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Introduction
Smaller channel size in a heat exchanger provides higher surface area to volume ratio and results in higher heat and mass transfer rates and lower equipment size. Automotive and aerospace
industries embraced the use of smaller sized passages in compact
heat exchangers to meet the weight and size constraints, while
high performance requirements in cryogenic industries, for example, necessitated the use of millimeter-sized passages in equipment with relatively large heat transfer rates and higher
effectiveness requirements.
Tuckerman and Pease [1] in 1981 demonstrated for the first
time the high heat flux removal capability of up to 800 W/cm2
achieved with microchannels in single-phase and two-phase flows.
After almost three decades, such high heat flux removal is now
being accomplished in practical devices, although much of the
work has been conducted in the last several years. A brief historical survey highlighting research in the areas of single-phase and
two-phase cooling with microchannels, followed by recommendations for future work, is presented in this paper.
After a slow start, research interest in microchannels has
increased significantly in the last decade. Figures 1 and 2 show
histograms of technical publications in each year related to singlephase liquid flow and flow boiling, respectively. Application of
microchannels with single-phase liquid flow for heat removal was
investigated at only a few places in the world until 1996. Starting
in 1997, the pace accelerated until 2008. It seems to have reached
a plateau, with 2009 numbers falling below the 2007 level. The
main thrust during this period was on understanding the fundamental mechanisms. Research is now focused on further refining
Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division of ASME for publication in the
JOURNAL OF HEAT TRANSFER. Manuscript received July 8, 2010; final manuscript
received February 16, 2011; published online January 10, 2012. Assoc. Editor: Prof.
Michael K. Jensen.
C 2012 by ASME
Copyright V
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exchangers, providing a clear historical perspective, was presented in 1993 by Goodling [2]. It is a must-read article for all
researchers in this field. It is interesting to note that even when
microchannel research was in its infancy, 78 papers were cited by
Goodling. During the period 19811993, the main centers engaged
in research in this field were as follows: Stanford University and
Lawrence Livermore National Labsthe pioneering thesis by
Tuckerman [53] investigated for the first time microchannels in
single-phase and two-phase modes for high heat flux removal,
Mundinger et al. [54] applied the high performance silicon microchannel heat exchanger design to laser diode array cooling; Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Lincoln Laboratories
Phillips [55,56] and Phillips et al. [31] provided the entrance region
Nusselt number and friction factor values in developing flows for
Fig. 3
Historical development timeline over 25 years highlighting advances in single-phase liquid flow in microchannels
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(1)
fcp
lm
The presence of dissolved gases in water during diabatic singlephase experiments resulted in higher friction factors due to small
bubbles forming on the walls and increasing resistance to the flow
[67]. Figure 4 shows the effect of dissolved gas content on the
friction factors after accounting for the variable property effects
given by Eq. (1). It is seen that the friction factors are higher with
a dissolved oxygen content of 8 ppm, but the results for 1 ppm
concentration are in good agreement with the conventional theory
for laminar flow. It is therefore recommended that degassed water
be used during experiments for evaluating the friction factors in
microchannels. Clearly, this poses a challenge in predicting the
pressure drop in practical systems using liquids containing dissolved gases. It would be of practical advantage to avoid bubbles
in microscale heat exchangers.
Defining microchannels has been a subject of considerable discussion in the literature. Kandlikar and Grande [40] in 2003
reported a channel classification scheme that identified microchannels as channels in the hydraulic diameter range of 10 lm to
200 lm. This scheme is followed in the present paper. The earlier
scheme by Mehendale et al. [3] had arbitrarily proposed 1 mm as
the distinction between microchannel and mesochannel flows. It
should be remembered that the channel classification scheme is
intended to serve only as a guide. The associated flow and heat
transfer phenomena in these channels are dictated by specific
operating conditions, fluid properties and type of flow, such as
single-phase or two-phase flow, gas, or liquid, etc. Further discussion on this topic is given by Kandlikar [68].
At the same time when the issue of the applicability of continuum theory to microchannel flows was resolved in 2005, the use
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(2)
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For 0 < eDh;cf 0:08; Ret;cf Ret;o 18; 750 e=Dh;cf
For 0:08 < eDh;cf 0:15; Ret;cf 800 3270 e=Dh;cf 0:08
(3)
where Ret,o is the transition Reynolds number for smooth tubes
for the given channel cross-section. For the two-dimensional
roughness elements, the experimental results of Brackbill and
Kandlikar [77] indicate that the rib height and spacing both influence the transition.
Hu et al. [87] numerically studied the effect of threedimensional roughness elements in channels of microfluidic devices for Reynolds number range of 0.110. The channel height was
chosen to be 5 lm and the roughness elements were 0.12.1 lm in
height and the spacing was varied from 0.1 to 1.5 lm. The effect
of varying channel height from 5 to 50 lm was also investigated.
They presented equations for the reduction in the channel height
due to roughness elements to be applied in the conventional pressure drop equations.
Three-dimensional roughness has been studied so far in microfluidic applications at low Reynolds numbers, mainly to enhance
mixing. It is a promising technique for liquid heat transfer applications. Further data is needed covering hydraulic diameters in the
range of 10200 lm in order to assess the effect of such structures
on fluid flow and heat transfer in microchannels.
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Fig. 5
Historical development timeline over 25 years highlighting advances in flow boiling in microchannels
fluids from the core of the flow channel to the heated surface.
Among the active enhancement techniques, pulsed flow and synthetic jets are attractive for localized cooling. Concurrent research
on the effect of pulsations/vibrations on the system integrity needs
to be investigated before applying them in practical devices. It is
expected that there will be significant research activity in this area
in the coming years.
Flow Boiling
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Fig. 6 Heat transfer coefficient variation with quality in a narrow channel of height 110 lm by Moriyama et al. [113], redrawn
from the original plot
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large experimental uncertainty in measurements of channel dimensions, local wall temperatures, and estimation
of wall heat flux;
differences in wall boundary conditions (a subject not
explored in flow boiling literature);
differences in nucleation cavity sizes and distribution on
the channel walls;
uncertainty related to the presence of instability condition and its severity.
Until experimental data sets that are free from the above concerns become available, any correlation scheme cannot be
expected to provide an accurate predictive methodology. The concerns regarding flow boiling instabilities are being addressed in
some of the recent publications. There is an immediate need to
generate experimental data in flow boiling systems using the same
rigor that the researchers have applied in their quest for checking
the applicability of the continuum models in single-phase liquid
flow.
High speed visualization during flow boiling in microchannels
is again receiving considerable attention with the focus now on
flow patterns, e.g., by Martin-Callizo et al. [138], Schilder et al.
[139], and Harirchian and Garimella [140]. These studies are
aimed at linking the modeling effort to the flow pattern. Although
it is difficult to predict the flow patterns with any degree of certainty, the insight gained through such visualization is extremely
useful.
Modeling of Flow Boiling Heat Transfer. The first model of
the flow boiling phenomenon was presented by Moriyama et al.
[113] to predict the pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient during slug and film (annular) flow in a large aspect ratio microchannel passage with a gap of 35110 lm as described earlier.
Although this paper addresses a number of fundamental aspects
using nondimensional parameters, it has not been considered by
later researchers in their modeling effort. A more in-depth review
of this paper is presented to bring out their important contributions
in this area.
Moriyama et al. [113] modeled the slug flow as shown in Fig. 8
for the low quality region and film flow as shown in Fig. 9 for the
high quality region. Since the liquidvapor interface plays an important role in the thickness of the film deposited during the slug
and film flows, capillary number Ca lLrjT was introduced in the
modeling; lL is the liquid viscosity, jT is the total volumetric flux,
m/s, and r is the surface tension, N/m. The volumetric flux may
be replaced by the representative flow velocity. The capillary
number represents the ratio of the viscous to surface tension
forces.
Figure 10 shows the variation of the two-phase to single-phase
heat transfer coefficient ratio for 65 lm and 110 lm gap sizes, two
different mass fluxes in each plot, and three different q/G ratios
(shown in the inset table). For a given fluid in the film flow region,
a lower Ca value would indicate a thicker film, and hence a lower
heat transfer coefficient, whereas a higher Ca value would indicate a thinner film, and correspondingly a higher heat transfer
coefficient. Their modeling seems to capture this trend well for
034001-8 / Vol. 134, MARCH 2012
Fig. 8 Schematic of the slug flow model employed by Moriyama et al. [113], redrawn from the original plot
Fig. 9 Schematic of the film flow model employed by Moriyama et al. [113], redrawn from the original plot
the smaller gap sizes (see the trend in the right hand region of the
plots). It may be instructive to study and extend the model by
Moriyama et al. [113] incorporating some of the recent findings
on instability and liquid film thickness.
In 2002, Jacobi and Thome [118] presented an elongated bubble model, which was later refined into a three-zone model by
Thome et al. [141]. The single-phase liquid heat transfer in the
slug was calculated using steady-state laminar flow equations,
thin film evaporation is calculated using conduction equations in
the liquid film, and heat transfer in the dry regions is considered
by gas flow equations separately. Film thickness was backcalculated to match the data and did not provide accurate representation of the actual thicknesses. The authors used steady-state
equations for representing flow boiling phenomena.
Heat conduction in the liquid, as the liquidvapor interface
sweeps over the heater, and associated microconvection are essentially transient phenomena. Fully developed flow equations for
gas flow and liquid slugs do not provide accurate representation of
the two-phase flow field.
Liquid film thickness plays an important role in modeling heat
transfer in slug flow as well in film (or annular) flow. A recent
work by Zhang et al. [142] provides useful information on liquid
film thickness measurement using laser extinction method in a
microgap as a function of interface velocity. An interesting observation made from these experiments was that the film thickness
increased with the interface velocity. For interface velocities of
35 m/s, the film thickness was around 10 lm for water and 20 lm
for ethanol and toluene. The film thickness in flow boiling in
microchannels is expected to be higher during explosive boiling
due to higher interface velocities.
Zhang et al. [143] in 2002 used the available correlations and
developed a model to predict the local heat transfer coefficient
variation along the length of 2060 lm hydraulic diameter parallel
microchannels. They compared their predictions with the local
wall temperature measurements in the silicon chip. The variation
and the actual heat transfer coefficient values along the length
Transactions of the ASME
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based on annular flow [150,151], annular flow in triangular microchannels considering the contact angle effects [152], and bubble
coalescence [153] have also been proposed in the literature. Fogg
and Goodson [154] considered the nucleation phenomenon and
linked it to the instability leading to water hammer (which is similar to the backflow observed by other researchers). There are a
number of recent papers published on the modeling aspects specific to different flow patterns. In general, these models perform
well with the parent data sets used in their development. A
broader testing using a large number of data sets has not been
reported in the literature. The modeling effort also suffers from
the nonavailability of reliable experimental data over a wide range
of conditions.
Flow Boiling Heat Transfer Enhancement. Enhancement in
flow boiling heat transfer was experimentally studied by Kosar
and Peles [125] by incorporating fins. A recent study by Krishnamurthy and Peles [155] indicated significant heat transfer
enhancement with microfins using HFE7000 in 222 lm hydraulic
diameter channels. Nanofluids have been studied with modest
improvements as reported in a review article by Cheng et al.
[156]. Recently, Khanikar et al. [157] implemented nanostructures
on the channel walls with modest enhancement. Repeated testing
reduced the enhancement effect due to damage to the nanostructures. This field is still in its infancy and more research efforts are
needed.
Use of nanofluids for flow boiling enhancement is a promising
area that is currently being explored in pool boiling applications.
A study by Lee and Mudawar [158] indicates that nanofluids
caused surface deposition in microchannels. Recent findings by
Ahn et al. [159] showed that using 0.01% concentration alumina
nanoparticles, CHF was enhanced by about 55%. The enhancement was due to deposition of the nanoparticles on the surface
causing the contact angle to decrease from 65 deg to about 12 deg.
The work by Ahn et al. confirms that reducing contact angle of
the surface by some other means may be an effective way to
enhance the CHF in microchannels.
were predicted well. This model illustrates the practical implementation of the available information in the design of microchannel heat exchangers.
Many researchers noted that the flow boiling heat transfer in
microchannels is dominated by the nucleate boiling contribution,
which is mainly influenced by the heat flux. Correlations that are
similar to pool boiling type correlations, e.g., Armstrong [132]
and Cooper [144], with no mass flux term present in them have
been found to predict the microchannel flow boiling data with
some success [24,113,145]. Similarities and differences between
pool boiling and microchannel flow boiling was explored by
Kandlikar [146,147] and it was noted that the elongated bubbles
provide advancing and receding interfaces on the heater surface
that may be compared to the expanding and contracting interfaces
at the base of a bubble during pool boiling. The heat transfer in
the interface region consists of transient conduction and microconvection. Further guidance could be derived from the recent
research in the area of pool boiling, e.g., Refs. [148,149]. Models
Journal of Heat Transfer
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instability. The constants derived are for their specific setup geometry, and further generalization is needed to extend this concept
to cover other system configurations and test fluids. Garrity et al.
[164] studied the Ledinegg type instability in a 1 mm 1 mm minichannel using 56 parallel channels in a stainless steel plate for a
fuel cell cooling application using HFE-7100. The pressure drop
versus flow rate was modeled and the instability region was predicted, with good agreement with the experimental data.
Zhang et al. [165] presented a detailed model to predict Ledinegg instability in microchannels using the available correlations
for pressure drop in developing the pressure drop versus mass
flow rate supply and demand curves. By comparing the slopes of
the two curves, onset of instability was predicted. Using the
model, they identified the ratio of kinematic viscosities of liquid
to vapor phases as an important parameter. According to their
findings, lower values of this ratio for HFE-7100 leads to a more
stable operation compared to water. Effects of other parameters
on instability were similar to those observed for larger systems. In
another recent paper, Zhang et al. [166] proposed an active oscillatory mass flow controller to reduce the flow oscillations. Such
dynamic control seems very promising to control oscillatory system behavior in systems where reliable operation is of critical
importance.
CHF. CHF during flow boiling in microchannels is a topic of
great interest as it limits the heat fluxes that can be safely and reliably dissipated. A number of studies have reported experimental
data for CHF in microchannels. A detailed list of these data sources may be found in recent papers on CHF modeling using large
databases [167,168]. The CHF in microchannels is clearly
affected by the presence of instabilities, and large spread is
observed in the data. This scatter is believed to be due to CHF values being reported under both stable and unstable operating conditions. As pointed out by Bergles and Kandlikar [14], the
instabilities are responsible for lower CHF values.
A number of correlations have been proposed in the literature
for CHF in microchannels. In general, they were developed with a
small data set and provided useful insight into the CHF mechanism [169,170]. However, they had limited success in predicting
other data sets that were not employed in the correlation development. Two correlations developed for macroscale applications by
Katto and Ohno [171] and Shah [172], however, were found to
predict the CHF generally within 2040% mean absolute error.
This is quite remarkable considering that the underlying data sets
in their correlation development used tubes larger than 3 mm in
diameter. For example, R-123 data by Kosar and Peles [173] was
correlated within 24.7% mean absolute error by the correlation of
Katto and Ohno. Park and Thome [174] report errors between
23% and 60% with this correlation. The success of these general
correlations also shows the importance of utilizing large number
of data sets in correlation development. However, Roday and Jensen [175] report that the correlation of Katto and Ohno resulted in
large overprediction for D 0.430 mm and 0.700 mm, and smaller
overprediction with D 0.286 mm tubes. In general, the correlation of Katto and Ohno underpredicted, while the correlation of
Shah overpredicted the experimental CHF data. On the other
hand, specific correlations have been developed in the literature
based on the researchers own experimental data, e.g., Refs.
[170,173,174,176,177]. They are able to correlate the parent data
set well but generally do not fare as well with other data sets.
Recently, utilizing a scaling analysis [178], Kandlikar [179]
proposed a CHF model that shows that the length-to-diameter
(L/D) ratio acts as a step-function to yield high-CHF and lowCHF regions. The CHF was considered to be dependent on the
local parameters and was a result of the vapor pushing under the
liquid at the wall resulting in a vapor cut-back. The hydrodynamic instability resulting from this force was proposed by
Palmer [180] in 1976 and used recently by Sefiane et al. [181] in
modeling the interface instability during pool boiling. The new
034001-10 / Vol. 134, MARCH 2012
CHF model [179] utilizes Weber number, capillary number (earlier proposed by Moriyama [113] in film thickness modeling),
and a new nondimensional number K2 representing the ratio of
the force due to momentum change resulting from evaporation at
the interface and the surface tension force
K2
q
hfg
2
Dh
qV r
(4)
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refrigeration system). The experimental data for the latter condition is severely lacking.
Instability. The work on instability modeling in microchannels
is receiving increased attention in the last 4 years. The analysis
presented by Zhang et al. [165] provides a useful direction. Future
work is suggested to build on these concepts and integrate the
actual system operation in the modeling that would include the
upstream compressibility effects, explosive boiling, and other
types of instabilities, including parallel channel and density wave
instabilities. Active control to provide stable operation has been
recently proposed [166]; however, research on developing passive
techniques would be highly desirable from operational and cost
standpoints. Use of infrared imaging provides a valuable tool in
evaluating the transient processes inside channels without the
need for optically transparent window [182,183].
Engineering Foundation Conference on Boiling Heat Transfer, since 1992, currently under ECI;
ASME International Conference on Nanochannels, Microchannels and Minichannels, held annually since 2003;
ECI International Conference on Transport Phenomena in
Micro and Nanodevices, since 2004;
ECI International Conference on Heat Transfer and Fluid
Flow in Microscale, since 2005;
ASME Micro/Nanoscale Heat and Mass Transfer International Conference, since 2007;
Micro and Nano Flows Conference, since 2006 (Initially
sponsored by IMechE/Royal Society of Edinburgh
Colloquium);
European Conference on Microfluidics, since 2008.
In addition to the above specialty conferences, Mechanical Engineering societies in a number of countries (such as ASME,
JSME, KSME, etc.) have a number of sessions devoted to the fluid
flow and heat transfer at microscale.
Concluding Remarks
The advantages of using microscale passages in improving heat
transfer have propelled research in this area. This subject will continue to receive attention as the focus shifts to further enhancing
heat transfer, reducing pressure drop, and implementing these
processes in practical devices. We are witnessing a paradigm shift
that is expected to yield significant reduction in equipment sizes
of some conventional heat transfer systems as well and introduce
new products utilizing microscale technologies.
In single-phase liquid flow in microchannels, it is now well
accepted that the continuum models are applicable. The reduction
in scale is seen as an important consideration while considering
the near wall region. Implementing nanofluids in the systems
using microchannels is seen to provide significant changes in the
performance. It is becoming clear that microchannels are gateways to flow modification through such nanoscale surface
enhancement configurations. Enhancing heat transfer in singlephase flow through novel techniques will continue to be a high
priority research endeavor in this area.
Flow boiling in microchannels is receiving renewed interest as
the challenges for achieving stable operation are being overcome
through a fundamental understanding of the underlying processes.
Developing simple and inexpensive systems for operating flow
boiling systems under stable conditions will be an important topic
of research. Enhancing flow boiling heat transfer coefficient
through novel techniques will continue to receive attention.
Implementing some of the enhancement techniques that have
been proven to be effective in compact heat exchanger passages
(minichannels) will be a high priority area for research. Application of nanocoatings on the channel walls is seen to be another
area for research in reducing the wall superheat at incipience and
increasing CHF.
Another aspect of microchannel research that cannot be overlooked is the potential strides that can be made through crossdisciplinary implementation of ideas from the fields of micromixers, biological sciences, and microfluidic devices used in drug
delivery and diagnostic applications.
Needless to say, we all should be thinking of the nanofluidic
frontier that promises to provide even more exciting opportunities
for heat transfer and fluid flow researchers.
MARCH 2012, Vol. 134 / 034001-11
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Nomenclature
Roman Letters
Ca
D, Dh
f
h
hfg
j
q
Re
V
We
x
capillary number
diameter, hydraulic diameter, m
friction factor
heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 C)
latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
volumetric flux, m/s
heat flux, W/m2
Reynolds number
mean flow velocity, m/s
Weber number
quality
Greek Letters
e
l
q
r
roughness parameter
viscosity, Pas
density, kg/m3
surface tension, N/m
Subscripts
cf
cp
FP
L
m
T
t
o
v, V
w
constricted flow
constant properties
floor to mean profile distance
liquid
mean
total
transition to turbulence
corresponding to smooth wall
vapor
wall
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