundamental understanding of the fluid flow and heat
transfer phenomena and on recognition of need for further heat
transfer enhancement [4047]. Finally, during the period
20052006, attention was focused on practical implementation,
heat transfer enhancements using offset strip fins and nanofluids,
developing an in-depth understanding of roughness effects and
transition to turbulence, and influence of channel deformity
[4852]. The timeline is provided to illustrate general historical
development in this field, with individual papers as representative
developments during those periods. The period 2006 onward is
left out as more time may be needed for the research community
to recognize the significance of research reported in the last 4
years. However, a review of some of the important recent papers
is presented later in this paper to indicate the state-of-the-art
advancements in this field.
Historical PerspectiveSingle-Phase Liquid Flow. Significant
advances have been made in the single-phase liquid flow research
in microchannels in the last three decades. Microchannels were
implemented in heat exchangers in some of the earlier studies. An
excellent summary of early developments in microchannel heat

C 2012 by ASME
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Fig. 1 Publication histogram showing papers related to


single-phase liquid heat transfer and fluid flow in
microchannels

exchangers, providing a clear historical perspective, was presented in 1993 by Goodling [2]. It is a must-read article for all
researchers in this field. It is interesting to note that even when
microchannel research was in its infancy, 78 papers were cited by
Goodling. During the period 19811993, the main centers engaged
in research in this field were as follows: Stanford University and
Lawrence Livermore National Labsthe pioneering thesis by
Tuckerman [53] investigated for the first time microchannels in
single-phase and two-phase modes for high heat flux removal,
Mundinger et al. [54] applied the high performance silicon microchannel heat exchanger design to laser diode array cooling; Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Lincoln Laboratories
Phillips [55,56] and Phillips et al. [31] provided the entrance region
Nusselt number and friction factor values in developing flows for

Fig. 3

Fig. 2 Publication histogram showing papers related to flow


boiling heat transfer and two-phase flow in microchannels

three side heated channels under H1 boundary condition (constant


heat flux with uniform circumferential temperature at any crosssection) along with a detailed design procedure, and Missaggia et
al. [57] and Walpole et al. [32] demonstrated effective cooling of
laser diodes with 500 W/cm2 heat removal rate and a laser junction
temperature rise of only 40  C; North Carolina State University
Turlik et al. [58] applied the microchannel design to multichip
modules covering 25 cm2 area; Auburn UniversityKnight et al.
[33] provided optimization schemes for designing microchannel
geometrical parameters for laminar and turbulent flows; Nippon
Institute of Technology, JapanSasaki and Kishimoto [29] used
microchannels for diode array cooling, and Kishimoto and Sasaki
[30] employed diamond-shaped interrupted fins, perhaps the first
application of enhanced microchannels. A number of individual
contributions were also seen during this periodBar-Cohen and

Historical development timeline over 25 years highlighting advances in single-phase liquid flow in microchannels

034001-2 / Vol. 134, MARCH 2012

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Jelinek [59] developed a geometrical optimization scheme for fin


spacing in air cooled heat exchangers that could be extended to
microchannels, and Bejan and Morega [60] applied pin fins to
enhance heat transfer in a wide, single-flow passage (narrow gap)
while keeping the pressure drop low. These developments show
that practical implementation of microchannels with single-phase
liquid cooling generated considerable interest by 1993.
In the later part of 1990 s, the focus shifted to understanding the
fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena in microchannel liquid
flows. An excellent summary of the early developments is given
by Mehendale et al. [3]. A number of authors, as early as in 1983,
reported the single-phase studies for gas flows, which are not covered in this paper. In 19931994, Peng and Wang [61,62] reported
the first study on single-phase flows in minichannel and Peng
et al. [34,35] in microchannels. They suggested possible departure
from the continuum theory. The Poiseuille and Nusselt numbers
exhibited a dependence on Re, which could not be explained. The
reasons for the discrepancies were subsequently explained by
other investigators over the next 10 years.
The author feels compelled to write a word of gratitude to late
Professor X. F. Peng, of Tsinghua University in China, whose
untimely demise at the age of 48 years is difficult to accept. His
contributions in exploring the single-phase and two-phase flows
and heat transfer characteristics have made a significant impact on
the research in this field. He is credited as one of the pioneering
researchers to systematically study the single-phase and twophase flows in microchannels.
In 2000, several papers focused on the application aspects. Harris et al. [36] developed a microchannel heat exchanger for liquidto-air heat transfer, while Fedorov and Viskanta [37] studied the
conjugate substrate conduction and microchannel convection
problem and identified locations where severe thermal stresses
may occur.
The fundamental understanding of the flow and heat transfer
phenomena in microchannels was a major focus area for researchers in the first half of the first decade of this millennium. The experimental work presented by Peng and coworkers [34,35,61,62]
in the mid-1990 s and by Mala et al. [63], Mala and Li [64], and
Xu et al. [65] in the late 1990 s still left the question unresolved
regarding the applicability of continuum models to liquid flows in
microchannels. Xu et al. [65] reported the validity of the conventional theory for liquid flow in microchannels using fully developed flow; however, they neglected the entrance region effects.
The uncertainties associated with entrance and exit loss coefficients and other factors such as nonuniformity in channel crosssectional dimensions and experimental uncertainties, especially at
low flow rates, seem to have fortuitously compensated for the entrance region effects. Palm [4] and Sobhan and Garimella [6] indicated that the current research at that time was inconclusive
regarding the microscale effects on liquid flow and applicability
of continuum equations. Judy et al. [38] in 2002 reported the
first experimental data that followed the continuum theory for
liquid flows in microchannels. At the same time, Qu and Mudawar
[39] confirmed the applicability of continuum theory for
231 lm  731 lm minichannels. However, the discrepancy among
various data sets could not be resolved. Wu and Cheng [41] indicated that surface roughness may affect the heat transfer in microchannels. Guo and Li [43] proposed the surface roughness, axial
conduction, and measurement errors as possible sources for discrepancy in microchannel data. Lelea et al. [46] in 2004 presented
data confirming the continuum theory; however, reviews by Obot
[28] in 2001 and Morini [12] in 2004 left it as an unresolved open
question. Obot [28] asserted that the transition to turbulence does
not occur below Re 1000 in smooth microchannels and that Nu
varies as Re1/2. In 2004, Sharp and Adrian [47] confirmed that the
transition to turbulent flow occurs at approximately the same
Reynolds numbers as in macroscale tubes. In 2005, Steinke and
Kandlikar [66] presented experimental data confirming the validity of the continuum theory and also presented an analysis of earlier data showing the entrance region effects, entrance and exit
Journal of Heat Transfer

losses, and experimental uncertainties as the major reasons for the


discrepancy in the earlier data reported in the literature. They also
presented a detailed analysis of the uncertainties associated with
fluid flow and heat transfer data available in the literature. Lee et
al. [49] verified the applicability of the continuum theory and suggested that careful attention should be given to the boundary conditions applied during the experiments.
The effects of property corrections and dissolved gases on
single-phase diabatic flows were reported by Steinke and Kandlikar [67] in 2004. Their work indicates that, because of the steep
temperature gradients in microchannels, it is important to apply
property correction factors, generally of the form given below, in
evaluating single-phase friction factors
 0:58
f
lw

(1)
fcp
lm
The presence of dissolved gases in water during diabatic singlephase experiments resulted in higher friction factors due to small
bubbles forming on the walls and increasing resistance to the flow
[67]. Figure 4 shows the effect of dissolved gas content on the
friction factors after accounting for the variable property effects
given by Eq. (1). It is seen that the friction factors are higher with
a dissolved oxygen content of 8 ppm, but the results for 1 ppm
concentration are in good agreement with the conventional theory
for laminar flow. It is therefore recommended that degassed water
be used during experiments for evaluating the friction factors in
microchannels. Clearly, this poses a challenge in predicting the
pressure drop in practical systems using liquids containing dissolved gases. It would be of practical advantage to avoid bubbles
in microscale heat exchangers.
Defining microchannels has been a subject of considerable discussion in the literature. Kandlikar and Grande [40] in 2003
reported a channel classification scheme that identified microchannels as channels in the hydraulic diameter range of 10 lm to
200 lm. This scheme is followed in the present paper. The earlier
scheme by Mehendale et al. [3] had arbitrarily proposed 1 mm as
the distinction between microchannel and mesochannel flows. It
should be remembered that the channel classification scheme is
intended to serve only as a guide. The associated flow and heat
transfer phenomena in these channels are dictated by specific
operating conditions, fluid properties and type of flow, such as
single-phase or two-phase flow, gas, or liquid, etc. Further discussion on this topic is given by Kandlikar [68].
At the same time when the issue of the applicability of continuum theory to microchannel flows was resolved in 2005, the use

Fig. 4 Effect of dissolved gases on adiabatic friction factors in


microchannels, redrawn from Ref. [63]

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of enhanced microchannels to meet the high heat flux cooling


demands was recommended by Kandlikar and Grande [44]. Peles
et al. [69] presented experimental data on micropin fins and
obtained a very low thermal resistance value, comparable to the
microchannel flows. Colgan et al. [50] reported a practical implementation of liquid cooling using enhanced microchannels with
offset-strip-fin geometry to dissipate very high heat fluxes. Steinke
and Kandlikar [70] measured heat transfer coefficient values of
over 500,000 W/m2-K using the same offset strip-fin microchannel geometry employed by Colgan et al. [50]. A few investigators
have studied optimization of plain and enhanced microchannel geometrical parameters [71,72] and modeling of plain microchannels [73] to provide practical design guidelines. The effect of
entrance region on heat transfer under H1 boundary condition (circumferentially uniform wall temperature and axially uniform wall
heat flux thermal boundary conditions) has been studied by Lee
and Garimella [74].
Nanofluids were introduced in microchannel heat sinks in the
early part of the 2000 s. In 2005, Koo and Kleinstreuer [48]
reported an important finding that lists the conditions under which
nanofluids may provide enhancement for application in practical
single-phase microchannel devices. They reported that (i) a nanofluid concentration of at least 4%, (ii) elevated thermal conductivity of nanofluids, and (iii) treated channel walls, which prevent
nanoparticle adhesion, may contribute in increasing the heat transfer rate.
The current literature clearly indicates that continuum modeling
is applicable to liquid flow in microchannels. Rosa et al. [26] indicated in their review article that scaling effects need to be considered to identify if there are any special effects due to microscale
channel dimensions in single-phase flow. Some of these issues
were identified by the earlier investigators. The entrance and exit
losses for macroscale channels are empirically correlated based
on macroscale experiments. Their validity in microscale applications is open to question. The effects due to flow area changes
need to be revisited as well. The property variation effects become
important as the temperature gradients are quite steep near the
wall. Parallel channels experience maldistribution effects, which
need to be quantified for the specific header and channel
geometry.
The areas where fundamental heat transfer related research
with single-phase liquid flow has been focused in the last 5 years
are design analysis for optimization, heat transfer augmentation
techniques, and roughness effects. These topics are reviewed in
the following sections.
Roughness Effect. The effect of surface roughness on singlephase liquid flow in microchannels has been studied in the literature both numerically and experimentally. These studies indicate
that the conventional representation of constant friction factor in
the laminar region is not accurate. The classical experiments by
Nikuradse were found to have large uncertainties in the pressure
drop measurements in the laminar region [75]. A number of different parameters are employed in the literature to model roughness features [76]. Kandlikar et al. [51] proposed replacing the
root diameter with a constricted hydraulic diameter Dh,cf
Dh;cf Dh  2e

(2)

where subscript cf refers to the constricted flow parameters and e


is the roughness parameter defined as the distance between the
mean floor line and the roughness peak height. The experimental
results for the uniform roughness were correlated well. Using the
constricted flow diameter, a modified Moody diagram was presented in which the laminar region was accurately represented by
a straight line for all relative roughness values, and the friction
factor reached a plateau beyond which the increased roughness
had no effect on friction factor [51].
The results of regularly spaced ribs, however, showed a dependence on the pitch of the ribs [77]. The friction factor gradu034001-4 / Vol. 134, MARCH 2012

ally shifted from the constricted flow diameter at close rib


spacing to the smooth tube value at very high spacing. Rawool et
al. [78] numerically simulated the flow in microchannels with
trapezoidal, rectangular, and triangular shaped roughness structures. The trapezoidal shape yielded the lowest friction factors in
the group. The circulation behind the roughness elements was
seen to cause additional losses leading to an increase in the friction factor. The numerical work by Croce et al. [79] on conicalshaped three-dimensional elements of base diameter b, spaced
evenly at a pitch of s in both directions, indicates that the heat
transfer and pressure drop results can be correlated by modifying
e in Eq. (2) to eb/s. Their results show that the two-dimensional
ridge roughness elements are more effective in providing relatively large heat transfer enhancement compared to the 3D elements as the large flow blockage in the valleys of the 3D
elements more than offsets the enhancement in the heat transfer
at the tips of the conical elements. A review of different roughness shapes and their effects and the instability mechanisms
leading to turbulent transition in microchannels is presented in
Ref. [22].
Several models were presented in the literature to account for
roughness effects at the microscale level. Kleinstreuer and Koo
[80] proposed a porous medium model for the roughness region,
which is assumed to act in parallel to the main flow in the core of
the channel. The flow resistance in the roughness region, modeled
as a porous region, consists of a constant term and a velocity dependent power law term. The momentum equation for the open
region (in the core of the channel) is solved by matching the
slopes of the velocity profiles in the porous region and the open
channel region. Bahrami et al. [81] proposed a model based on a
Gaussian distribution of roughness elements for the prediction of
pressure drop in fully developed laminar flow in microchannels.
Earlier, Qu et al. [82] proposed a roughnessviscosity model in
which the fluid viscosity was modified to include a viscosity term
induced by the surface roughness. The roughness viscosity was
considered similar to the eddy viscosity in the turbulent flow. In a
subsequent paper on heat transfer effects, Qu et al. [83] modified
their roughness viscosity model to include two components in the
apparent viscosity. This included the sum of the roughness viscosity derived in their earlier paper and a friction viscosity. The experimental heat transfer results were correlated with this
approach. However, this approach has not been tested with other
data from the literature.
The effect of roughness on heat transfer is not as well studied in
the literature. A recent publication by Morini et al. [84] indicates
little effect of roughness on heat transfer in the laminar region for
water and FC-72 in microchannels and minichannels. The earlier
work by Kandlikar et al. [42] indicated an increase in the heat
transfer coefficient with stainless steel minichannels with different
relative roughness values obtained through acid etching.
Gamrat et al. [85] studied uniformly spaced roughness structures numerically and proposed a roughness-layer model for heat
transfer in laminar fully developed tubes. They extended the porous region model of Kleinstreuer and Koo [80] by using the porosity of the roughness layer and roughness height as parameters.
Their results indicate that the friction factor increases more than
the heat transfer coefficient over the range of relative roughness
up to 11%.
The effect of roughness is seen in inducing early transition to
turbulence. This transition is believed to be one of the reasons
for the higher friction factors for rough microchannels reported
in the literature. The instabilities and relaminarization processes
occurring in the flow around roughness elements have been a
topic of intense research in the fluid mechanics community.
The pioneering work of Narasimha and Sreenivasan [86] provides an insight into the underlying mechanisms for early turbulence transition. Based on the uniform roughness as well as
ribbed geometries, the following correlation for transition
Reynolds number is based on the constricted flow diameter
defined in Eq. (2) [77].
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For 0 < eDh;cf  0:08; Ret;cf Ret;o  18; 750 e=Dh;cf

For 0:08 < eDh;cf  0:15; Ret;cf 800  3270 e=Dh;cf  0:08
(3)
where Ret,o is the transition Reynolds number for smooth tubes
for the given channel cross-section. For the two-dimensional
roughness elements, the experimental results of Brackbill and
Kandlikar [77] indicate that the rib height and spacing both influence the transition.
Hu et al. [87] numerically studied the effect of threedimensional roughness elements in channels of microfluidic devices for Reynolds number range of 0.110. The channel height was
chosen to be 5 lm and the roughness elements were 0.12.1 lm in
height and the spacing was varied from 0.1 to 1.5 lm. The effect
of varying channel height from 5 to 50 lm was also investigated.
They presented equations for the reduction in the channel height
due to roughness elements to be applied in the conventional pressure drop equations.
Three-dimensional roughness has been studied so far in microfluidic applications at low Reynolds numbers, mainly to enhance
mixing. It is a promising technique for liquid heat transfer applications. Further data is needed covering hydraulic diameters in the
range of 10200 lm in order to assess the effect of such structures
on fluid flow and heat transfer in microchannels.

Heat Transfer Augmentation of Single-Phase Liquid Flow. In


high heat flux removal applications such as chip cooling, further
increases in heat transfer coefficients over plain microchannels
are required to meet the cooling needs. A detailed review of various techniques applicable to heat transfer enhancement in microchannels and minichannels was presented by Kandlikar and
Steinke [45]. The enhancement techniques are classified into two
categories:
Passive Techniques: surface roughness, flow disruptions, pin
fins, offset-strip fins, channel curvature, re-entrant obstructions, secondary flows, out-of-plane mixing, and fluid additives (nanofluids);
Active Techniques: vibration, electrostatic fields, flow pulsation, and variable roughness structures.
Some of these enhancement techniques have been investigated
in the literature. A brief review of the available studies is presented here. Among passive techniques, surface roughness has
been an area of growing interest as seen from the review presented
in the earlier section. Xu et al. [88] utilized the concept of a redeveloping thermal boundary layer due to flow obstructions. These
obstructions were created by a series of intersecting longitudinal
(triangular, with Dh 155 lm, pitch 0.45 mm) and transverse
microchannels (trapezoidal, sides of 1.015 mm and 0.712 mm,
height 0.212 mm, and pitch 3.694 mm). In a silicon chip with
21.45 mm flow length, the heat transfer enhancement was found
to be around 16% while friction factor was actually reduced by
about 20%. Further performance improvements should be possible
through optimization. Chang et al. [89] studied the effect of height
on the heat transfer in rib-roughened side walls of microchannels.
The heat transfer coefficient decreased immediately behind the
ribs, but an overall performance improvement was noted. More
systematic study is needed to clearly establish the efficacy of
opposing ridges. Wei et al. [90] employed dimpled surfaces and
obtained 1035% improvement in heat transfer coefficient with
very little increase in friction factor. Optimization of this geometry is needed to fully explore its potential.
Pin fins are extensively used in macroscale applications. Kosar
and Peles [91] experimentally studied pin fins of circular crosssection extending over the entire height of microchannels. They
found the performance of pin fins to be predictable by macroscale
correlations. Significant enhancements, with heat transfer coefficients comparable to boiling, were reported. They emphasized the
Journal of Heat Transfer

need to optimize the geometrical parameters for obtaining the


desired benefits while keeping pumping penalties at a minimum.
A major milestone was achieved when Colgan et al. [50]
employed offset strip fins in microchannels with water flow to dissipate heat fluxes of 400 W/cm2. They employed 180 lm deep
channels with fins at a constant pitch of 100 lm and fin width of
65 or 75 lm. The fin length was either 210 lm or 250 lm with a
gap of 40 lm between the fin rows. Significantly, higher heat
transfer performance was noted, with an improvement by a factor
of approximately 1.5 to 3. By limiting the flow length to 3 mm,
the pressure drop was limited to below 30 kPa. Steinke and Kandlikar [70] conducted experiments with fins of 250 lm length and
50 lm thickness, the same configuration as employed by Colgan
et al. [50], and reported the average heat transfer coefficients to be
in excess of 500,000 W/(m2  C). This is perhaps the highest heat
transfer coefficient value reported for single-phase internal flow.
Further enhancement is possible by reducing the channel width
and fin length. A detailed geometrical optimization of the strip-fin
geometry needs to be performed to account for the accompanying
pressure drop penalty [72].
Other fin geometry studied in the literature is the longitudinal
fins by Foong et al. [92]. The short fins seem to be promising.
Another geometry that holds promise is mircofins or helical
grooves. This geometry has been very successful in refrigeration
applications. Zhang et al. [93] evaluated aluminum, silicon, and
metallic foam heat sinks and determined that the aluminum and
foam heat exchangers could achieve a heat dissipation rate of
100 W/cm2, while silicon microchannels could dissipate 200 W/
cm2. The thermal conduction resistance within the metal foam
was the limiting factor. Tsuzuki et al. [94] introduced a wavy,
S-shaped fin and optimized the geometry using a numerical solver
to study parametric dependence of fin angle, guiding wing, thickness, length, and roundness. From these parametric studies, they
identified geometrical parameters that are most suitable in enhancing heat transfer while keeping the pressure drop low.
Nanofluids are mixtures of nanoparticles and a base liquid used
in a cooling system. Enhancement in thermal conductivity of
nanofluids was reported by Lee et al. [95], followed by a study
showing heat transfer enhancement with nanofluids by Xuan and
Li [96] and Keblinski et al. [97]. Nanofluids have also been investigated extensively in microchannels. Introducing nanoparticles in
a liquid has shown to enhance the energy transport in the boundary layer [48,98101]. Bergman [102] showed that the combination of increased thermal conductivity and reduced specific heat in
nanofluids affects their performance compared to the base liquid.
Although the exact mechanism is not clear, Bergman introduced a
dimensionless parameter to indicate whether the heat transfer performance will improve or deteriorate with nanofluids. Excellent
recent reviews on the enhancement of thermal conductivity of
nanofluids have been presented in the literature and the reader is
referred to those publications, e.g., Refs. [103110].
Among active enhancement techniques, synthetic jets have
been studied by Chandratilleke et al. [111]. They introduced synthetic jets from a neighboring volume through a pulsing device
with a zero net mass flow rate. This technique introduces very little pressure drop penalty and is suitable for localized cooling of
hot spots. Introducing a vapor compression refrigeration system to
lower the coolant temperature or a Peltier cooler for cooling of
hot spots on a chip are among some of the active systems being
considered [112].
Challenges and Future Research Needs in Single-Phase
Liquid Flow. A number of research needs have been identified in
the discussion presented in the above section on single-phase liquid flow. Some of the major ones are summarized below.
Roughness Effects. The effects of two-dimensional and threedimensional roughness elements on friction factor and heat transfer have been studied mostly using numerical techniques in the literature. Since the effect of recirculation and eddies generated
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Fig. 5

Historical development timeline over 25 years highlighting advances in flow boiling in microchannels

behind the roughness structures are not accounted for accurately


in the numerical schemes, experimental validation of the numerical results is essential. Developing theoretical models to account
for these effects, especially on heat transfer, is an important area.
Such models are expected to provide information regarding the
underlying mechanisms, which can help in designing roughness
surfaces with higher enhancement in heat transfer than the associated increase in pressure drop. There is also a need for developing
optimized 2D and 3D geometries of the roughness structures that
are specifically tailored for a given range of Reynolds numbers. In
addition, new enhancement techniques need to be developed that
utilize unique fabrication techniques that are available at microscale, such as etching, for mass production.

fluids from the core of the flow channel to the heated surface.
Among the active enhancement techniques, pulsed flow and synthetic jets are attractive for localized cooling. Concurrent research
on the effect of pulsations/vibrations on the system integrity needs
to be investigated before applying them in practical devices. It is
expected that there will be significant research activity in this area
in the coming years.

Heat Transfer Augmentation, Liquid Flow. Among the passive


devices studied, fins hold the most promise. The offset strip fin geometry needs further investigation for geometrical optimization
considering the suitable fabrication techniques. The header configuration is an important consideration in its design. Different crosssectional geometries need to be explored for pin-fin configuration.
The optimizing procedure outlined by Tsuzuki et al. [94] for
designing S-shaped fins provides a very promising approach. It is
expected that specific geometrical parameters will be optimized
using numerical simulation in the future for a given liquid under a
specific Reynolds number operation.
From its success at macroscale, microfin or microgroove geometry seems to be a strong candidate to provide heat transfer
enhancement with relatively low pressure drop penalty. Micromixer is another type of device that has been extensively studied
in the literature. It seems to be very promising in augmenting heat
transfer as well, since it is able to effectively induce the mixing of

Flow Boiling

034001-6 / Vol. 134, MARCH 2012

Numerical Results for Entrance Region. Among other topics,


there is a need for generating numerical results for heat transfer
and friction factors for microchannels of different aspect ratios
under the more practical H2 boundary condition (constant heat
flux axially and circumferentially).

Historical Development TimelineFlow Boiling in


Microchannels. Figure 5 shows major milestones in flow boiling
research over the 25-year span since the first study on this topic
by Tuckerman and Pease [1] in 1981. There was little research activity in the period 19811991. During 19922001, the major
developments included a systematic study in minichannels and silicon microchannels, local heat transfer coefficient data, and identifying major obstacles [113117]. In the period 20022004,
research focus shifted to identifying flow patterns and differences
between diabatic and adiabatic flows, modeling, and continuing
work on local heat transfer coefficient data [8,67,118124]. During 20052006, new work was presented on numerically modeling
bubble growth, overcoming instabilities, and the use of enhanced
structures for heat transfer [14,125131]. The developments
beyond 2006 onward are left out, as their relevance and
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Fig. 6 Heat transfer coefficient variation with quality in a narrow channel of height 110 lm by Moriyama et al. [113], redrawn
from the original plot

Fig. 7 Comparison of the flow boiling plot with Armstrongs


pool boiling correlation by Moriyama et al. [113], redrawn from
the original plot

importance are expected to become clear during a span of the next


510 years.

haps due to the lack of a high speed and high magnification


imaging system.
A more systematic study covering a large range of minichannel
diameters was conducted by Bowers and Mudawar [114] in 1994.
They reported the average heat transfer, pressure drop, and CHF
data in these channels. Jiang et al. [115] were the first researchers
to incorporate the microchannel passages (Dh < 200 lm) with hydraulic diameters of 40 and 80 lm in a silicon heat sink. The thermal performance was unaffected by the flow and was dominated
by the nucleate boiling, similar to the earlier studies on minichannels. Hetsroni et al. [116] in 2000 used 103129 lm hydraulic diameter microchannels for cooling silicon chips and studied the
nonuniform temperature distribution on the chip. They observed
single-phase flow followed by annular flow pattern during boiling.
Kandlikar et al. [117] in 2001 observed the flow boiling instability
associated with nucleation and rapid bubble growth in a minichannel. Instability will be reviewed in a later section.
In 2002, Serizawa et al. [119] conducted adiabatic flow experiments with steamwater and airwater flows in microchannels
and studied flow patterns, which were affected by the surface
roughness. They presented a flow pattern map based on their experimental observations. The differences between the adiabatic
and diabatic flows were studied experimentally by Hetsroni et al.
[120], who clearly demonstrated the role played by nucleation and
bubble growth in diabatic flows. The main features being the absence of rapid flow oscillations and instabilities in adiabatic flows.
Moriyama et al. [113] in 1992 provided a plot showing the dependence of h on x as seen in Fig. 6. In 2003, Yen et al. [121]
measured the local heat transfer coefficient in single microtubes
as a function of x, q, and G and noted a strong decreasing trend in
a single microchannel. They confirmed the contribution from the
nucleate boiling component. In 2004, Steinke and Kandlikar [124]
reported the local heat transfer coefficients as a function of heat
flux, mass flux, and quality for water in parallel microchannels.
The microchannels were etched in silicon and were heated with a
copper heater deposited on the back surface. The heat transfer
coefficient was found to decrease dramatically along the length as
quality increased. Considering that the fluid is water at atmospheric pressure, the deterioration in heat transfer coefficient with
increasing quality indicated a major departure from the flow boiling characteristics in conventional channels (Dh > 3 mm).
Moriyama et al. [113] compared their flow boiling data in
microchannels with gaps of 65 lm and 110 lm with pool boiling
correlation by Armstrong [132]. Their results indicate a convergence at high heat fluxes as shown in Fig. 7 (for 110 lm gap). The
reduced dependence on the mass flux points to the dominance of
nucleate boiling, which has been confirmed in microchannels by a

Historical PerspectiveFlow Boiling in Microchannels. Flow


boiling in microchannels was first studied by Tuckerman and
Pease in 1981, but it took more than 10 years before a major effort
was undertaken by other researchers to explore this topic further.
The first major effort on understanding the thermohydraulic
behavior of flow boiling systems in microscale passages was presented by Moriyama et al. [113] in 1992. They used R-113 refrigerant in 35110 lm high and 30 mm wide rectangular passages.
This geometry is sometimes referred to as microgap in the literature. The pressure drop results were correlated with the available
two-phase correlations and the heat transfer was found to be 320
times larger than that for single-phase flow. One of the important
findings was that the capillary number was identified as an important parameter in determining the liquid film thickness while modeling the slug flow. They also developed analytical models for the
film flow with a vapor core and slug flow with vapor bubbles separated by the liquid slugs. The agreement between the model and
experimental results was quite good and the effect of capillary
number was shown to be an important group. Since this article
addresses a number of issues that are being researched currently, a
more in-depth review of their work is presented below.
The experimental data obtained by Moriyama et al. [113] are
shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The heat transfer coefficient is plotted as a
function of quality for the two mass fluxes in Fig. 6. The heat
transfer coefficient increases dramatically with quality near x 0,
levels off in the midquality region, and then drops rapidly at
higher qualities as dryout occurs. Figure 7 shows a comparison of
the data with the pool boiling correlation by Armstrong [132],
given by DTsat 0:602q0:293 (or h 1:66q0:707 ). A higher heat
transfer coefficient is obtained during flow boiling, and an increasing trend is noted with an increase in mass flux. These trends are
actually a combination of pool boiling and flow boiling characteristics, as the large width of the channels employed (30 mm)
reduces the flow effect on nucleation but causes the flow of liquid
around nucleating bubbles. Heat transfer is thus enhanced from
the convective contribution due to the liquid flow.
In 1993, Peng and Wang [61] reported one of the first studies
with subcooled flow boiling of water in minichannels. The fully
developed boiling region had little influence from subcooling or
flow velocity. These observations were helpful in determining the
nature of flow boiling in microchannels, as will be discussed in
later sections. Although the heat transfer data indicated the presence of nucleate boiling, they could not observe any bubbles, perJournal of Heat Transfer

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number of later studies. In these studies, the researchers reported


experimental heat transfer data for water and several refrigerants
(see review papers on this topic, e.g., Refs. [811]). The experimental data confirmed the earlier observations, showing a strong
decreasing trend with quality at low qualities and mixed trends at
moderate qualities, e.g., Refs. [114116,120,121,124,129,133,134].
A number of correlations have been proposed in the literature, but
none of them are able to predict the heat transfer coefficient consistently well with the available experimental data [24,135137].
Although attempts are continuing to correlate the flow boiling data,
it is becoming apparent that the underlying data sets suffer from
some of the shortcomings listed below:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

large experimental uncertainty in measurements of channel dimensions, local wall temperatures, and estimation
of wall heat flux;
differences in wall boundary conditions (a subject not
explored in flow boiling literature);
differences in nucleation cavity sizes and distribution on
the channel walls;
uncertainty related to the presence of instability condition and its severity.

Until experimental data sets that are free from the above concerns become available, any correlation scheme cannot be
expected to provide an accurate predictive methodology. The concerns regarding flow boiling instabilities are being addressed in
some of the recent publications. There is an immediate need to
generate experimental data in flow boiling systems using the same
rigor that the researchers have applied in their quest for checking
the applicability of the continuum models in single-phase liquid
flow.
High speed visualization during flow boiling in microchannels
is again receiving considerable attention with the focus now on
flow patterns, e.g., by Martin-Callizo et al. [138], Schilder et al.
[139], and Harirchian and Garimella [140]. These studies are
aimed at linking the modeling effort to the flow pattern. Although
it is difficult to predict the flow patterns with any degree of certainty, the insight gained through such visualization is extremely
useful.
Modeling of Flow Boiling Heat Transfer. The first model of
the flow boiling phenomenon was presented by Moriyama et al.
[113] to predict the pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient during slug and film (annular) flow in a large aspect ratio microchannel passage with a gap of 35110 lm as described earlier.
Although this paper addresses a number of fundamental aspects
using nondimensional parameters, it has not been considered by
later researchers in their modeling effort. A more in-depth review
of this paper is presented to bring out their important contributions
in this area.
Moriyama et al. [113] modeled the slug flow as shown in Fig. 8
for the low quality region and film flow as shown in Fig. 9 for the
high quality region. Since the liquidvapor interface plays an important role in the thickness of the film deposited during the slug
and film flows, capillary number Ca lLrjT was introduced in the
modeling; lL is the liquid viscosity, jT is the total volumetric flux,
m/s, and r is the surface tension, N/m. The volumetric flux may
be replaced by the representative flow velocity. The capillary
number represents the ratio of the viscous to surface tension
forces.
Figure 10 shows the variation of the two-phase to single-phase
heat transfer coefficient ratio for 65 lm and 110 lm gap sizes, two
different mass fluxes in each plot, and three different q/G ratios
(shown in the inset table). For a given fluid in the film flow region,
a lower Ca value would indicate a thicker film, and hence a lower
heat transfer coefficient, whereas a higher Ca value would indicate a thinner film, and correspondingly a higher heat transfer
coefficient. Their modeling seems to capture this trend well for
034001-8 / Vol. 134, MARCH 2012

Fig. 8 Schematic of the slug flow model employed by Moriyama et al. [113], redrawn from the original plot

Fig. 9 Schematic of the film flow model employed by Moriyama et al. [113], redrawn from the original plot

the smaller gap sizes (see the trend in the right hand region of the
plots). It may be instructive to study and extend the model by
Moriyama et al. [113] incorporating some of the recent findings
on instability and liquid film thickness.
In 2002, Jacobi and Thome [118] presented an elongated bubble model, which was later refined into a three-zone model by
Thome et al. [141]. The single-phase liquid heat transfer in the
slug was calculated using steady-state laminar flow equations,
thin film evaporation is calculated using conduction equations in
the liquid film, and heat transfer in the dry regions is considered
by gas flow equations separately. Film thickness was backcalculated to match the data and did not provide accurate representation of the actual thicknesses. The authors used steady-state
equations for representing flow boiling phenomena.
Heat conduction in the liquid, as the liquidvapor interface
sweeps over the heater, and associated microconvection are essentially transient phenomena. Fully developed flow equations for
gas flow and liquid slugs do not provide accurate representation of
the two-phase flow field.
Liquid film thickness plays an important role in modeling heat
transfer in slug flow as well in film (or annular) flow. A recent
work by Zhang et al. [142] provides useful information on liquid
film thickness measurement using laser extinction method in a
microgap as a function of interface velocity. An interesting observation made from these experiments was that the film thickness
increased with the interface velocity. For interface velocities of
35 m/s, the film thickness was around 10 lm for water and 20 lm
for ethanol and toluene. The film thickness in flow boiling in
microchannels is expected to be higher during explosive boiling
due to higher interface velocities.
Zhang et al. [143] in 2002 used the available correlations and
developed a model to predict the local heat transfer coefficient
variation along the length of 2060 lm hydraulic diameter parallel
microchannels. They compared their predictions with the local
wall temperature measurements in the silicon chip. The variation
and the actual heat transfer coefficient values along the length
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based on annular flow [150,151], annular flow in triangular microchannels considering the contact angle effects [152], and bubble
coalescence [153] have also been proposed in the literature. Fogg
and Goodson [154] considered the nucleation phenomenon and
linked it to the instability leading to water hammer (which is similar to the backflow observed by other researchers). There are a
number of recent papers published on the modeling aspects specific to different flow patterns. In general, these models perform
well with the parent data sets used in their development. A
broader testing using a large number of data sets has not been
reported in the literature. The modeling effort also suffers from
the nonavailability of reliable experimental data over a wide range
of conditions.
Flow Boiling Heat Transfer Enhancement. Enhancement in
flow boiling heat transfer was experimentally studied by Kosar
and Peles [125] by incorporating fins. A recent study by Krishnamurthy and Peles [155] indicated significant heat transfer
enhancement with microfins using HFE7000 in 222 lm hydraulic
diameter channels. Nanofluids have been studied with modest
improvements as reported in a review article by Cheng et al.
[156]. Recently, Khanikar et al. [157] implemented nanostructures
on the channel walls with modest enhancement. Repeated testing
reduced the enhancement effect due to damage to the nanostructures. This field is still in its infancy and more research efforts are
needed.
Use of nanofluids for flow boiling enhancement is a promising
area that is currently being explored in pool boiling applications.
A study by Lee and Mudawar [158] indicates that nanofluids
caused surface deposition in microchannels. Recent findings by
Ahn et al. [159] showed that using 0.01% concentration alumina
nanoparticles, CHF was enhanced by about 55%. The enhancement was due to deposition of the nanoparticles on the surface
causing the contact angle to decrease from 65 deg to about 12 deg.
The work by Ahn et al. confirms that reducing contact angle of
the surface by some other means may be an effective way to
enhance the CHF in microchannels.

Fig. 10 Variation of heat transfer coefficient with capillary


number, Ca, for two gaps: (a) 65 lm, and (b) 110 lm obtained by
Moriyama et al. [113], redrawn from the original plot

were predicted well. This model illustrates the practical implementation of the available information in the design of microchannel heat exchangers.
Many researchers noted that the flow boiling heat transfer in
microchannels is dominated by the nucleate boiling contribution,
which is mainly influenced by the heat flux. Correlations that are
similar to pool boiling type correlations, e.g., Armstrong [132]
and Cooper [144], with no mass flux term present in them have
been found to predict the microchannel flow boiling data with
some success [24,113,145]. Similarities and differences between
pool boiling and microchannel flow boiling was explored by
Kandlikar [146,147] and it was noted that the elongated bubbles
provide advancing and receding interfaces on the heater surface
that may be compared to the expanding and contracting interfaces
at the base of a bubble during pool boiling. The heat transfer in
the interface region consists of transient conduction and microconvection. Further guidance could be derived from the recent
research in the area of pool boiling, e.g., Refs. [148,149]. Models
Journal of Heat Transfer

Flow Boiling Instabilities. Flow boiling instabilities were


observed by a number of investigators [120,121,124,129,
133,134,160,161]. They have been identified as a major concern
in reliable operation of a microchannel heat exchanger. The high
heat transfer coefficients during single-phase heat transfer prior to
nucleation result in lower wall temperatures, thus delaying the
onset of nucleation. It also leads to a high liquid superheat at the
nucleation location. The bubble nucleation in this superheated liquid environment causes an explosive growth of the bubble, causing it to expand in both downstream and upstream locations
[131,162]. The resulting backflow in the channels is a major
source of instability in microchannels. Numerical simulation of
the bubble growth phenomenon confirmed the role of local liquid
superheat in causing the unstable condition [126]. The bubble
expansion upstream results in a backflow into the header of the
parallel microchannels. Providing artificial nucleation sites, introducing inlet restrictors, and incorporating heated regions to initiate nucleation were some of the remedies investigated by a
number of researchers [122,128,130]. Although these remedies
reduce the severity of the instabilities, flow oscillations are still
present and may adversely affect the CHF condition. In the last 5
years, a number of studies have been reported on identifying the
envelope of operating conditions for stable and unstable
operations.
Brutin and Tadrist [163] modeled the instability phenomenon
by considering the pressure forces across a slug formed during
explosive boiling. The overpressure created by the slug was
compared with the channel pressure drop. The ratio of the two
pressure drops was then linked to the applied heat flux and the
resulting ratio of channel pressure drop and heat flux (dimensional
quantity) was used as a parameter indicative of the flow
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instability. The constants derived are for their specific setup geometry, and further generalization is needed to extend this concept
to cover other system configurations and test fluids. Garrity et al.
[164] studied the Ledinegg type instability in a 1 mm  1 mm minichannel using 56 parallel channels in a stainless steel plate for a
fuel cell cooling application using HFE-7100. The pressure drop
versus flow rate was modeled and the instability region was predicted, with good agreement with the experimental data.
Zhang et al. [165] presented a detailed model to predict Ledinegg instability in microchannels using the available correlations
for pressure drop in developing the pressure drop versus mass
flow rate supply and demand curves. By comparing the slopes of
the two curves, onset of instability was predicted. Using the
model, they identified the ratio of kinematic viscosities of liquid
to vapor phases as an important parameter. According to their
findings, lower values of this ratio for HFE-7100 leads to a more
stable operation compared to water. Effects of other parameters
on instability were similar to those observed for larger systems. In
another recent paper, Zhang et al. [166] proposed an active oscillatory mass flow controller to reduce the flow oscillations. Such
dynamic control seems very promising to control oscillatory system behavior in systems where reliable operation is of critical
importance.
CHF. CHF during flow boiling in microchannels is a topic of
great interest as it limits the heat fluxes that can be safely and reliably dissipated. A number of studies have reported experimental
data for CHF in microchannels. A detailed list of these data sources may be found in recent papers on CHF modeling using large
databases [167,168]. The CHF in microchannels is clearly
affected by the presence of instabilities, and large spread is
observed in the data. This scatter is believed to be due to CHF values being reported under both stable and unstable operating conditions. As pointed out by Bergles and Kandlikar [14], the
instabilities are responsible for lower CHF values.
A number of correlations have been proposed in the literature
for CHF in microchannels. In general, they were developed with a
small data set and provided useful insight into the CHF mechanism [169,170]. However, they had limited success in predicting
other data sets that were not employed in the correlation development. Two correlations developed for macroscale applications by
Katto and Ohno [171] and Shah [172], however, were found to
predict the CHF generally within 2040% mean absolute error.
This is quite remarkable considering that the underlying data sets
in their correlation development used tubes larger than 3 mm in
diameter. For example, R-123 data by Kosar and Peles [173] was
correlated within 24.7% mean absolute error by the correlation of
Katto and Ohno. Park and Thome [174] report errors between
23% and 60% with this correlation. The success of these general
correlations also shows the importance of utilizing large number
of data sets in correlation development. However, Roday and Jensen [175] report that the correlation of Katto and Ohno resulted in
large overprediction for D 0.430 mm and 0.700 mm, and smaller
overprediction with D 0.286 mm tubes. In general, the correlation of Katto and Ohno underpredicted, while the correlation of
Shah overpredicted the experimental CHF data. On the other
hand, specific correlations have been developed in the literature
based on the researchers own experimental data, e.g., Refs.
[170,173,174,176,177]. They are able to correlate the parent data
set well but generally do not fare as well with other data sets.
Recently, utilizing a scaling analysis [178], Kandlikar [179]
proposed a CHF model that shows that the length-to-diameter
(L/D) ratio acts as a step-function to yield high-CHF and lowCHF regions. The CHF was considered to be dependent on the
local parameters and was a result of the vapor pushing under the
liquid at the wall resulting in a vapor cut-back. The hydrodynamic instability resulting from this force was proposed by
Palmer [180] in 1976 and used recently by Sefiane et al. [181] in
modeling the interface instability during pool boiling. The new
034001-10 / Vol. 134, MARCH 2012

CHF model [179] utilizes Weber number, capillary number (earlier proposed by Moriyama [113] in film thickness modeling),
and a new nondimensional number K2 representing the ratio of
the force due to momentum change resulting from evaporation at
the interface and the surface tension force

K2

q
hfg

2 


Dh
qV r

(4)

The step-function form dependence on the L/D-ratio is believed to


be linked to the instability during flow boiling. A higher L/D-ratio
leads to a lower CHF, while short tubes with a lower L/D-ratio
yields a higher CHF. The CHF correlation [179] covers a wide
range of parameters: hydraulic diameter from 0.127 mm to
3.36 mm, quality from 0.003 to 0.98, We from 1.7 to 86,196, Ca
from 0.1  103 to 117  103, and L/D from 10 to 352. A comparison of the model prediction with the experimental data is
shown in Fig. 11. The parametric trends among Weber number,
capillary number, and the new parameter K2 reported in Ref.
[179] provide a fundamental understanding of how inertia, viscous, and surface tension forces affect the CHF phenomenon at
macroscale and microscale. In general, surface tension forces are
dominant at very small channel sizes and lower mass fluxes. As
the channel size or mass flux increases, viscous terms (Ca)
become important, and finally for larger channel dimensions, or at
higher mass fluxes, inertia forces (We) are dominant.
Challenges and Future Research Needs in Flow
Boiling. The main challenges facing flow boiling in microchannels are in providing reliable system operation and a high value of
heat transfer coefficient. Some of the research needs were presented in the discussion above. Some of the important areas are
outlined below.
Heat Transfer. Careful experiments to generate reliable data
under stable operating conditions and under controlled uncertainty
conditions are needed. One of the major concerns is the validity of
the flow boiling data. It is strongly recommended that all flow
boiling experimental setups be first validated with the singlephase experiments before generating flow boiling data. Further,
the experimental data is needed to represent the realistic operating
conditions. For example, microchannels may be operated with
subcooled entry or two-phase entry (such as in the evaporator of a

Fig. 11 Comparison of CHF predictions by Kandlikar [179]


with parent data in microchannels and minichannels

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refrigeration system). The experimental data for the latter condition is severely lacking.
Instability. The work on instability modeling in microchannels
is receiving increased attention in the last 4 years. The analysis
presented by Zhang et al. [165] provides a useful direction. Future
work is suggested to build on these concepts and integrate the
actual system operation in the modeling that would include the
upstream compressibility effects, explosive boiling, and other
types of instabilities, including parallel channel and density wave
instabilities. Active control to provide stable operation has been
recently proposed [166]; however, research on developing passive
techniques would be highly desirable from operational and cost
standpoints. Use of infrared imaging provides a valuable tool in
evaluating the transient processes inside channels without the
need for optically transparent window [182,183].

by Kirby [190] focuses on fluid flow in microfabricated and nanofabricated systems.


A number of specialty conferences are devoted to heat transfer
and fluid flow in microchannels. The following list is not exhaustive but provides an overview of the scope of activities
worldwide:

Modeling. It is recommended that the transient nature of flow,


heat transfer, and conjugate effects resulting from the wall thermal
characteristics be included in developing more accurate models.
The dynamic processes associated with the nucleation and rapidly
moving interfaces will require some new techniques to replace the
use of steady-state conduction and fully developed flow equations
being employed in current models. Use of nondimensional parameters is strongly recommended to provide an understanding of the
underlying mechanisms.
Enhancement. Enhancement in the flow boiling heat transfer
coefficient is essential before this mode can be implemented in
practical devices. Recognizing that the single-phase flow with
water in an offset strip-fin geometry resulted in h values of around
500,000 W/(m2 K) [50,70], it is reasonable to expect comparable
or higher h values to justify the additional complexities introduced
by the flow boiling systems. Effects of nanostructures on pool
boiling are being investigated currently by many researchers, and
their application in flow boiling needs to be examined.
CHF. Unstable operating conditions result in lower CHF values in microchannel flow boiling. This aspect needs to be further
explored. Controlling unstable operation through active control
for enhancing CHF offers a reliable technique [166] and should be
pursued further.

Book Publications and Specialty Focused Conferences


A few books dedicated to microchannel fluid flow and heat
transfer have been published in the literature. The first book by
Kim et al. [184] focuses on the minichannel ranges and provides
basic equations that are helpful in designing compact heat
exchangers utilizing these channels. The second book by Zhang et
al. [185] focuses on the silicon heat sinks, providing the reader
with the fundamental aspects of the silicon cooling system design
for applications as well as research. They confirm the validity of
the Hsu and Graham [186] nucleation model and provide performance characteristics of various coolers in two phase flow. The
third book by Celata [187] provides an excellent survey of the
research reported in the literature on single-phase and two-phase
flows. It includes contributions from several experts in different
fields. The single-phase liquid flow and two-phase adiabatic flow
in minichannels and flow boiling in minichannels are covered in
greater detail. The fourth book by Kandlikar et al. [188] is published in 2006 and covers gaseous flows, liquid flows, boiling, and
condensation, along with some biological applications. The treatment in the single-phase liquid flow is on understanding the fundamentals with specific equations for entry region flows,
roughness effects, and microchannel system design for chip cooling application. The coverage on boiling deals with the fundamentals of the boiling phenomena. The fifth book by Yarin et al. [189]
provides a detailed coverage of literature related to single-phase
and two-phase cooling systems. Special focus is on the singlephase and two-phase flows in heated capillaries. The sixth book
Journal of Heat Transfer

Engineering Foundation Conference on Boiling Heat Transfer, since 1992, currently under ECI;
ASME International Conference on Nanochannels, Microchannels and Minichannels, held annually since 2003;
ECI International Conference on Transport Phenomena in
Micro and Nanodevices, since 2004;
ECI International Conference on Heat Transfer and Fluid
Flow in Microscale, since 2005;
ASME Micro/Nanoscale Heat and Mass Transfer International Conference, since 2007;
Micro and Nano Flows Conference, since 2006 (Initially
sponsored by IMechE/Royal Society of Edinburgh
Colloquium);
European Conference on Microfluidics, since 2008.

In addition to the above specialty conferences, Mechanical Engineering societies in a number of countries (such as ASME,
JSME, KSME, etc.) have a number of sessions devoted to the fluid
flow and heat transfer at microscale.

Concluding Remarks
The advantages of using microscale passages in improving heat
transfer have propelled research in this area. This subject will continue to receive attention as the focus shifts to further enhancing
heat transfer, reducing pressure drop, and implementing these
processes in practical devices. We are witnessing a paradigm shift
that is expected to yield significant reduction in equipment sizes
of some conventional heat transfer systems as well and introduce
new products utilizing microscale technologies.
In single-phase liquid flow in microchannels, it is now well
accepted that the continuum models are applicable. The reduction
in scale is seen as an important consideration while considering
the near wall region. Implementing nanofluids in the systems
using microchannels is seen to provide significant changes in the
performance. It is becoming clear that microchannels are gateways to flow modification through such nanoscale surface
enhancement configurations. Enhancing heat transfer in singlephase flow through novel techniques will continue to be a high
priority research endeavor in this area.
Flow boiling in microchannels is receiving renewed interest as
the challenges for achieving stable operation are being overcome
through a fundamental understanding of the underlying processes.
Developing simple and inexpensive systems for operating flow
boiling systems under stable conditions will be an important topic
of research. Enhancing flow boiling heat transfer coefficient
through novel techniques will continue to receive attention.
Implementing some of the enhancement techniques that have
been proven to be effective in compact heat exchanger passages
(minichannels) will be a high priority area for research. Application of nanocoatings on the channel walls is seen to be another
area for research in reducing the wall superheat at incipience and
increasing CHF.
Another aspect of microchannel research that cannot be overlooked is the potential strides that can be made through crossdisciplinary implementation of ideas from the fields of micromixers, biological sciences, and microfluidic devices used in drug
delivery and diagnostic applications.
Needless to say, we all should be thinking of the nanofluidic
frontier that promises to provide even more exciting opportunities
for heat transfer and fluid flow researchers.
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Nomenclature
Roman Letters
Ca
D, Dh
f
h
hfg
j
q
Re
V
We
x

capillary number
diameter, hydraulic diameter, m
friction factor
heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2  C)
latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
volumetric flux, m/s
heat flux, W/m2
Reynolds number
mean flow velocity, m/s
Weber number
quality

Greek Letters
e
l
q
r

roughness parameter
viscosity, Pas
density, kg/m3
surface tension, N/m

Subscripts
cf
cp
FP
L
m
T
t
o
v, V
w

constricted flow
constant properties
floor to mean profile distance
liquid
mean
total
transition to turbulence
corresponding to smooth wall
vapor
wall

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