Thermal and Non-Thermal Technique in Food Technology

Non-thermal technique
1. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP)
2. Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
3. Ultrasound
4. Pulsed Light (PL)
5. Irradiation
6. Electron Beam
7. Oscillating Magnetic Field (OMF)
8. Ozone
9. Gas, cold plasma

Thermal technique
1. Thermal processing
2. Aseptic packaging
3. Baking
4. Frying
5. Ohmic heating
6. Microwave
7. Radio frequency
8. Infrared
9. Drying
10. Extrusion
11. Chilling
12. Freezing
13. Freeze drying

NON-THERMAL PROCESSING TECHNIQUE:

Objectives:
Render foods free of pathogenic & spoilage organisms

 Retain color, flavor

Improve shelf life
Improve texture
Methods:
Non-thermal Processing
1. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP)
2. Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
3. Ultrasound
4. Pulsed Light (PL)
5. Irradiation
6. Electron Beam
7. Oscillating Magnetic Field (OMF)
8. Ozone
9. Gas, plasma
Mind

Field

map:

PEF, PL, OMF,

Irradiation,
Ultrasound

Non-thermal
Processing

Mechanical

Gas

Mixing,
Emulsifying,
Ozone, CO2, Cold
Plasma

High Pressure Processing:

High pressure processing (HPP), or high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), or ultra high pressure (UHP)
processing, subjects liquid or solid foods, with or without packaging, to pressures between 40 and
1000 MPa ( 1-20 min).
Pasteurization using 400 -600 MPa,
-at room temperature for a few minutes
Fresh-like quality attributes,
-Pasteurized shelf stable high acid foods
-Pasteurized low acid food products

What is high pressure?

disk)

(Three African elephants (~5 tons each) standing on a 18 mm (dia.)

High pressure processing model:

Hite (1899) reported treatment and prevention of souring of milk treated by HHP Hite (1914) reported
results from studies, which were mainly growth or no growth (no kinetics) on non-spore forming
Bacillus prodigiosus (now called as Serratia marcescens), and vegetative cells of Bacillus subtilis,
yeasts, as well as pathogens Bacillus typhosus (Salmonella
typhimurium), Bacillus diphtheriae, anthrax, tuberculosis,
bubonic plague Cruess predicted in 1924 that HHP would be
used to preserve fruit juices.
High pressure as a sterilization process
Combination of pressures (600-800 MPa) and
temperatures (60-90C)
-Vegetative cell inactivation
-Bacterial spore inactivation
-Minimal thermal degradation
Foods with superior quality attributes
Temperature profile:

Effects of High Pressure

For orange juice processed at 483 MPa, 60 s, 7 log reduction of pathogens (E. coli, Salmonella) HHP
treated OJ was very close to freshly squeezed For RTE meats, processed at 600 MPa, 3-4 log
reduction of L. Monocytogenes HHP acts instantaneously and uniformly throughout a mass of food
independent of size, shape and food composition.
Rutgers HHP Facility

HHP Processed Current and Potential Products in the Market

Apple cider,
Clams,
Breakfast items (eggs)
Pot roasts/stewsPot
fruit smoothies,
other shell fish
High quality fruit/vegetables
Ham,
Hummus,
High quality soups
chicken,
Guacamole,
RTD Teas/coffee
turkey,
Salsa,
Dairy desserts/smoothiesdesserts
sausages
wet salads
Cheese/cream /sauces
Oysters,
Meat joints
Low acid pastas
Liquid flavors/herbs
High Intensity Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) Processing
Applications of high voltage pulses to foods placed between two electrodes.
10 to 80 kV/cm
10 to 10000 s
Novel food preservation technology recognized for its ability to inactivate bacteria present in liquid
food products at low temperatures.

Yeast cells visualized under PEF

by Optical Camera (Howard Zhang,

OSU)

Examples of PEF Processed

Apple juice
Orange juice
Milk Beaten eggs
Green pea soup
Brine solution
Electromagnetic Radiation

PEF processed products

Phosphate buffer
Milk
Saline solution
Yogurt
Deionizedwater
Sodium alginate
Orange juice
Potato dextrose agar
Apple juice
Simulated milk ultrafiltrate
Pea soup

Sucrose and xanthan solution

Liquid egg
Cranberry juice
Dry spices
Wheat
Riceflour
wine
Rice pudding
Apple cider
Cheese sauce
Beef burgers
Horchata

High Intensity Pulsed Light Processing

Intense, short duration, broad-spectrum light is exposed to a food or package
Very effective on product surfaces
Marginally effective at penetrating to depths in foods
Reduces the need for chemical disinfectants and preservatives

Food Applications of Pulsed Light FDA

( approved Pulsed Light Technology for food)
Use of high intensity PL as am irradiation processing method
Safe use of a source of high intensity light to control microorganisms on the surface of
foods.
Irradiation source: Xenon flash lamps 200-1100 nm wavelength
Pulse durations no longer than 2 ms
Total cumulative treatment not to exceed 12 J/cm2
Pulsed Light Processing
Treatment of packaged products by pulsed light minimizes risk of further recontamination.
Many plastics can be used to efficiently transmit light to the product. Ex.: polyethylene,
polypropylene, nylon

Radiation vs. Irradiation

Radiation: Mode of heat transfer in vacuum, Non-Ionizing Radiation: RF, microwaves, IR
Ionizing Radiation: X-rays, gamma rays, and energy from radioactive isotopes.
Irradiation: Ionizing radiation
Radiation
x rays
rays
rays
Cathode rays
Protons
Neutrons

Nature of rays

Typical energy in
MeV (1 eV = 10-19 J)
Man made photons
0.01-10
Photons
from 0.1 several
pisotopes
Electrons from
0.01- 1
isotopes
Electrons
from 0.10 1 10
accelerators
Protons from
MeV range
accelerators
Neutrons from
MeV range
fission or isotopes

Penetration
20-150
30-100
0.1-0.5
0.1015
0.003
10

 rays

He nuclei from
1-10
0.005
isotopes
Ref: Physical Principles of Food Preservation, 2nd ed., M. Karel and D.B. Lund, Chapter 11
Ionizing Radiation
The energy is at such high levels that electrons leave their orbits forming ions
The ions cause destruction of microorganisms, insects and other pests
Radiation Source:
Cobalt-60
Cesium-137
Linear acceleration Electron beam technology uses electricity. Beam penetrates 2-3 cm. Good for thin
products. Gamma rays from radioactive material penetrate more deeply .
Current Food Products Processed by Ionizing Radiation
Potatoes,
Spices,
Dry vegetable seasoning,
Ground beef,
pork,
poultry,
Some fruits and
vegetables
More than 150 food irradiation facilities in 40 countries Food irradiation is one of the most
extensively and thoroughly studied methods of food preservation Thakur and Singh (1994)
Labeling Requirements
Irradiated foods are required to have either treatedwith irradiation or treated by
irradiation displayed prominently on the label.
Radura must be displayed.
Ingredients (e.g. spices) are not required to have any labeling.
Restaurant foods do not require labeling
Consumer Acceptance
The greatest disadvantage of food irradiation is its nameevokes unpleasant associations of
radioactivity, nuclear threats, high technology, genetic mutation, and cancer
Ozone Processing
Ozone (O3)
A gas - triatomic form of oxygen.
Most powerful oxidizing agent available for conventional water treatment highly reactive.
Unstable - must be generated onsite and used.
Slightly soluble in water, but more so than oxygen.
Effect on Meat

Ozone treatment: up to 97% reduction of E. coli

Sensory Evaluation (after cooked): No significant Difference
Appearance (color and texture): No Significant Difference
High-Intensity Oscillating Magnetic Field (OMF) Processing
Superconducting coils
Coils which produces DC fields
Coils energized by the discharge of energy stored in a capacitor.
Coil-Capacitor System for OMF Generation

Examples
Preserved with OMF
Milk (with Streptococcus thermophilus)
Yogurt or Curd (with Saccharomyces)
Orange juice (with Saccharomyces)
Brown N Serve rolls dough (with bacterial spores)
Power Ultrasound Processing
Ultrasound processing: principle
Energy generated from waves of 20,000 or more
vibrations per second
-high frequency or diagnostic ( 2-10 MHz)
-low frequency or power (20-100 kHz)
Lyses and inactivates cells
-Intracelullar cavitation
Variables to control:
-Temperature
-Amplitude of the ultrasonic wave
-Time of treatment
-Cycles
Modes of sonication
Sonication(US)
-Ultrasound

of
Foods

Thermo-sonication (TS)
-Ultrasound plus heat
Mano-thermo -sonication (MTS)
-Ultrasound plus heat and pressure

Ultrasound treatment of milk

Cavitation:
1. High-speed microjets of liquid, 400 km/h
2. High spot temperature, 5000C
3. High pressure, several hundreds of atmospheres.
Shock waves produced by cavitation have been shown sufficient to
cleave polymers by mechanical breakage of the chains

Ultrasound Application in Food Processing

Mechanical Effects
Chemical/Biochemical Effects
Crystallization of fats, sugars, etc.sugars
Microbial inactivation
etc
Effluent treatment

Degassing
Destruction of foams
Extraction of flavorings
Filtration and drying
Freezingg
Mixing and homogenization
Precipitation of airborne powder
Tenderization of meat

Modification of growth
of living cells
Alteration of enzyme
activity
Oxidation
Sterilization of equipment

Plasma Processing
Temp. 20-60 C
Partially ionized or activated gas (ppm)
Non-chemical low temperature decontamination of heat sensitive surfaces (plastics, vegetables,
fruits, meat)

Cold plasma

Concluding Remarks
Non-thermal food processing is still an evolving field
Some non-thermal processes seem to have better potential than others
Equipment cost (though coming down) still is a major limiting step
Process documentation, verification procedures need to be worked out for
government approval to assure safety (adequate processing)
Thermal processing
Thermal Processing is the application of heat treatment for the production of consumer safe and shelf
stable ready to consume food products in sealed containers
Definition: Thermal Processing is the application of sufficient heat treatment to cause destruction of
all pathogenic microorganisms and inactivate or destroy those
microorganisms and enzymes that deteriorate the food under ordinary conditions of storage
and distribution
Primary objective:
Destroy the most heat resistant pathogenic spore -forming organism ---- Clostridium
botulinum
Secondary objective:
Destroy vegetative and spore-forming microorganisms that cause spoilage. Spoilage sporeformers are usually more heat resistant than pathogenic spore formers.
Thermal Death Time:
It is the shortest time necessary to kill a given number of organisms at a specified temperature. By
this method, the temperature is kept constant and the time necessary to kill all cells is determined.
Thermal death point:
It is the lowest temperature necessary to kill a given number of organisms in a fixed time, usually 10
minutes.
D value:
This is the decimal reduction time, or the time required to destroy 90% of the organisms.
The destruction of vegetative bacteria by heat is logarithmic and follows a first order reaction.
Z value
This is refers to the temperature change (C) which results in a tenfold (1 log) decrease or increase in
the D value. The z value provides information on the relative resistance of an organism to different
destructive temperatures and can be used to determine the equivalent D values at different
temperatures.
F value / Farenheit value:
F-value is the time in minutes required to destroy the spores / vegetative cells of a particular
organisms at 121C. F Value represents, a measure of the ability of the heat process to reduce the
number of spores or vegetative cells of a given organisms in a container.
The 12D concept
the widely accepted minimum lethality for a heat process applied to low acid canned foods is that it
should produce 12 decimal reductions in the number of surviving Cl. botulinum spores at 121C. This
is known as the 12D concept or botulinum cook or commercially sterile. If D121 of Cl. botulinum
is 0.21 minutes

Aseptic Packaging
Aseptic packaging can be defined as the filling of a
commercially sterile product into a sterile container under aseptic
conditions and hermetically sealing the containers so that infection is
prevented. This results in a product, which is shelf-stable at ambient
conditions.
Aseptic packaging technology is fundamentally different from
that of conventional food processing by canning. In canning, the
process begins with treating the food prior to filling. Initial operations
inactivate enzymes so that these will not degrade the product during
processing. The package is cleaned, and the product is introduced into
the package, usually hot. Generally, air that can cause oxidative
damage is removed from the interior. The package is hermetically
sealed and then subjected to heating. The package must be able to
withstand heat up to about 100C for high acid products and up to
127C for low acid products, which must receive added heat to
destroy heat-resistant microbial spores. Packages containing low-acid
(above pH 4.5) food must withstand pressure as well. Although conventional canning renders food
products commercially sterile, the nutritional contents and the organoleptic properties of the food
generally suffer in the processing. Moreover, tinplate containers are heavy in weight, prone to rusting
and are of high cost.
Aseptic Processing Methodology
Aseptic processing comprises the following:
Sterilisation of the products before filling
Sterilisation of packaging materials or containers and closures before filling
Sterilisation of aseptic installations before operation (UHT unit, lines for products, sterile air and
gases, filler and relevant machine zones) Conventional Process Flow Aseptic Process Flow
Maintaining sterility in this total system during operation; sterilization of all media entering the
system, like air, gases, sterile water
Production of hermetic packages
Retort pouches:
Retort pouches which are containers made either of laminates of synthetic materials or laminates of
aluminium foil with synthetic materials, are of growing importance in thermal food preservation.

Thermo-stabilized laminated food pouches, have a seal layer which is usually PP (polypropylene) or
PP-PE (polyethylene) polymer, and the outside layers are usually made of polyester or nylon. From
certain laminated films, for instance, polyester / polyethylene (PETP/PE) or polyamide/polyethylene
(PA/PE), relatively rigid containers can be made. The advantage of the retortable pouches/laminated
containers is their good thermal conductivity which can considerably reduce the required heat
treatment time and hence is beneficial for the sensory product quality.
Canning:
Various steps involved in the canning process are
1. Selection and preparation of raw materials
2. Blanching
3. Filling of cans
4. Exhausting/vacuumization
5. Sealing of the container/closure
6. Processing/sterilization/retorting
7. Chilling
8. Washing of cans
9. External lacquering
10. Labeling
11. Storage/maturity
UHT PROCESSING
Definition: UHT milk can be defined as a product obtained by heating food material (especially milk)
in a continuous flow to a temperature in excess of 125C for not less than two seconds and
immediately packaging in sterile packages under aseptic conditions. In India, UHT milk is generally
processed at 140oC for 2 seconds.
Direct Heating Plant: There are two types of direct heating plants
(a) Injection type
(b) Infusion type.
Injection type: Processing is through steam-into-milk arrangement. Steam injector is the heart of this
plant. Preheated milk at 80-90 C enters the injector nozzles from one side. Steam at slightly higher
pressure enters the injector from the other side. As the steam mixes with milk, steam condenses and
the product is rapidly heated. Rapid condensation of steam prevents entry of air in holding tube. Air in
holding tubes results in improper heating. Backpressure is maintained on the discharge side.
Backpressure ensures that product does not boil in holding tube. Boiling may result in fouling and
improper heating of milk. Several designs of injector are available.
Infusion type: In this system, milk is heated by milk-into steam arrangement. The processing unit
consists of a chamber filled with pressurized steam. Milk enters the chamber from the top. There are
two alternative arrangements for distribution of milk. In the first type, milk flows to a hemispherical
bowl with loose circular disc closing the top. When the bowl is full, milk overflows and falls in
droplets through the steam environment. In an alternative arrangement, milk flows through a series of
parallel and horizontal distribution tubes. These tubes have slits along the bottom and milk flows like
a thin film through the chamber. As milk reaches the bottom of the chamber, it is heated to desired
temperature. This system is particularly suitable for thicker liquids and for liquids suspended with
smaller chunks.
Indirect Type Heating System: There are three types of indirect heating systems:
(a) Plate heat exchangers
(b) Tubular heat exchanger
(c) Scraped surface heat exchanger.

Plate heat exchanger: This resembles plate heat exchanger of HTST plants. Several rectangular
stainless steel plates with corrugations are arranged in sequence. These plates are then mechanically
tightened to hold together. Corrugations on the plates induce turbulence and therefore result in high
heat transfer. High temperature processing generates high internal pressure. The gaskets are therefore
made of heat resistant materials such as medium nitrile rubber or resin cured butyl rubber. A major
advantage of this plant is therefore simple design and comparatively less cost. If deposit formation is
more, plates can be removed and manually cleaned.
Tubular heat exchanger: There are two types of tubular heat exchangers (a) concentric tube, (b)
shell and tube type. Concentric tube type heat exchangers comprise two or three stainless steel tube
lengths put one inside another. Spacer is placed in each inner tube space to maintain them concentric.
Several such multiple tubes are bound together and placed into an outer cylindrical housing. Two tube
heat exchangers are used for simple cooling and heating. In triple tube heat exchanger, available heat
transfer area is doubled. It is generally used in final cooling section. It is also suitable for processing
of thick liquids, which generally reduces heat transfer rate. Product flows through the middle annular
space. Heating or cooling medium passes through inner tube and outer annular space. In shell and
tube type heat exchangers, 5-7 straight lengths of smaller tubes (10-15 mm internal diameter) are
assembled in an outer tube. The smaller tubes are connected to large outer tube at both ends by a
manifold. Product passes through the smaller tubes. Heating or cooling medium passes through the
space around them in a counter current flow. Tubular heat exchangers are mechanically very strong
and can withstand even very high internal pressure generated during homogenization (200- 300 bar).
Therefore the need for acquiring an aseptic homogenizer to be placed after heating section is totally
eliminated. Instead, the high pressure reciprocating pump of an ordinary homogenizer can be placed
before the sterile section. The homogenizing valve can be put at any point on the downstream side
(even after final heating section). The problem of product contamination arises from the
homogenization pump and not the valve. Therefore, with tubular heat exchangers, the product can be
homogenized before sterilization, after sterilization or on both the occasions. Fat rich products like
cream require homogenization after final heating to prevent re-association of fat globules due to high
temperature processing after homogenization.
Scraped Surface Heat Exchanger (SSWE): It is a very specialized type of heat exchanger. It
consists of a jacketed cylinder. A shaft passes along the axis of the cylinder. The shaft is supported by
bearings at both ends of the cylinder. The shaft also carries several scrapper blades. As shaft rotates,
scrapper blades provide turbulence and physically remove the product from the surface of the wall.
The colder product subsequently replaces the heated product and the cycle continues. SSHE is used
only for heating very thick liquids. SSHE units are very expensive and have poor energy conversion
efficiency. The cost of processing is therefore very high.
Extrusion
Continuous screw extruders

Extruders
Adiabatic

Single
screw
extruders

Twin
screw
extruders

Isothermal Polytropic
Counter rotating

Intermeshed

Co-rotating

Non
intermeshined

Intermeshed

Self-wiping

non
Intermeshed

Partially
self-wiping

Extrusion is the process by which a block/billet of

metal is reduced in cross section by forcing it to flow
through a die orifice under high pressure.
In general, extrusion is used to produce cylindrical
bars or hollow tubes or for the starting stock for drawn
rod, cold extrusion or forged products.
Most metals are hot extruded due to large amount of
forces required in extrusion. Complex shape can be
extruded from the more readily extrudable metals such as aluminium. The products obtained are also
called extrusion.
The reaction of the extrusion billet with the container and die results in high compressive stresses
which are effective in reducing cracking of materials during primary breakdown from the ingot.
This helps to increase the utilisation of extrusion in the working of metals that are difficult to form
like stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and other high-temperature materials.
Similar to forging, lower ram force and a fine grained recrystallised structure are possible in hot
extrusion.
However, better surface finish and higher strengths (strain hardened metals) are provided by cold
extrusion.
Hot extrusion
Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures, approximately 50 to 75 % of the melting point of the
metal. The pressures can range from 35-700 MPa (5076 - 101,525 psi).
The most commonly used extrusion process is the hot direct process. The cross-sectional shape of
the extrusion is defined by the shape of the die.
Due to the high temperatures and pressures and its detrimental effect on the die life as well as other
components, good lubrication is necessary. Oil and graphite work at lower temperatures, whereas at
higher temperatures glass powder is used.