Mechanisms of Motivation

Motivation can not be separated

from reinforcement

Characteristics of Motivation

1. Motivation is invisible.
2. Motivation is goal-seeking.
3. Motivation is selective and
directional.
4. Motivation is persistent during a
period of time

Kinds of Motives

5 Sources of Motivation by Leonard, Beavais and Scholl, 1995

1.
2.
3.
4.

Instrumental Motivation
Intrinsic Process Motivation
Goal Internalization
Internal Self-Concept based
Motivation
5. External Self-based Motivation

Motivation Concepts and

Theories

Theories of Motivation

Motivationfactors within and outside

an organism that cause it to behave a
certain way at a certain time
Drivean internal condition or impulse
that activates behavior to reduce a
need
and restore homeostasis
Incentiveexternal goal that pulls or
pushes behavior

Instinctmotives are innate

Drivebiological needs as
motivation
Incentiveextrinsic things push or
pull behavior
Arousalpeople are motivated to
maintain optimum level of arousal
Humanistichierarchy of needs

Drives as Tissue Needs

Theories of Motivation

Homeostasisthe constancy of internal

conditions that the body must actively
maintain
Drives may be due to an upset in
homeostasis, inducing behavior to correct the
imbalance
Animals do behave in accordance with their
tissue needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing
caloric intake, drive for salt)
However, homeostasis cannot explain all
drives

Arousal Theory
People are motivated to maintain
an optimum level of arousal
neither too
high nor too low
Curiosity motivehelps us
understand
our environment

Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow suggested that
motives are divided into several
levels from basic survival needs to
psychological and self-fulfillment
needs.

Sensation Seeking
A person high
in sensation
seeking tends
to look for
exciting (and
sometimes
risky)
activities

Drives as States of the

Brain
The hub of
many central
drive systems
lies in the
hypothalamus

Energy Homeostasis
Basic metabolic rate (BMR)--the rate
a body at rest uses for vital life
functions
Energy homeostasis--long-term
matching of food intake to energy
expenditure
Positive energy balance--when
caloric intake exceeds amount of
caloric energy expended
Negative energy balance--when
caloric intake falls short of amount of
caloric energy expended

Long-Term Signals and

Body Weight
Secretion of leptin and insulin are
directly proportional to the amount of
body fat
Set-point--theory that says optimal
body weight is defended by regulating
hunger feelings and metabolic rate
Settling-point--theory that says body
weight stabilizes around the point
where there is a balance between
energy intake and energy expenditure.

Short-Term Eating
Signals
Physiological--slight increase in blood
insulin
Psychological--classical and operant
conditioning surrounding eating
behavior
Satiety--signals from the stomach,
chemical (CCK), and stretch
receptors
Leptin, a hormone indicating the
amount
of fat in the body

Basal Metabolic Rate

The rate at which the body
uses energy
for vital functions while at rest
Factors that influence BMR
Age
Sex
Size
Genetics
Food intake

Excess Weight and

Obesity
Obesitycondition characterized
by excessive body fat and a BMI
equal to or greater than 30.0
Overweightcondition
characterized by BMI between
25.0 and 29.9

Factors in Obesity
Positive incentive value of
palatable food
Super-size it!
Cafeteria diet effect
BMR changes over the life span
Sedentary lifestyle
Leptin resistence
Weight cycling

Factors Contributing to Being

Overweight
Highly palatable foodwe eat because it
tastes so good
SuperSize Itfood portions are larger
than necessary for health
Cafeteria Diet Effectmore food and
more variety lead us to eat more
Snackingdoes not cause us to eat less
at dinner
BMRchanges through the lifespan
Sedentary lifestyles

Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosacharacterized by
excessive weight loss, irrational fear of
gaining weight, and distorted body
image
Bulimia nervosacharacterized by
binges of extreme overeating followed
by self-induced purging such as
vomiting, laxatives
Binge-eatingdisorder characterized by
recurring episodes of binge eating
without purging

Sexual Motivation and

Behavior
Physiological determinants
Estrus in many animals controls
sexual behavior

Psychological determinants
Sexual behavior in humans is not
limited to reproduction

Unrealistic standards of beauty

may contribute to high incidence of
eating disorders

Some Definitions
Sexthe biological category of male or
female; sexual intercourse
Gendercultural, social, and psychological
meanings associated with masculinity or
femininity
Gender rolesbehaviors, attitudes, and
personality traits designated either
masculine or feminine in a given culture
Gender identityA persons psychological
sense of being male or female
Sexual orientationdirection of a person's
emotional and erotic attractions

Human Sexual Response

Sexual Orientation

Stage 1: Excitementbeginning of
sexual arousal
Stage 2: Plateauincreased
physical arousal
Stage 3: Orgasmmale ejaculates,
female vaginal contractions
Stage 4: Resolutionarousal
subsides

Sexual orientationdirection of a
person's emotional and erotic
attractions

Determination of Sexual
Orientation
Geneticsrole suggested by twin
and family studies
Brain structuredifferences found
in hypothalamus of homosexual
and heterosexual men
Hormonal adrogenized females
Complex issue with no clear
answers

Sexuality in Adulthood
Majority of adults (80%) report having none or
one sexual partner in the past year (marriage
factor)
Majority of men ages 18-59 have sex about
seven times per month
Majority of women ages 18-59 have sex about
six times per month
Vaginal intercourse is nearly universal as the
most widely practiced sexual activity among
heterosexual couples
50 percent of older Americans reported
sexual activity at least once per month.

Heterosexualsexual attraction for

the opposite sex
Homosexualsexual attraction for the
same sex
Gaytypically used to describe male
homosexuals
Lesbiantypically used to describe
female homosexuals
Bisexualsexual attraction for both
sexes

Some General Findings

Sexual orientation is an early-emerging,
ingrained aspect of the self that probably
does not change
No consistent relationship between
orientation and childhood experiences
(e.g., parenting, abuse, sexual
experience)
Controversial findings suggest a possible
relationship among prenatal stress,
androgens, and the development of
brain systems that play a role in sexual
attraction

Sexual Disorders and

Problems
Sexual dysfunctionconsistent disturbance in
sexual desire, arousal, or orgasm that causes
psychological distress and interpersonal
difficulties
43% of women and 31% of men report sexual
problems
Low desire and arousal problems common
among women
Premature ejaculation and erectile problems
common among men

Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow suggested that
motives
are divided into several levels-from basic survival needs to
psychological and self-fulfillment
needs

Self-Determination
Theory
Optimal human functioning can
occur only if the psychological
needs of autonomy, competence,
and relatedness are met
Proposed by E. L. Deci and R. M.
Ryan

Self-Determination
Theory
Autonomyneed to determine,
control, and organize ones own
behavior and goals
Competenceneed to effectively
learn and master challenging
tasks
Relatednessneed to feel
attached to others

Competence and
Achievement
Competence motivationbehavior
aimed at demonstrating
competence and exerting control
in a situation
Achievement motivation
behavior aimed at excelling,
succeeding, or outperforming
others at some activity
Can be influenced by culture

Concept of Emotion
A class of subjective feelings
elicited by stimuli that have high
significance to an individual
stimuli that produce high arousal
generally produce strong feelings
are rapid and automatic
emerged through natural selection
to benefit survival and
reproduction

Physical Arousal and

Emotions
Sympathetic nervous system is
aroused with emotions (fight-orflight response)
Different emotions stimulate
different responses
Feardecrease in skin temperature
(cold-feet)
Angerincrease in skin temperature
(hot under the collar)

Emotion and Facial

Expressions
Each basic emotion is associated with
a unique facial expression
Facial expressions are innate and
hard-wired
Innate facial expressions the same
across many cultures
Display rulessocial and cultural
rules that regulate emotional
expression, especially facial
expressions.

Basic Emotions
Fear, surprise, anger, disgust,
happiness, sadness
Basic emotions are innate and
hard-wired
Complex emotions are a blend
of many aspects of emotions
Classified along two dimensions
Pleasant or unpleasant
Level of activation or arousal
associated with the emotion

Brain and Emotions

Amygdala
evaluates the significance of stimuli
and generates emotional responses
generates hormonal secretions and
autonomic reactions that accompany
strong emotions
Direct connection to thalamus allows
for rapid reaction to potentially
dangerous situations

James-Lange Theory

Cannons Challenge

Cognitive-Mediational
Theory

Two-Factor Theory

Importance of Emotion

Emotions result from the cognitive

appraisal of a situations effect on
personal well-being
Similar to two-factor, but cognitive
mediational theorys emphasis is
on the cognitive appraisal as the
essential trigger of the emotional
response

Importance of Emotion
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Survival
Decision Making
Boundary Setting
Communication
Happiness
Unity
Human Emotional Needs

The Physiological
Components of Emotion
1.
2.
3.
4.

Heart rate and blood pressure increase

Rate of breathing increase
Pupils dilate
Sweat glands are activated while saliva
and mucous secretion decreases
5. Blood sugar level increases providing more
energy
6. Blood is diverted to the brain and skeletal
muscles
7. Hairs on the skin becomes erect