SolarPro2 1

December/January 2009
String OCPD Requirements | Inter-Row Spacing
Op t ima l D e s i gn, I n s tal l ati on & Perfor m anc e
sola r pr ofe ssi onal . c om
Next Generation
Central Inverters
Array to
Inverter
Mastering Manual
Calculations
Solar Site
Evaluation
Optimize Solar
Production
Recruiting
Strategies
Meeting Workforce
Demand
Thermal
Collectors
Flat Plate &
Evacuated Tube
SolarCraft Services
Cline Cellars Vineyard
Sonoma, CA f
SAMPLE issue | Subscribe for Free at solarprofessional.com
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Contents
Issue 2.1
54
Fe a tu re s
34
34 Next Generation
Central Inverters
Large project frequency and market share is
on the rise. We profile manufacturers, list
product specifications and detail special system
design considerations.
70 Strategies for Meeting

Workforce Demand
By Tobin Booth, Danny Lee & David Brearley
Extending the ITC means that the solar industry

is forecasted to support 440,000 permanent jobs.
These tips and techniques will keep your company
competitive in the expanding jobs market.
54 Solar Site Evaluation:

Tools & Techniques
Effective site analysis will ensure optimal energy
harvest, financial returns and customer satisfaction.
By Lisa Cohn & Elisa Wood, with

Charles Thurston
By Mark Galli & Peter Hoberg
66 Thermal Collector
Considerations
Flat plate collectors excel
at collecting heat, while
evacuated tube collectors
do a great job of limiting
heat loss. When do you
A
choose the best offense and
when the best defense?
78 Array to Inverter Matching:

Manual Calculations
66
Mastering manual design calculations is a critical

skill for design and installation professionals. Avoid
costly mistakes and optimize your designs.
By John Berdner
B
14 modules in series
UL-listed
fused combiner
Unfused
dc disconnect
7 kW inverter
COMPILED By
Chuck Marken &
Joe Schwartz
PV+
PV-
L1
L2
N
MODULE SPECS
Pmp
195
STRING SPECS
Pmp
2,730
ARRAY SPECS
Pmp
8,190
Vmp
27.1
Vmp
379
Vmp
379
Imp
Voc
7.20
32.9
Imp
Voc
7.20
461
Imp
Voc
21.6
461
Isc
8.15
Isc
8.15
Isc
24.5
S O L ARPRO | December/January 2009
78
Off-Grid PV as Simple as Grid-Tie

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Contents
Issue 2.1
D e p a r t m ent s
h=10'
FRONT END
d_shadow = 43.3'
ttop
op
p of Ro
Row 1
35
= 13
South
bottom of Row 2
16
10 Contributors Experience + Expertise

14 Mail Feedback from the Field
16 Q & A Technical Questions & Answers
Inter-Row Spacing | 2006 Uniform Solar Energy
Code | String OCPD Requirements
26 The Wire Industry Currents
92
30 3-phase One IssueThree Viewpoints

String vs. central inverters for commercial
applications
BACK END
86 Interview An Experienced Perspective
86
26
Bob-O Schultze, Electron Connection
90 Training Continuing Education for the Pro

92 Projects System Profiles
CRMS Solar Farm, Carbondale, CO
Lucky Labrador Brewing Company, Portland, OR
Allen Residence, Ashland, OR
95 Advertiser Index
f On the Cover
SolarCraft Services Seth Cooper verifying the performance

of an Advanced Energy Solaron 333 kW inverter.
Photo by Shawn Schreiner
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Wall or Pad Mountable
John Berdner recently joined groSolar as VP of manufacturing.

He previously founded SMA America, the US distribution arm
of SMA Solar Technology, AG. A mechanical engineer by
education, John has more than 25 years experience in the
PV industry, including system design, engineering and
development of balance-of-systems products, research in
utility scale applications for PV systems, and PV product
sales and marketing.
Tobin Booth is president of Blue Oak Energy, a PV design and

engineering firm for commercial scale solar projects. He has
more than a decade of experience delivering multidisciplinary
solutions at Blue Oak Energy, BP Solar, Schott Solar, Trace
Engineering and Xantrex Technology, and as a consultant for
other firms. Tobin is an alumnus of Colorado State University
with an active professional engineering registration in
mechanical and electrical engineering.
Ken Gardner owns and manages Gardner Engineering

Alternative Energy Services in Ogden, Utah, where he
is a licensed civil engineer, land surveyor, electrician
and solar contractor. His firm designs and installs
photovoltaic, wind and hydroelectric systems large
and small. Ken is NABCEP certified and is a contract
instructor with Solar Energy International.
Peter Hoberg is VP of sales and marketing at Solmetric

Corporation and has over 20 years of experience in
marketing and business development with HewlettPackard and Agilent Technologies. He holds a Green
MBA degree from the New College of California and
has BS and MS degrees in electrical engineering from
Stanford University.
John Wiles has served for nearly two decades as a coordinator between PV manufacturers, designers, installers and
electrical inspectors in developing requirements for the
National Electrical Code and Underwriters Laboratories PV
standards. He lived for 16 years in an off-grid PV-powered
house and now has a 5 kW utility-interactive system with
full-house battery backup.
w w w. o u t b a c k p owe r.co m
Please Visit www.outbackpower.com/smartre

for More Information on OutBack Powers
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Publisher/Editor
Joe Schwartz
Managing Editor
Kathryn Houser
Technical Editor/PV Systems
David Brearley
Technical Editor/Solar Thermal Systems
Chuck Marken
Creative Services
Advertising Director
Kim Bowker
Advertising Manager
Connie Said
Operations Director
Scott Russell
Chief Information Officer
Data Manager
Customer Service & Fulfillment
Midnight Oil Design, LLC
Rick Germany
Doug Puffer
Jacie Gray, Shannon Ryan
Proud member of:
Copyright 2008 Home Power Inc. Contents may not be reprinted or otherwise reproduced without written permission.
While SolarPro magazine strives to publish only safe and accurate content, we assume no responsibility or liability for the
use of this information.
Interior paper is made from 85%100% recycled material, including 20%30% postconsumer waste.
National Electrical Code, NFPA 70 and NEC are registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, Massachusetts.
Maximum
energy harvest
cloudy or clear
The new
Fronius
IG Plus
PV Inverter
Visit www.fronius-usa.com
for more information.
g C O N TAC T U S
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SolarPro magazine | PO Box 68 | Ashland, OR 97520 | US
Sun meet Science.

Science meet Sun.
Introducing the Fronius IG Plus PV inverter
For commercial and residential systems

Models from 3 KW to 12 KW
in a single inverter
Six circuit supervised

string combiner built in
Lightweight even the

commercial size inverters
Field programmable to
208, 240, and 277 volts
with no loss in output power
Smart, integrated technology

to maximize energy harvest
even on cloudy days
Dramatically
improved efficiency
Integrated DC disconnect
Now available
Contact your Fronius Distributor
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Tel: 810-220-4414
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Removable power stage

for field service
Comes with a standard
warranty of 10 years,
upgradable to 15 years
If we subdivided the inverters

weve measured further into
even more precise categories,
this device would be the best of
its kind that is, the best of all
inverters with galvanic isolation.
Photon International
August 2008
mail
Feedback from the Field
The Positive
I am impressed. I just received my first

copy of SolarPro and was surprised
to find it aimed at the industry doers.
I started as a roof jockey in 1977 and
began our contracting business in 1984.
This is the first trade publication that I
sat down and read cover to cover. Every
designer and installer should subscribe.
Phil Deatsch /
Diablo Solar
Wow! Congrats on the first
issue. Looks great. More importantly we believe it will help
us achieve our personal and
company mission of deploying as much solar, in as many
places, as fast as we can and
to the highest standards.
Geoff Greenfield /
Third Sun Solar &
Wind Power
The first issue was excellent; congratulations on a great launch. The magazine
is very well laid out, clean and professionalnot short and trade-rag-like. The
articles were excellent. Its a great addition
to the industry.
James Worden / Solectria Renewables
What a surprise to find this new magazine
in my mailbox last night. I have been
eagerly awaiting its arrival and was
astounded to see such a well-produced
product. Just an overall great read.
Philip Leen / AEE Solar
The Negative
I was just reading the From kW to MW
article and noticed that the positive and
negative conductors coming from the
main combiner are reversed in Diagram 2.
Nick Carter / Solar Staffing
Good eye. We busted out our Flukes this
issue to make sure the polarity is correct in
all wiring diagrams.
Joe and David
14
S o l a r Pr o | December/January 2009
Where are the gloves?

Kris Sutton / Solar Energy International
We received a few comments related to the
absence of insulating gloves in the October/
November issues cover photo. We all need
to remember to work safe in the field and to
use appropriate protective gearnot just
because OSHA might be watching.
Joe
The Tech
I have some questions

regarding maximum
input current as defined
in the Grid-Direct
String Inverter Guide
in SolarPros October/
November issue. The
article states, Some
manufacturers specifically list a maximum PV short circuit
current rating for their inverter in the
installation manual. If they do, follow this
directive. Maximum dc input current is
not a hard stop design limit, but rather
an operational limit for the device. Installing a source capable of more current will
not damage the inverter, nor does this
violate the NEC.
The inverter table in the article lists
a maximum input current for all the
inverters in the table. As I read NEC
690.8(A) and its use of shall as defined
in NEC 90.5(A), I conclude it would be
in violation of Code to exceed the input
current specification of the inverter. I
do see other installers overloading their
inverters, and by my calculations (125%
module Isc) they exceed the inverter
specs and thus violate NEC. Why is such
a clearly defined rule overlooked within
the industry?
Marty via solarprofessional.com tech
forum
Article 690.8 details how to calculate maximum circuit current at various places in
the systemPV source circuits, PV output
circuits, inverter output circuits and

stand alone inverter input current. Note
that the grid-direct input circuit does not
make the list.
If you study the cut sheets and O&M
instructions related to max input current
that are provided by the inverter manufacturers, you will find that they do not all
refer to the same measurement. In some
cases they list a max Isc value for max dc
input current. Exceeding this specification would violate the NEC in so far as
the manufacturers conditions of use are
violated.
But what if the manufacturer does
not specify a maximum array Isc in its
literature? What does max inverter input
current actually refer to in this case? Is
it the max Isc? The max Imp? Or does
this describe power limiting through the
inverter? Look at the max dc current limit
for the Fronius IG 3000, for example. This
is a 2700 W rated device with an 18 A max
input current. Divide power by current
(2,700 W 18 A) and you get 150 Vdc, which
is the lower end of the devices MPPT
voltage range. This indicates that max dc
input current, as published by the manufacturers, is not always an Isc value. In
this case, it describes conditions that are
within normal operating parameters for
the inverter.
This had me scratching my head, too,
so I contacted John Berdner for clarification. John was with SMA America for eight
years and has significant insight to inverter
testing and how the specifications are
published. He clarified that where dc input
voltage is not specified as an Isc value, it
typically describes the operational limit of
the inverter. As an operational limit, it is
not a hard stop design limit. He also suggested that as inverter testing and listing
requirements change, we will likely see
published dc input specifications designed
to limit the available fault current inside of
an inverterthat is what manufacturers are
specifying when they publish max dc input
current as an Isc value.
David
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Q&A
Technical Questions & Answers
Calculating Inter-Row Spacing
omputer software that permits

shadow studies is an excellent
design tool for large scale, ground
mounted PV arrays. These programs
model complex geometries with great
accuracy and speed. Assuming that
the CAD data entry is correct, these
inter-row spacing results are correct. In
all likelihood, your manual calculations
are correct as welljust incomplete.
Historically many photovoltaic systems arranged in rows were designed
using only an altitude angle calculation. This is the approach detailed, for
example, in the American Technical
Publishers textbook, Photovoltaic
Systems. The formula given there for
calculating minimum inter-row
shading is:
d = h tan
According to the editors, d is the

minimum distance between rows; h is
the height differential between the top
of one row and the bottom of the row
to the north; and is the solar altitude
angle.
It is more accurate to say that
this formula determines the shadow
distance between rows. But because
this shadow falls perpendicular to a
south-facing array only when the sun
is located at true south in the sky,
solar noon is the only time when the
length of the shadow cast between
rows would be equal to the minimum
inter-row distance. If your design
calculations call for a shade-free solar
window of 9am to 3pm on December
16
S o l a r pr o | December/January 2009
21, for example, then an azimuth angle

correction is required.
The first step for doing manual
inter-row spacing calculations is to
generate a sun path chart for the site, as
shown in Illustration 1. The University
of Oregons Solar Radiation Monitoring
Laboratory (SRML) provides an online
program for this purpose (solardat.
uoregon.edu/SoftwareTools.html). For
70
11am
12pm
er Solstice
Summ
May/ Jul 21
10am
60
50
1pm
2pm
Apr/ Aug 21
9am
40
and west longitude as negative numbers. Following these steps for Ogden,
Utah, results in a 41.21 latitude and a
-111.97 longitude.
Use the sun path chart in Illustration 1 to determine the suns altitude
angle at 9am and 3pm solar time on
December 21, the shortest day of the
year. Referring to the chart for Ogden,
Utah, the suns altitude angle for
3pm
Equinox
8am
4pm
Feb/ Oct 21
30
Jan/ Nov 21
Winter
Solstice
7am
20
= 13
5pm
6am
6pm
10
altitude angle
5am
7pm
azimuth correction
0
120
90
East
60
30
= 42
0
South
-30
-60
-90
West
-120
Azimuth Angle
Illustration 1 When the latitude and longitude for Ogden, UT, are specified, the
SRML sun path chart program plots the path of the sun across the sky at that
location.
best results, enter the sites specific latitude and longitude. These are easy to
obtain using the free version of Google
Earth (earth.google.com). Simply point
to the specific site, and latitude and
longitude are provided to the nearest
100th of a second in the lower left hand
corner of the program screen. Convert
the latitude and longitude provided
in Google Earth to decimal degrees.
Also, make sure to enter south latitude
design purposes is about 13. Illustration 2 (p. 18) indicates that h equals
10 feet. We can now solve for the
shadow length (d_shadow) using the
referenced formula:
d_shadow = h tan
d_shadow = 10 ft. tan 13
d_shadow = 10 ft. 0.231
d_shadow = 43.3 ft.
c o n ti n u e d o n pa g e 1 8
Da t a c o ur t e sy sola rda t.u ore gon .e du
he inter-row spacing calculations that

I am doing manually do not match
the results of our shadow studies in
AutoCAD. Which results are accurate?
What is the correct way to manually
calculate inter-row spacing for a ground
mounted PV array layout?
Altitude Angle
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Q&A
d_shadow = 43.3'
h=10'
ttop
op
p of Ro
Row 1
35
= 13
bottom of Row 2
South
Illustration 2 Side view of inter-row shadow length at 9am

and 3pm on the winter solstice.
d_min = d_shadow x cos

d_min = 43.3 ft. x cos 42
d_min = 43.3 ft. x 0.743
d_min = 32.2 ft.
m ollyoh a llor a n .c om (2)
South
sh
d_
ow
ad
=
'
.3
43
d_min = 32.2'
top of Row 1
= 42
Once shadow length is determined, it is time to apply

the azimuth angle correction. Referring again to the sun
path chart for Ogden, Utah, the suns azimuth is approximately 42 east of true south at 9am and 42 west at 3pm
on the winter solstice. As Illustration 3 indicates, knowing
both the shadow length and the azimuth () correction
angle allows us to solve for minimum inter-row spacing
(d_min):
bottom of Row 2
The azimuth angle correction detailed here is very

significant for PV system designers, integrators and their
customers. Inter-row spacing is reduced by 25% in this
example. This could mean 25% less site grading or a 25%
larger array for the client. Improving power density in this
manner can increase PV plant size, energy harvest, revenue,
profit or all of the above.
Ken Gardner / Gardner Engineering Alternative Energy Services /
Ogden, UT / gardnerengineering.net
Illustration 3 Plan view at 9am.
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Q&A
2006 Uniform Solar Energy Code
hat is the Uniform Solar Energy

Code and how does it impact professional solar thermal system designers
and installers?
he International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical Officials
(IAPMO) published the Uniform Solar
Energy Code (USEC) in 1976. The USEC
is a set of regulations that relates to
solar energy in plumbing and mechanical systems installed in the US. The
most recent edition of the USEC was
published in 2006 and is 86 pages in
length. The bulk of the USEC refers to
the Uniform Plumbing Code or Uniform
Mechanical Code. These latter two more
established codes cover plumbing and
HVACR installations. All three books
are published by the IAPMO aka
plumbing inspectors.
While the USEC has been around
since the 70s, it never developed much
of a following. However, this is changing. Many cities and counties in California have recently adopted the code;
Austin, Texas has published adoption
papers; and New Mexico recently
became the first state to adopt the
USEC statewide. When a code is
adopted, it becomes the standard that
inspectors use to evaluate the health
and safety aspects of any applicable
system installation.
Controversial requirements.
The USEC has some unique requirements, and some of them are controversial. Codebooks tend to have
many stipulationswith and without
exceptionswithout meaning that
there is only one way to comply or
suffer a red tag. In other cases, exceptions to rules are an alternate standard. For example Section 406 of the
USEC states: Copper tube for water
piping shall have a weight of not less
than Type L. An exception follows
that allows thinner walled Type M
tubing for water piping above ground
in or on a building or underground
when outside the building.
20
The most controversial stipulation

comes in Section 701.5 of the USEC:
Glass used in collector construction
shall be of the tempered type. There
are no exceptions. Many evacuated
tube collectors are constructed with
non-tempered borosilicate glass, better known by the trade name Pyrex.
This would seem to leave borosilicate
evacuated tube collectors in question-
think some of the provisions are

onerous and could be harmful, speak
uploud and early. In many cases,
codes are not adopted in full.
Sometimes provisions and occasionally entire chapters are not included
in the adoption. What rules are
followed is up to the governing
authority of each location: the council, commission or assembly in cities
and counties, and
usually the state
If the USEC comes knocking
energy office on a
state level. Industry
at your local energy office or
associations, both
existing and new, are
council, and you think some of
needed to educate
and influence these
the provisions are onerous and
public officials.
What if the USEC
could be harmful, speak up
has already been
loud and early.
adopted in your area,
and it will affect a
present or future
installation? Your
best defense is a set
able territory where the USEC has
of plans or drawings that have been
been adopted. The local inspector or
approved and stamped by the local
building officialthe Authority Having building department. Unless the local
Jurisdiction (AHJ)would have the
inspectors are current on the rules,
final say on the matter.
getting a plan approved with design
Another provision that might cause or materials elements that contradict
an installer some concern involves
some obscure details in a new code
insulation. The USEC has some spehappens all the time. Be aware that
cific rules for collector, duct and pipe
even if a drawing is approved, inspecinsulation. In Large Thermal Arrays, tors can always slap a correction
SolarPro1.1, we covered some pipe
notice on something they find objecinsulation rules, but the USEC also
tionable. If a planning department
describes stipulations for insulation
official or an inspector pulls out the
in air collectors and ductwork insula- codebook, the responsibility to edution based on heating degree days. In
cate the AHJ falls on your shoulders.
addition, pipe, duct and air collector
The USEC currently is not well
insulation must have fairly stringent
known, but that is changing and will
flame spread and smoke developed
probably change faster with the rapid
ratings of 25 and 50 respectively. For
growth in solar thermal installations.
some types of insulation, this is not a
Knowing the contents of the USEC
problem; but others might get you a
may well save you some grief on an
red tag if the inspector is savvy.
upcoming project.
Chuck Marken / SolarPro magazine /
Make yourself heard. If the
Ashland, OR / solarprofessional.com
USEC comes knocking at your local
energy office or council, and you
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Q&A
Series String OCPD Requirements for
Grid-Direct Inverter Applications
hen are overcurrent protective
devices (fuses or circuit breakers)
required in direct current circuits between
the PV modules and grid-direct inverters?
efore answering this question

directly, it is important to
note that properly rated fuses and
circuit breakers are equivalent in
this application and are collectively
referred to as overcurrent protective
devices (OCPDs). This is true even
though the required label on the back
of certified and listed PV modules
lists the fuse rating.
In most electrical systems, the NEC
requires that every ungrounded circuit
conductor be protected from overcurrents that might damage that conductor. OCPDs provide this function. All
commercial scale systems with central
inverters require an OCPD for each
series string of modules, but some
smaller grid-direct systems may not
need OCPDs in the dc circuits between
the inverter and PV modules.
In UL Standard 1703, Underwriters Laboratories has established that
modules must have an external series
OCPD if there are external sources of
current that can damage the internal module conductors. In the case
of an external or internal fault, the
module can be damaged if reverse
currents are present in excess of the
value of the modules maximum series
fuse rating. However, if there are no
sources of external currents that
exceed this marked value, then no
OCPD is needed to protect the internal module wiring.
PV modules are current-limited
devices, and their worst-case, continuous outputs for code calculations are
1.25 times the rated short-circuit current (Isc). An exception to NEC Article
690.9(A) allows conductors, typically
rated at 1.56 times Isc, to be used with
22
no OCPD where there are no sources

of external currents that might damage that conductor.
Backfeed considerations.
Many of the smaller grid-direct inverters (below approximately 10 kW) are
designed so that they cannot backfeed
currents from the utility into array
faults. Established, abnormal operation tests for backfeed do not rule out
If the inverter can backfeed utility currents into the dc PV wiring,

the NEC requires that an OCPD be
installed in series with the output of
all individual module strings to protect the cables and the modules from
reverse currents from any backfed
ac currents through an inverter. In
large systems, fused combining boxes
are typically mounted at the array.
In these systems, assuming that
Co u r t e sy sm a -a m e r ic a .c om
Central inverter combiners These UL-listed SMA SCCB-28-420 combiners

provide an OCPD for each series string of modulesa requirement for projects
utilizing central inverters.
backfeed during normal operation of

the inverter. Currently there are no
normal operation tests in UL Standard
1741 to validate the lack of backfeeding from the utility. As a result, the
manufacturer should provide written
certification that the inverter cannot
backfeed from the utility into an array
fault. Larger central, transformerless
and bipolar inverters may require
additional certification verifying that
they cannot backfeed.
the inverter is a potential source of

overcurrents, an OCPD may also be
needed at the inverter input. This
OCPD will have a minimum rating
based on the number of strings
connected in parallel on that circuit
and the short-circuit current of each
string. It will be sized to allow maximum forward currents from the array
(all strings of modules) to pass through
without interruption while keeping the
overcurrent device c o n ti n u e d o n pa g e 2 4
Q&A
from operating at more than 80% of
its rated value.
Guidelines for string inverters.
The following guidelines and examples relate only to grid-direct PV systems using inverters certified by the
manufacturer to not allow backfed
currents. The goal is to determine
how many strings of modules can be
connected in parallel and still meet
NEC and UL requirements before
an OCPD is needed on each string.
Where required, one OCPD will
protect all modules and conductors
in a single series string of modules
per Section 690.9(E).
Additionally, the NEC requires
in Article 110.3(B) that the manufacturers instructions and labels be
followed. These materials list the
maximum value for the OCPD. Lesser
values can be used, according to
Article 690.8(A) and (B), as long as
they meet the NEC requirement of
1.56 times the module Isc in order to
protect the conductor associated
with the module or string of modules.
Note that in these examples we are
not determining the rating of any
required OCPD. We are merely making
some calculations to indicate whether
or not an OCPD is needed on each
string of modules.
Example 1: single series string.
In a one-string system, no fusing is
required since there are no external
sources of overcurrents. An unfused
dc PV disconnect can be used on this
type of system as long as the modules
maximum series fuse rating is at least
1.56 Isc, and the connecting cables are
rated at 1.56 Isc or higher.
Example 2: two strings in
parallel. In this example, each string
of modules can generate a maximum
of 1.25 Isc. If a fault occurs in one
string, the electrical potential of the
second, unfaulted string can result
in a current of 1.25 Isc in the faulted
strings circuit. However, we know that
the modules in the faulted string can
24
current is less than

the 15 A rating of
the conductors and
is also less than
the modules 15 A
maximum series
fuse requirement,
OCPDs are not
required. The
actual conductor ampacity would not
have to be 15 A, but it would have to be
at least 12.5 amps after deratings for
conditions of use.
In a final variation on Example
3, assume that the module interconnecting conductors are still rated at
15 A, as is the modules series fuse
rating, but the module has an Isc of
8 A. Two unfaulted strings could feed
up to 2 8 1.25 = 20 A to the faulted
string. The resulting 20 A exceeds
both the conductor ampacity and the
ability of the module to withstand
reverse currents. To protect against
these currents, OCPDs are required
in each string of modules. The OCPD
must be at least 1.56 Isc (1.56 8 =
12.48 A) and not greater than 15 A.
In this case a 15 A OCPD would
normally be used.
Systems with three or more strings

in parallel require a simple calculation to
determine the OCPD requirements.
withstand currents up to at least 1.56

Isc or higher (if their marked series
fuse rating is higher), and the conductors have an ampacity of at least 1.56
Isc or greater. Therefore, with only two
strings of modules, no currents exist
in the PV array that can damage the
modules or the wiring, and no OCPDs
are required.
Example 3: three strings in
parallel. In this case, a fault in one
string could be subjected to currents
from the two unfaulted strings. Each
of these unfaulted strings could deliver
up to 1.25 Isc under worst-case conditions for a total of 2 1.25 Isc = 2.5 Isc.
Suppose that the module manufacturer had rated the value of the maximum series fuse at exactly 1.56 Isc,
and the wiring was sized at exactly
1.56 Isc. The currents from the two
unfaulted strings at 2.5 Isc would be
greater than the series fuse rating of
the module and ampacity of the conductors, and the modules could be
damaged. OCPDs in all three strings
at a minimum value of 1.56 Isc would
be required.
However, modules rarely have
a marked maximum fuse value of
exactly 1.56 Isc. Typically modules
will pass the UL reverse-current tests
at a higher current such as 15 A. For
example, assume the modules have the
following characteristics: an Isc of 5 A,
a marked maximum series fuse value
of 15 A and interconnecting conductors rated at 15 A after the appropriate
deratings for conditions of use have
been applied. In a system with three
series strings of this module, the two
unfaulted strings could deliver 2 5
1.25 = 12.5 A. Since the cumulative
Summary. As can be seen from

these examples, when more than two
strings of modules are connected in
parallel, a calculation is necessary
to determine if an OCPD is required
in each string. When three strings of
modules are connected in parallel
without fuses, the conductor ampacity may have to be greater than the
normal 1.56 Isc.
Most utility-interactive PV systems with only one or two strings of
PV modules will not require OCPDs
in direct current circuits between the
PV modules and the inverter. Systems
with three or more strings in parallel
require a simple calculation to determine the OCPD requirements.
John Wiles / Institute for Energy and
the Environment / Las Cruces, NM /
nmsu.edu/~tdi/
the
Wire
Industry Currents
Congress Extends
Solar Investment Tax Credit
through 2016
ElectriCalc Pro
complies with
NEC 2008
and his dedicated staff at the Solar Energy Industries Association, passage of the
Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 included the most sweeping federal legislation for solar ever
enacted. While the eightyear extension of the solar
Investment Tax Credit was
lost among other headlines,
it is the result of a focused,
strategic two-year campaign.
Key provisions in the solar
ITC are:
The 30% tax credit
for residential and
commercial solar
installations is

extended through

2016.
The $2,000 cap on

the credit is elimi
nated for residential

solar electric installa
tions placed into

service after

December 31, 2008.
Utilities can now benefit from the tax credit.
Businesses and individuals who are Alternative Minimum Tax filers can

claim the credit.
The bill authorizes $800M for clean energy bonds, some of which are
expected to support solar powered generation facilities.
According to an economic study released by Navigant Consulting in September
2008, extending the solar ITC by eight years will generate $325B in private investment and create 440,000 permanent jobs in the solar industry. The report also
predicts that by 2016 installed solar capacity in the US will total 28 GW, the equivalent of putting 4 kW arrays on 7 million homes. With dark days forecast as a result of
the US financial crisis, Congress at least seems to have finally seen the light.
SEIA / 202.682.0556 / seia.org
26
C ou r te sy e n xc o.c om
[Washington, DC] Thanks to the vision and unrelenting effort of Rhone Resch
[Carson City, NV] The

ElectriCalc Pro from Calculated
Industries is a must have design
tool. This calculator solves
complex electrical calculations
quickly, always conforming to
the current NEC. It updates to
future Code revisions with an
easy-to-install kit. PV system
designers and installers will
discover numerous uses for
this electrical code calculator:
calculating voltage drop, sizing
current-carrying and grounding conductors, solving for
conduit fill and even converting
between units (Btu to kWh, for
example). With its rubberized
hard case and flip-top cover, the
rugged ElectriCalc Pro is ready
for the job site.
Calculated Industries / 775.885.4900 /
calculated.com
Commitment
Commitment::
the foundation
for a suCCessful
partnership
Conergy is a full-service wholesale distributor dedicated to your success. We are passionate about
sustainably meeting the worlds energy needs. 1 in 10 solar energy systems in the past decade have been
supplied, installed or developed by Conergy more than 1 gigawatt of renewable energy around the world. Our
knowledgeable team of professionals, dedicated focus on our customers, innovative value-added services, and
best in class products ensure that projects backed by Conergy create enthusiastic solar energy users. Whether
you are an experienced veteran or new to the industry, our local expertise powered by our global strength makes
Conergy your ideal partner to compete and win in the world of renewable energy.
Build a strong relationship with a partner you can count on:

| Best service and support in the industry
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the
Wire
Fronius USA Launches IG Plus

Inverter Line
[Brighton, MI] With over 12,000 IG Plus units currently installed in
Europe (more than 75 MW), Fronius USA is now taking orders for IG Plus
inverters here in the US. Nine IG Plus models make up the inverter family, including 3, 3.8, 5, 6, 7.5, 10 and 11.4 kW models field configurable for
208, 240, and 277 Vac single-phase services. An additional 3-phase 11.4
kW model is field configurable for 208 and 240 Vac delta services. A 12 kW
3-phase inverter configured for 277 Vac wye rounds
out the product line.
CEC weighted efficiency ranges from 95% to
96% depending on the model and service configuration. CEC night tare loss values are < 1 W for all
models. The 10 kW and larger units have three power
stages; the 5 to 7.5 kW models have two; and the 3
and 3.8 kW models are single stage. Power stages are
brought online incrementally as irradiance and array
power increase.
Other notable IG Plus features include a CSAcertified, full power, high ambient temperature rating
of 50C and a wide MPP voltage range of 230 to 500
Vdc. Additionally, all IG Plus inverter models include
an integrated dc disconnect and a six-string combiner
with maximum string currents of 20 A each, allowing for increased compatibility with high-current modules.
Fronius standard service contract includes a 10-year inverter
warranty with an optional 15-year extended warranty. The service contract
also covers replacement inverter shipping costs (both ways) and installer
service reimbursement in future dollars.
The original IG lineup will be maintained in parallel with the IG Plus line.
The IG Plus inverters join the earlier models as some of the lightest weight
string inverters available per rated kW, saving installersand their backs
some labor time.
Unirac Releases
New SunFrame
Shared Rail System
[Albuquerque, NM] Originally released in 2003, the SunFrame shared rail
system from Unirac just got stronger and
easier to ground. The product is newly
certified for IBC 2006, ASCE 7-05 and
California Building Code 2007 compliance. A redesigned rail base allows for
50% longer spans than previously possible.
Improved system grounding means fewer
penetrations and a faster installation. The
redesigned SunFrame has the same great
aesthetics as the earlier system, and it is
still available to match black or silver
anodized module frames. Uniracs shared
rail system estimator and configuration
tool is available online.
Unirac / 505.242.6411 / unirac.com
Fronius USA / 810.220.4414 / fronius-usa.com
New Lead Calcium Battery for

Standby Applications
[Springhill, Nova Scotia] Surrette Battery Engineering is wrapping up beta
testing on a new flooded lead calcium battery designed for standby applications.
Product development of the FC-420 was spurred by ongoing requests from designers and installers. The 6 Vdc nominal L16-style battery has a capacity of 315 AH at
the 20-hour rate. It is rated for 800 cycles at 50% DOD, and Surrette expects a service life of 12 to 15 years in standby/float applications. The cost is anticipated to be
20% to 25% higher than Surrettes S-460 model. The FC-420 has been undergoing
field testing at 20 different locations since June and is scheduled to ship in Q1 2009.
Surrette Battery Engineering / 902.597.3767 / rollsbattery.com
28
Photo by Jeff Munoz - winner of SolarWorlds 2008 photo contest
SolarWorld makes it possible

Whether youre planning to put PV on a few homes or outfit an entire
university, as the largest manufacturer of PV products in the US since
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SolarWorlds new state of the art cell factory in Hillsboro, Oregon and
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Installing SolarWorld Sunmodules not only ensures superior
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Sunmodules are made in the USA from raw materials to finished
product.
SolarWorld California
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service@solarworld-usa.com
866-226-5958
SolarWorld. And EveryDay is a SunDay.
www.solarworld-usa.com
3-phase
One IssueThree Viewpoints
String vs. Central Inverters for Commercial

Applications
here are more than 40 models

of grid-direct string inverters currently being distributed in the US,
and an increasing number of central
inverter options are hitting the market. In terms of array capacity, site
specifics, installation cost, effectiveness of array MPP tracking and
ongoing system maintenance, what
is your recommendation for using
multiple string inverters versus central
inverters as it relates to your particular product line?
Factor Total Cost of Ownership

into Your Decision
Verena Arps / SMA America /
Rocklin, CA /
sma-america.com
The broad variety of string and central
inverter models available on the market
can be overwhelming when deciding
on the optimal design concept for a
specific project.
With increasing system size, the
centralized concept (a small number
of very large inverters) might at first
sight seem to outpace the decentralized concept (a large number of
smaller inverters). Since inverters
price per kW usually drops as the
power output increases, selecting the
largest available inverters seems to
be the most economical solution. The
initial investment cost can, however,
take on a minor role when examining
the total cost of ownership. It is crucial
to account for overall installation and
maintenance costs and to contrast
these with the energy yield of the system over its operational lifetime.
Inverter efficiency has a big impact
on energy yield. The SMA Sunny Central
30
250U, for example, has a weighted

CEC efficiency of 97% and a maximum
efficiency of 97.5%, including the transformer. If a PV system is over- or undersized, however, this can affect the systems energy yield just as much as the
inverter efficiency. Smaller inverters, like
the Sunny Boy or Sunny Tower product
lines, offer flexibility and granularity
in system design, thus allowing perfect
matching for any system size.
A central inverter combines dozens
of strings into one input and one MPP
tracker. Even the most sophisticated
MPP tracking algorithms work effectively
only when PV arrays are of the same type
and orientation. Whenever orientation,
tracking subarrays, mismatched modules
or modules with wide manufacturing
tolerances lead to differing string outputs,
operating several MPP trackers offers
significant benefits.
Transportation and installation
costs should also be considered.
Transporting and installing several
smaller and lighter devices is, in most
cases, less expensive than placing a
large, heavy central inverter, especially
if loading capacity or site accessibility
is limited. Installing a central inverter
involves pouring a concrete foundation
and handling much larger conduits and
other installation equipment. However,
since a central inverter does not require
any walls or poles for installation, this
could be a great advantage for ground
mount systems.
While system monitoring is easier
with a central inverter, maintenance
usually is not. System monitoring using
only one or a few central inverters is
covered by standard software solutions,
and the communication wiring effort is
reduced to a minimum. Maintenance
efforts are much less complicated in
decentralized systems, however, because
replacing a string inverter in the event of

a failure is simple and inexpensive.
These various scenarios indicate that
it is important to take all factors and
relevant expenses into account when
evaluating different inverter options
not just the initial cost of a solution.
Once all relevant factors are considered,
the most economical scenario may
not be the most obvious solution. An
extremely profitable solution at one site
may be less appealing at another due to
different site conditions.
Site Specifics May Override

Simplicity of Design
James Worden with Michael
Zuercher-Martinson /
Solectria Renewables /
Lawrence, MA / solren.com
Solectria Renewables offers six string
inverters, ranging in power from 1.8 to 5.3
kW, and five 3-phase inverters, ranging
in power from 13 to 95 kW. Our customers are designing grid-tied PV systems
using multiple string inverters, multiple
small 3-phase inverters and one or many
60100 kW 3-phase inverters.
Although array capacity is a good
indicator of inverter selection, there
are many exceptions to this rule. The
designer should consider the insights
discussed below.
Single-phase vs. 3-phase. If the
service is single-phase, then use string
inverters. If the service is 3-phase, then
the designer has a choice to make
between platforms.
Multiple buildings. On a complex
of multiple buildings, to avoid trenching
between them, it may make sense to use
multiple inverters and take advantage of
the existing ac wiring infrastructure. If
the system c o n ti n u e d o n p a g e 3 2
Tis the season

for anticipation
The wait will soon be over.

Magnum Energy is expanding our already robust product line of
inverter/chargers and accessories with new products that will
do even more. Look for the biggest system ever from Magnum
in early 2009. We promise it will be worth the wait.
In the meantime, be sure to check out our web site at
www.magnumenergy.com or contact your local dealer
to find the products that fit your needs.
425-353-8833 www.magnumenergy.com
The Powerful Difference
3-phase
needs to interconnect to multiple electrical services, like you might find at a
condominium or apartment complex,
use multiple single- or lower capacity
3-phase inverters.
Orientation. PV systems with significantly different orientations or pitches
should employ multiple inverters.
Small systems. Use string inverters
for PV systems in the 110 kW range.
Medium systems. The most interesting choices exist in the 1050 kW range.
Various approaches make sense depending on the site and array capacity, which
includes the roof angles, the number of
metered services to connect to and their
location. In most cases, if the PV system
needs to feed a single service, and all
the modules are at relatively similar
angles, then a single central inverter is
preferred due to lower installed cost
and system simplicity.
Mediumlarge systems. For a fixed
array in an open field or on a large roof, a
central inverter connecting to one service
is the smart choice. A 60 kW or 100 kW
inverter has the same efficiency as the
best string inverters but is significantly
less expensive per kW. It involves placing
one piece of hardware. It is simple to wire
using string combiners for the array field
and subcombiner options integrated
into the inverter. With good inverter
MPP tracking and todays cell sorting
and fine module power increments, a
central inverter can very accurately and
efficiently MPP track a large array.
Large systems. Arrays in the
multi-100 kW and MW class are by
default installed on very large rooftops
or ground mount PV farms. At this size,
installed cost per watt and minimum
maintenance cost are paramount. Since
there are little to no cost per rated kW
or system efficiency differences between
100 kW, 250 kW or 500 kW inverters,
some designers choose redundancy,
smaller equipment and more separate
array zones by using several smaller central inverters. When inverter space is at
a premium, however, using fewer, larger
inverters is often advantageous.
32
Maintenance. Key issues for maintenance are minimizing failures, pinpointing failures easily and quickly accessing
components in need of repair. Again, sitespecific issues may dictate that it is best
to have multiple inverters. But in most
cases, using fewer inverters improves
system maintenance approaches. Thanks
to advanced features like subarray
monitoring and even string-level monitoring, problems in the array fieldeven
down to a weak or non-performing
stringcan be pinpointed from an office
thousands of miles away, vastly simplifying troubleshooting.
Tipping Point between

Platforms at ~30 kW
Mark Edmunds /
Xantrex / Vancouver, BC /
xantrex.com
As a provider of both single- and 3-phase
grid-direct PV inverters, it is Xantrexs
experience that either product category
can be used effectively in commercial
applications. Single-phase string inverters
under 10 kW or 3-phase central inverters from 30 to 500 kW all have attributes
that may be better suited to particular
applications.
String inverters can offer a greater
degree of flexibility in certain situations.
With several power levels available to
match single or parallel strings of common PV modules, dc wiring is often
simplified by avoiding the need for large
array combiner boxes. In addition, many
single-phase inverters now offer internal
dc disconnects, which may eliminate the
need for large frame, industrial dc switchgear, saving money and installation time.
Another potential advantage with a
single inverter on each string of PV modules is that the MPP of that individual
string can be accurately tracked, even if
it experiences shading at some time of
the day due to tight spacing of racks or
tracking systems. The individual array
with its inverter can be installed as a fully
operational system, allowing a large field

to come on line incrementally in a building block fashion, which may allow early
revenue generation while the balance of
the field is still being installed.
There is usually a price to pay for the
flexibility offered by string inverters: extra
tare loss. This results from the overhead
of multiple control and communication
circuits. For example, a 500 kW installation of 5 kW inverters would have the
overhead of 100 control boards, while
a central inverter uses only one. This
means 100 5 kW units might collectively
consume 150 watts during nighttime
operation (1.5 watts per unit), while
the tare loss of a single 500 kW inverter
would only be about 35 watts. The system
integrator needs to take into account the
energy impact of this loss, which, in these
examples is approximately 1.8 and 0.4
kWh per night respectively.
Another thing to keep in mind is that
the maintenance of inverters must be
approached differently depending on
the type. Large central inverters have
fans and filters that should be routinely
checked and maintained. Convection
cooled string inverters, however, require
no cooling system maintenance.
Monitoring string inverters provides
information on the output of individual
string inputs, but it also requires a more
sophisticated data gathering system. This
is due to the number of units being monitored. Conversely, while a large central
inverter is easier to monitor, it may not
provide the granularity of information
that a grid of smaller units can.
Weighing the advantages and disadvantages for most types of systems,
Xantrex has concluded that 30 kW is
the tipping point for moving from string
inverters to central inverters, from a
hardware and installation cost point of
view. However, to make the best decision
on the style and type of inverter to install
in a commercial application, the significance of the system tare loss, the need
for modularity and the requirements for
monitoring at the particular site should
be considered.
Next Generation
Central Inverters
Manufacturers,
Specifications
& Design
Considerations
s h aw n s c h rei n e r.c o m
By Tobin Booth, Danny Lee and David Brearley
34
Inverter manufacturers

scale up to meet

large PV project demand
arge PV projects and their market share are

expanding. At the end of 2007, 56% of the California Solar Initiative reservations were for 500
kW or larger installations. A report published
by the Interstate Renewable Energy Council in
August 2008 forecasted that this trend would
continue. The new generation of inverters spurred by this
growth present system integrators with new design and
installation challenges. There are more models to choose
from and more options than ever before. In some cases
delivery lead times are longer. Detailed project planning,
including inverter specification, physical and electrical
infrastructure on site and project management, increases
in scale in proportion to the size of the project.
Here we profile seven central inverter manufacturers and detail individual product specifications as well as
special design considerations for systems utilizing central
inverters. The accompanying table looks under the hood
at more than 20 central inverters, many of which accommodate multiple interconnection voltages. Before diving
into the technical details, we survey the markets where
these products are deployed and profile the manufacturers
themselves.
Large Project Market Expansion
The increasing frequency and capacity of large PV projects
in North America is closely tied to market expansion in three
main areas: utility-owned projects, projects for federal agencies and large commercial projects.
Utility-owned projects. Once upon a time, solar projects were difficult to permit, and individual interconnection
agreements with utilities were another story entirely. Times
have changed for the better. Multiple states have enacted
Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) with goals to produce a specific amount of renewable energy in the state by a
specific date. Today utilities are making bold moves to meet
their renewable goals. The penalties for noncompliance are

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o
35
Next Generation Central Inverters
Co u r t e s y b l u e oa k en e r gy. co m
typically stiff, and the utilities are taking it to heart. In addition, the recent extension of the federal Investment Tax Credit
(ITC) includes verbiage that now enables utilities to partake
of the credit. This development will result in significant and
sustained growth in utility-owned systems.
Though individual states and utilities approach their
renewable needs differently, large scale PV projects are
taking shape all across the country to quickly and efficiently meet RPS goals. The Alamosa, Colorado, 8.22 MW solar
plant by SunEdison, for example, is the largest PV plant in
the United States that supports substation loads for a major
public utility, Xcel Energy. Most recently, the Pacific Gas
and Electric Company (PG&E) entered into an agreement
with a subsidiary of OptiSolar for a 550 MW thin-film
solar plant. PG&E also signed a contract with a subsidiary of SunPower Corporation for a 250 MW crystalline
PV project.
Federal agencies. Utilities are not the only organizations
increasing their use of solar generated renewable energy. The
Energy Policy Act of 2005 requires that the federal government both increase its use of renewable energy and also meet
its renewable energy goals.
The result is that many federal agencies are exploring
potential renewable energy uses and even issuing RFPs and
contracting MW-scale projects. In Nevada, for example, the
14 MW Nellis Air Force Base photovoltaic system is a joint
project of the US Air Force, MMA Renewable Ventures,
SunPower Corporation and Nevada Power Company. This
project was activated in 2007 and annually will generate
Roof mounted installation Elevating the base of this Satcon

inverter, located at Googles headquarters in Mountain View,
CA, allows the installer to sweep dc and ac conduits up into
the bottom gland plate. Antivibration pads are used at the
interface with the structural steel.
36
more than 30 million kWh, supplying approximately 25% of

the total electricity load at the base.
Large commercial clients. Commercial projects in the
US have increased in both frequency and size since the 30%
ITC became available in 2006. This commercial tax credit for
solar has encouraged private ownership of large commercial
PV systems and provided a missing piece of the puzzle that
makes lease arrangements and third-party system ownership possible. Many, if not most, of the large scale commercial PV systems in North America utilize a Power Purchase
Agreement (PPA). This means that the facility owner never
has to make a large capital outlay, but instead pays for
delivered energy.
Both Google and Applied Materials have MW scale PV
systems on their facilities in California. While these projects
are high profile examples of the expansion of the commercial
solar market in the US, there are many other examples in every
market. The list of big box retailers installing PV on stores
usually in markets with additional state or utility funded
financial incentivesincludes REI, Target, Walgreens and
Wal-Mart, to name a few.
Central Inverter Manufacturers
Integrators looking to make hay while the sun shines need
to be aware of the central inverter manufacturers serving
the North American market. There are currently seven
manufacturers with UL-listed and CEC-tested products
available for large project deployment. The following profiles are distilled from information published by these
manufacturers in earnings reports, investor profiles and
corporate press releases.
Advanced Energy Industries. Founded in 1981, Advanced
Energy is a relative newcomer to the solar inverter market,
but not to the PV industry or power conversion technologies.
Advanced Energy (AE) is a publicly traded company (NASDAQ:
AEIS) headquartered in Fort Collins, Colorado, with nearly
1,800 employees. Revenues exceeded $384M in 2007. Many AE
customers are OEMs, with clients in the semiconductor capital equipment industry accounting for the majority of sales.
Sputtering processes, such as those used to manufacture
thin-film PV products, are among the applications for the
companys process power supply equipment. A corporate
fact sheet published in July 2008 reports that the end market
for 14% of the companys second quarter revenue was the
solar industry, an industry the company has served for nearly
three decades.
Advanced Energy released its Solaron 333 kW inverter
in August 2007. Based on power products developed for
plasma and thin-film solar processes, the AE Solaron
inverter has a unique set of features. It employs a combination
air and liquid cooling system, for example, as well as a bipolar,
transformerless electrical design. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 3 8
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AE Solaron 333 kW The inverters

bipolar architecture effectively doubles
array input voltage, allowing for direct
inversion and transformerless interconnection to 480 Vac.
E-Force Solar An existing Magnetek

E-Force wind inverter is being customized for use as 500 kW and 1 MW solar
inverters.
Magnetek. Founded in 1984 and headquartered in Menomonee, Wisconsin, Magnetek is a publicly traded company
(NYSE: MAG) employing approximately 400 people. Net sales
for the fiscal year ending June 29, 2008 were $100M. In addition to its alternative energy division, the company has elevator, material handling and mining divisions. These divisions
supply digital drive and motion control systems. In October
of 2006 the Magnetek Power Electronics Group was acquired
by Power-One, a power conversion company headquartered
in Camarillo, California (NASDAQ: PWER). Just 14 months
later, Magnetek and Power-One announced a strategic alliance to market alternative energy inverters. According to the
terms of this agreement, Magnetek has exclusive rights in
North America to brand and distribute the commercial solar
inverter products manufactured by Power-One.
Magneteks alternative energy power conversion platform
dates to the mid-1990s. The company reports, for example,
more than 35 MW of installed inverter capacity on large commercial fuel cells. In October of 2007 the company began shipping a new line of E-Force modular, multi-MW wind power
inverters. The Aurora central inverter line for photovoltaic
applications, manufactured by Power-One and distributed by
Magnetek, includes two UL-listed and CEC-tested models: the
PVI-Central-50 and PVI-Central-100. Four additional Aurora
inverters are pending UL approval: PVI-Central-150, PVI-Central-200, PVI-Central-250 and PVI-Central-300.
PV Powered. A privately funded company headquartered in Bend, Oregon, PV Powered was founded in 2003.
38
C ou r te sy pv po w e re d. c o m
C ou r te sy m a g n e te k . c o m
C ou r te sy a e i . c o m
PVP100kW In May 2008 the PV

Powered central inverter line was
expanded to include two new products:
the PVP75kW and PVP100kW.
The company launched its line of grid-direct string inverters in December of that year. Since the first units shipped
in 2004, the companys product line, manufacturing
capacity and number of employees have grown along with
the market. According to John Zorabedians April 1, 2008
article for American Executive, an interview with CEO and
Chairman Greg Patterson, PV Powered recorded tripledigit growth in 2007. In May 2007 the company announced
that it is part of an industry team, headed by an advanced
R&D group at Boeing, selected to receive $13M over three
years as part of the Department of Energys Solar America
Initiative. In September of 2008 it was announced that a
PV Powered-led team could receive up to $5M in DOE
funding under the terms of another competitive award
selection.
The first 3-phase PV Powered inverter, the PVP30kW, was
introduced in July 2007. In May 2008, two additional models,
the PVP75kW and PVP100kW, joined the product line. The
company is working to release a 260 kW inverter as its next
product in this class.
Satcon Technology. Incorporated in 1986, Satcon is a
publicly held company (NASDAQ: SATC) with headquarters
in Boston, Massachusetts. The companys three business
unitsPower Systems, Electronics and Applied Technology
manufacture power electronics, power controls systems and
individual electrical components, and develop new products. The total 2007 revenue was $56.6M, according to end
of year filings. Satcons Power Systems c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 0
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PowerGate Plus 500 kW Satcons PowerGate Plus products,

released in 2008, achieve higher efficiency and include more
standard features than earlier models.
Sunny Central 250U SMA announced in August that

its next generation, UL-listed Sunny Central 250U had
immediate availability for North American solar plants.
division is based in Canada and operates out of a 57,000 square

foot facility in Burlington, Ontario.
In addition to other power quality and energy storage
devices, Satcon Power Systems manufactures large, 3-phase
power conversion devices for the fuel cell, wind turbine and
solar industries. The largest of these are 1.2 MW and 2.4
MW inverters for fuel cell applications. The company sells
solar inverters to both the North American and European
markets. Its current CEC-listed photovoltaic inverter line, a
mix of first and second generation products, ranges from 30
kW to 500 kW in size. At press time this includes seven next
generation PowerGate Plus models30 kW, 50 kW, 75 kW,
100 kW, 135 kW, 375 kW and 500 kWwith more on the
way, including 150 kW and 250 kW models. The original
PowerGate product line will gradually be phased out of production. Satcon announced in September that it is taking
advance orders for a 1 MW PowerGate Plus solar inverter,
with deliveries estimated for Q1 2009.
SMA Solar Technology. Originally spun off from the
University of Kassel in Germany, SMA was founded in 1981.
Headquartered in Niestetal since 1982, the company reported
annual sales of approximately 330M ($467M) and estimated
1,900 employees as of December 31, 2007. SMA America,
established in 2000, is one of 10 subsidiaries, eight of which
are solar technology subsidiaries and two are railway technology subsidiaries. SMA has operations in Europe, North
America and Asia.
After developing its first transistor inverters for PV
systems eight years earlier, SMA launched its ubiquitous line
of Sunny Boy string inverters in 1996. These products were
introduced to the US market in June 2001. The company

reported in April 2008 that the installed base of Sunny Boy
inverters had reached 3 GW worldwide. While SMA offers a
wide rage of central inverter products for Europe, including
a 1 MW PV inverter, the North American product line is still
being developed. The Sunny Central 250U is currently the
only central inverter that SMA offers in North America, but
the company also has 36 kW and 42 kW Sunny Towers available for use on 3-phase projects. SMA plans to add a 500 kW
Sunny Central product soon.
Solectria Renewables. James Worden and Anita Rajan
Worden, both MIT graduates, founded Solectria Corporation
in 1989. Prior to being acquired by Azure Dynamics in December 2004, Solectria developed and manufactured a wide range
of components for electric, hybrid and fuel cell vehicles, in
addition to manufacturing inverters for distributed generation. Since January 2005, Solectria Renewables, with headquarters and manufacturing in Lawrence, Massachusetts, has
focused exclusively on distributed generation applications for
renewable energy, using its exclusive, worldwide license to the
software and hardware designed by Solectria Corporation.
The new business is woman-owned and privately held.
Solectria Renewables manufactures lines of singlephase, string inverters and 3-phase, central inverters for the
North American market. Its CEC-listed line of 3-phase products is available in 208 and 480 Vac versions in the following
sizes: 13 kW, 15 kW, 60 kW, 82 kW and 95 kW. Each of these
inverters ships with fully integrated, heavy duty, visibly
lockable ac and dc disconnects. Many other options are available, including fused subcombiners or c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 2
40
C ou r te sy xa n tre x. c o m
C ou r t e sy so l re n. c o m
PVI 95kW Solectria Renewables standard inverter models

have side located disconnects, but forward facing options are
available for tight spaces.
GT250 Xantrex also has a GT500 available in Europe and 12

of these GT500 central inverters are used behind the fence
at the Alamosa, CO, solar power plant.
disconnects and stainless steel enclosures. Solectria is bringing 250 kW and 500 kW inverters to market next.
Xantrex Technology. Recently acquired by Schneider
Electric in a $500M transaction, Xantrex is a publicly held
company on the Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX: XTX).
Established in 1983 and headquartered in Vancouver, British
Columbia, the company has a long history of strategic
acquisitions. It acquired Statpower in 1999 and Trace and
Heart the following year. In 2007 Xantrex reported revenues of $234M, a 48% increase from the previous year. After
selling its programmable power business in August 2008,
the companys power electronics focus is on the portable,
mobile and renewable energy markets. It operates primarily
in North America and Europe but also has a joint venture in
Shanghai, China.
The largest Xantrex renewable products are 1.5 MW2.5
MW converters developed and manufactured for GE Wind.
Xantrexs wind turbine manufacturing traces back to Kenetech Windpower. Based in Livermore, California, Kenetech
declared bankruptcy in 1996, a victim of an unpredictable
federal Production Tax Credit. Trace Technology was
Kenetechs power electronics group. Xantrex, by virtue of its
acquisition of Trace Technologies, lays claim to over 100 MW
of PV series inverters deployed in the US market alone. With
the first UL-listed 3-phase inverter shipping in 1999 under
the Trace brand, Xantrex PV Series inverters total more than
1,600 units installed. Xantrex launched its next-generation
GT series central inverters in 2007. At present the CEC lists
two 3-phase GT inverters: the GT100 and GT250.
Central Inverter Design Considerations

The importance of central inverter-based system design
that is mindful of the needs of the installation crew cannot
be overestimated. It is a beautiful thing when an inverter
fits perfectly into its constructed installation location, and
the conductors are easily pulled and terminated. While
winning over an installation crew is a worthy goal for
designers and engineers, keeping the phone from ringing
with problems in the field that require special attention is
an added benefit. With that in mind, engineers and integrators should take the following considerations into account
when specifying, designing and installing large PV systems
using central inverters.
Inverter pad. Typically central inverters are mounted on
a poured concrete slab located at ground level. The inverter
pad is often a location where many activities occurfrom
operations and maintenance to ribbon cutting ceremonies.
The pad layout is therefore very important. For pads designed
to support a MW or more of inverters, ample room for several
people to work simultaneously is a good idea. The National
Electrical Code clearly defines the required clearances in these
areas, but additional room is often beneficial.
The slab thickness will vary due to location, concrete
density and soil type. An engineer can help determine the
pad profile and the concrete specifications. It is a good
idea to use slip joints in some locations by placing an extra
piece of 6-inch diameter or larger conduit around the pad
penetration. Slip joints allow natural pad settling to occur
without straining the conductors or the c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 4
42
Inverter pad plan The designer should prepare a plan that

shows how to prepare the pad, including but not limited to the
pad dimensions, reinforcing bar arrangement, grounding electrode placement and conduit penetrations through the pad.
Co u r t es y b l u eo a ke n er g y.c o m ( 2)
conduit going into the inverter. For certain locations, a well

designed shade structure is an inexpensive way to cool the
inverters operating environment, extend inverter life and
create a user friendly area for the outdoor electrical gear.
The shade structure should be secured to the inverter pad
and properly grounded for safety.
Moving and transporting. Commercial scale inverters
are large and require some advance planning to efficiently set
them into place. Most central inverters include provisions
for moving the device with a forklift, while some inverters
also have eyebolts mounted on the top for easy craning into
place. It is helpful to designers and essential to project managers to know the plan for getting an inverter moved into its
final location for installation.
Integrated isolation transformer An extension reach forklift

is used to place the 2,710 pound SMA SC 250U magnetics cabinet next to the 1,490 pound inverter interface and
control cabinet.
44
Large central inverters can exceed thousands of pounds

in weight because of the large envelope and, often, the internal transformer. Central inverters without an internal transformer are noticeably lighter than those with one. Inverters
without internal transformers are either transformerless
designs, like the Advanced Energy 333 kW unit, or the
transformer is a separate unit from the main inverter. Some
500 kW inverters, for example, are shipped on two pallets
one pallet for the inverter and one pallet for the external
transformer.
Large conduit and wire sizes. For large installations,
wire management becomes an important issue. The location
of inverters relative to the array has a significant impact on
the output circuit conductor size and voltage drop characteristics. While the conductor can be upsized to account for voltage drop, there are conductor size limitations at the equipment terminals. Moreover, upsizing the current-carrying
conductor requires upsizing the equipment grounds in the
2005 NEC and potentially increasing the conduit size. (Article
690.45(A) eliminates this requirement in the 2008 NEC.) For
long runs, this could have significant cost impact.
Central inverters will typically require multiple conduits
entering and exiting the cabinet. The entry and exit points
are very important for the installer to understand clearly.
The installer will spend a significant amount of time bringing the conductors into the cabinet. To streamline installation, it is important to answer these questions prior to placing a central inverter:
Where are the inverters acceptable conduit entry
points according to the manufacturer?
What are the sizes of the gland plates or entry points,
if any?
What happens to the product warranty if you choose
an entry point not recommended by the manufacturer?
How are the conduit entry points to be sealed after the
work is complete?
How will the conductors be pulled into the cabinet?
What are the aesthetic trade-offs for the various con duit entry points?
How are the conductors protected from damage dur ing the wire pull into the cabinet?
What are the largest and smallest wire sizes allowed at
the dc and ac termination points?
Communications and monitoring. Many inverter
models now include remote monitoring capabilities via an
Ethernet connection. The ability to monitor system status and
any fault codes from a remote location is critical for ongoing
operation. The features and capabilities of each inverter manufacturers communication packages vary significantly.
In many cases, state rebate programs or utility companies will require specific types of approved metering
systems. Today only a few of the inverter c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 6
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manufacturers provide communication and metering often specified as a breaker or fuse rating and is not intended
packages that meet these requirements. This may mean to be adjustable.
that an otherwise clean installation ends up with a few
If a fault to ground has occurred, current to ground will
extra enclosures.
be measured and will trip the GFP device, which typically
Noise. Most central inverters need active air circula- open circuits the solar array. It is important to understand
tion to remove heat from the cabinets and therefore produce that the GFP device typically detects the problem and isosome audible sound. In addition, the inverter electronics pro- lates the inverter from the problem, but it does not fix anyduce increasing sound as power output increases. The sound thing. If the GFP device activates, the fault is most likely
levels vary among manufacturers and
models and can be compared by the
It is important to understand the GFP device does not fix
measure of sound in decibels (dB). The
anything. If the GFP device activates, the fault is most likely
decibel is a measure of magnitude often
used to measure acoustic sound presstill present. The system should be considered dangerous,
sure, among other things. The larger
because current may continue to be flowing to ground.
the decibel value the greater the magnitude of sound. When a decibel measurement is presented for any product, it is important still present. The system should be considered dangerous,
to consider the distance from which the measurement is because current may continue to be flowing to ground.
taken. Therefore, in the 2009 Central Inverter Specifications Immediate troubleshooting and service is required.
table (p. 4851), the dB measurement includes a distance
Source circuit service disconnects. Considering that
from the acoustic source.
a photovoltaic system is going to be in place for 20 or more
Ground-fault protection. All commercial inverters years, locating dc service disconnects in the array field is a
should include a ground-fault protection (GFP) device or a sound design. This allows for portions of the array to be
ground-fault interrupter (GFI). GFP devices will detect cur- isolated from the inverter for maintenance and repairs.
rent flowing from the dc negative to ground. The ground fault Completely shutting down a very large PV system to replace
can be detected using a breaker, a fuse or often a current trans- a module, a combiner box, a source circuit or another
former inside the inverter. When the inverter manufacturers small component shows poor planning and also creates an
use a current transformer as the method of measuring cur- increased revenue loss for the client.
rent flowing to ground, the GFP trip values may be adjustable
The location of these disconnects could be critical for
in the inverter settings. This can be important for fine-tuning inverters that do not have integrated dc disconnects. The NEC
the inverter to trip at lower or higher current levels. When the states that dc disconnects are required for the inverter and
GFP or GFI device is a fuse or a breaker, the trip current is must be within sight. There are several manufacturers who
make 600 Vdc rated disconnects for this purpose. A good
practice is to match the dc service disconnect capacity with
the inverters dc fuse protection.
Optional fused subcombiners. Fuse protection at the
inverter dc input is a best practice for system designers. The
dc input current on a large central inverter is serious business. Operating voltages of 400-plus Vdc are typical, as are
currents in the hundreds and thousands of amperes. The
purpose of an inverter-integrated fused subcombiner is to
protect human life and property. Subcombiners also limit
the amount of potential backfed current in the event of a significant short-circuit or ground-fault event in the array field.
If any one primary dc conductor experiences a catastrophic
event, the fused subcombiner will protect against the conConduit entry detail Consider adding one or two extra full
ductor pulling the entire inverter dc bus capacity to ground.
size conduits entering the inverter pad and inverter cabinet
The NEC does not require dc subcombiner options inside the
to accommodate unexpected conductor design changes.
inverter cabinet, but they are a solid way to provide safety
Accommodations should also be made for the inverter comto a central inverter based PV system.
munications wiring0.75-inch conduit or largereven if this
With a fused subcombiner option, the designer must pay
is not part of the original scope of work.
close attention to the number of string c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 5 2
46
This installation by
Kent Osterberg of
Blue Mountain Solar
shows just what can be
done in a small amount
of space on a limited
budget.
The MNE175ALPLUS combines the charge controller and inverter

on the door for a truly compact and tidy installation. Price $639
Professional looking installations

require quality products,
says Kent Osterberg
425-374-9060
www.midnitesolar.com
17722 67th Ave NE Unit C, Arlington, WA 98223
2009 Central Inverter Specifications

Input Data (dc)
1
2
Max
Voc
(Vdc)
Output Data (ac)
Max
PV start
dc input CEC rated
voltage MPPT range current
power
(Vdc)
(Vdc)
(Adc)
(kW)
Ground Fault & Lightning
Nominal
output
voltage
(Vac)
Manufacturer
Model
Advanced
Energy
Solaron 333
kW
600
4251
330600
5002
333
480
Magnetek
PVI-Central-50
600
400
330600
160
50
208/480
Magnetek
PVICentral-100
600
400
330600
320
100
PV Powered
PVP30kW-LV
600
300
295500
109
30
PV Powered
PVP75kW
600
300
295500
267
75
PV Powered
PVP100kW
600
300
295500
356
100
Satcon
Technology
PVS-30
600
305
305600
104
30
Satcon
Technology
PVS-50
600
305
305600
172
50
Satcon
Technology
PVS-75
600
315
315600
248
75
Satcon
Technology
PVS-100
600
315
315600
331
100
Satcon
Technology
PVS-135
600
Satcon
Technology
PVS-375
Satcon
Technology
310/320 310/320600
140/60
210/90
30
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 4-wire.
Current sensing4
Neutral sized per GEC.
ac/dc surge
suppression
208/480
280/120
420/180
30
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 4-wire.
Current sensing4
ac/dc surge
suppression
208
83
480
36
125
50
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
No neutral required.
2A fuse
ac surge
suppression
208
208
350
480
90
150
100
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
3A fuse
ac surge
suppression
208
278
400
480
120
200
100
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
3A fuse
ac surge
suppression
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
No neutral required.7
2A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
2A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
3A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
3A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
4A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
208/240/480
84/72/36
100/85/446
DNR
208/240
139/121
139/1216
656
480
60
726
256
208/240
208/181
250/2176
656
208/240
278/241
334/2896
656
1456
256
480
121
480
451
5426
256
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
5A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
1628
500
480
602
7536
256
> 0.99
<3
3-phase, 3-wire.
5A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
208
100
125
150
36
240
87
110
DNR
> 0.99
<4
6 x 1A fuse
No
277
44
60
3-phase, 4-wire.
Neutral sized per GEC
208
117
150
240
101
125
DNR
> 0.99
<4
No
51
70
3-phase, 4-wire.
6 x 1A fuse
277
480
300
450
20
> 0.99
<5
3-phase, 4-wire.
5.8A circuit
breaker
No
200
> 0.96
<4
3-phase, 3-wire.
Current sensing
and fuse8
ac/dc surge
suppression
200
> 0.96
<4
3-phase, 3-wire.
Current sensing
and fuse8
ac/dc surge
suppression
200
> 0.98
<5
3-phase, 3-wire.
Current sensing
and fuse8
ac/dc surge
suppression
200
> 0.98
<5
3-phase, 3-wire.
Current sensing
and fuse8
ac/dc surge
suppression
200
> 0.98
<5
3-phase, 3-wire.
Current sensing
and fuse8
ac/dc surge
suppression
25
>0.99
<3
3-phase, 4-wire.
4A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
25
>0.99
<3
3-phase, 4-wire.
4A fuse
ac/dc surge
suppression
PVS-500
600
320
320600
SMA Solar
Technology
ST 36
600
300
250480
SMA Solar
Technology
ST 42
SMA Solar
Technology
SC 250U
600
4001
300600
800
250
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 13kW
475
280
225385
60
13.2
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 15kW
475
280
225385
70
15
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 60kW
600
390
325500
177
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 82kW
600
390
325500
211
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 95kW
Xantrex
Technology
GT100
600
4401
300600
347
100
Xantrex
Technology
GT250
600
4401
300600
867
250
48
<5
375
1227
250480
325500
dc surge
suppression
> 0.99
256
320600
Current sensing
and fuse
200
656
320
Adjustable
Max current at MPP
3-phase, 3-wire.
400
1966
600
390
Lightning
protection
(ac, dc or
both)
450/3906
454
600
Neutral sizing
requirements
Ground-fault
interrupt
method
163
135
310600
300
445
OCPD
Power
Total
interrupt factor harmonic
capacity @ rated distortion
(kAic)
output
(%)
480
454/440
310
600
Max output
current
Max OCPD
(Aac)
rating (Aac)
Without derating
Digital adjustable
180
42
208/240
375/325
208
37
50
480
16
40
208
42
60
480
18
40
60
208
166
250
60
480
73
125
83
208
229
300
83
480
100
150
95
208
261
350
95
480
115
150
208
278
400
480
121
200
480
301
400
287
DNRdid not report

Ratings given are for onboard ac output circuit
breaker
5
Configures to 3-phase, 4-wire via jumper removal

With early warning
Protection
Lightning protection
device
Performance
Mechanical
CEC
CEC
Peak
weighted night
Ambient
efficiency efficiency tare loss temperature Elevation Cooling
(%)
(%)
(W)
range (F)
(feet)
approach
Dimensions, Clearance & Conduit Entry

Noise
level at a
distance
(with fans)
Enclosure
material and
rating
Inverter
dimensions
HxWxD
(inches)
Minimum
clearance14
dimensions
HxWxD
(inches)
Clearance
zones
(for door or
access panel
openings)
Approved
Min
clearance14 conduit entry
from door
zones
or
(top/bottom/
access
right
panel
or left side)
Dehn
98.2
97.5
90
-4 to 122
(option to - 31)
6,0003
Air & liquid
< 78 dB at
10ft
Steel E-coated,
electrostatically
applied paint,
NEMA 3R
82 x 74 X 35
84 x 108 x 78
Front and
left side
36
dc: bottom, top;

ac: bottom, top
and rear
DNR5
96.3
95.0
40
14 to 122
6,000
Air
65 dB at 1m
Aluminum, powder
coated, NEMA 1
61.8 x 49.2
x 31.8
72 x 80.7 x 65
Front only
36
Bottom
DNR
96.3
95.0
4 to 122
6,000
Air
65 dB at 1m
Aluminum, powder
coated, NEMA 1
61.8 x 49.2
x 31.8
72 x 80.7 x 65
Front only
36
Bottom
17
-13 to 113
6,000
Forced air
convection
< 65 dB
at 1m
Aluminum powder
coated, NEMA 3R
47.8 x 30.4
x 25.8
47.8 x 102.4
x 39.8
Front,
back sides
36
Back and both

sides
42
-22 to 122
6,000
Forced air
convection
< 65 dB
at 1m
Powder coated steel,

NEMA4
92.4 x 62.6 x 35
92.4 x 62.6 W
x 71
Front only
36
Top, bottom,
both sides
42
-22 to 122
6,000
Forced air
convection
< 65 dB
at 1m
Powder coated steel,

NEMA4
92.4 x 62.6 x 35
92.4 x 62.6 W
x 71
Front only
36
Top, bottom,
both sides
76/65/72
-4 to 122
3,3003
Forced air
65 dB at 3ft
G90 Steel powder

coated NEMA 3R
74 x 30 x 27
74 x 30 x 63
Front only
36
Bottom, right
and left sides
-4 to 122
3,3003
Forced air
65 dB at 3ft
G90 Steel powder

coated NEMA 3R
74 x 45 x 27
74 x 30 x 63
Front only
36
Bottom, right
and left sides
-4 to 122
3,3003
Forced air
65 dB at 3ft
G90 Steel powder

coated NEMA 3R
80 x 57 x 31
80 x 57 x 67
Front only
36
Bottom, right
and left sides
-4 to 122
3,3003
Forced air
65 dB at 3ft
G90 Steel powder

coated NEMA 3R
80 x 57 x 31
80 x 57 x 67
Front only
36
Bottom, right
and left sides
-4 to 122
3,3003
Forced air
65 dB at 3ft
G90 Steel powder

coated NEMA 3R
80 x 57 x 31
80 x 57 x 67
Front only
36
Bottom, right
and left sides
-4 to 122
3,3003
Forced air
65 dB at 3ft
G90 Steel powder

coated NEMA 3R
89 x 106 x 4011
89 x 106 x 8811
77 x 49 x 3012
77 x 61 x 4212
Front only
48
Primarily bottom
68.5 dB at 3ft
G90 Steel powder

coated NEMA 3R
93 x 139 x 4311
93 x 139 x 9111
77 x 49 x 3012
77 x 61 x 4212
Front only
48
Primarily bottom
70.5 x 43.3 x 39
70.5 x 115.3
x 111
Back
36
Bottom
MOV
MOV
MOV
dc: CKE Z575PA80C
ac: DELTA LA603G
dc: CKE Z575PA80C
ac: DELTA LA603G
dc: CKE Z575PA80C
ac: DELTA LA603G
94.4
93.0
94.7
93.5
96.1
96.6
96.3
95.5
97.1
96.0
95.7/95.6
95.0
95.9
96.4
96.6
96.6
dc: CKE Z575PA80C

ac: DELTA LA303G
96.7
dc:CKE Z575PA80C
ac: DELTA LA303G
96.7
dc: DELTA LA602DC

ac: MCG 439-080-07
dc: DELTA LA602DC
ac: MCG 439-080-07
No
No
No
96.5
96.3
96.5
97.0
97.1
97.5
MOVs and DIN rail

mounted surge arrestors
95.8
MOVs and DIN rail

95.8
MOVs and DIN rail

MOVs and DIN rail
MOVs and DIN rail

dc: Delta LA602
ac: Citel M40
dc: Delta LA602
ac: Citel M40
95.5
95.5
96.0
96.0
96.0
95.5
96.0
76/94
77
65/72
62
66
63/64
64
124
138
95.5
2.76
95.5
4.32
96.0
8.46
95.5
2.76
96.0
4.32
96.0
8.46
97.0
69
94.0
94.5
94.0
94.5
-4 to 122
3,3003
Forced air
-13 to 113
9,000
Regulated
fan
DNR
Inverters: powder
coated aluminum;
Tower: stainless steel,
NEMA 3R
-13 to 113
9,000
Regulated
fan
DNR
Inverters: powder
coated aluminum;
Tower: stainless steel,
NEMA 3R
70.5 x 43.3 x 39
70.5 x 115.3
x 111
Back
36
Bottom
-13 to 122
13,0009
Regulated
fan
DNR
Zinc-plated and
coated steel, NEMA 3R
79.8 x 109.7
x 32.7
95.8 x 162.7
x 85.7
Front and
left side
47
Side and Bottom
13
< 0.01
-13 to 122
8,000
Fan on
demand
66 dB at 1m
Treated & polyester

powder coated steel10
26 x 34.5 x 13
26 x 46 x 1313
30 x 47 x 49
30 x 106 x 4913
Front & sides

or front only
36
Top, bottom,
back & front
< 0.01
-13 to 122
8,000
Fan on
demand
67 dB at 1m
Treated & polyester

26 x 34.5 x 1313
26 x 46 x 1313
30 x 47 x 4913
30 x 106 x 4913
Front & sides

or front only
36
Top, bottom,
back & front
-13 to 122
8,000
Blower on
demand
76 dB at 1m
Treated & polyester

76 x 54 x 2513
76 x 81 x 2513
78 x 82 x 6113
78 x 126 x 6113
Front & sides

or front only
36
Top, bottom,
back & front
-13 to 122
8,000
Blower on
demand
77 dB at 1m
Treated & polyester

76 x 54 x 2513
76 x 86 x 2513
Front & sides

or front only
36
Top, bottom,
back & front
-13 to 122
8,000
Blower on
demand
79 dB at 1m
Treated & polyester

76 x 54 x 2513
76 x 86 x 2513
Front & sides

or front only
36
Top, bottom,
back & front
-5 to 122
6,600
Forced air
75 dB at 6ft
Zinc coated and

powder coated steel,
NEMA 3R10
73.3 x 67 x 46.1
85.3 x 67 x 82.1
Front only
36
Bottom and
sides only
-5 to 122
6,600
Forced air
75 dB at 6ft
Zinc coated and

powder coated steel,
NEMA 3R10
86.3 x 90 x 46.1
98.3 x 90 x 82.1
Front only
36
Bottom and
sides only
95.5
94.0
96.5
95.5
<1
96.0
94.5
96.5
95.5
<1
96.0
94.5
96.5
95.5
<1
96.2
95.0
95
96.7
96.0
92
96.8
96.0
34
9
Power reduction starts at 3,300 and is reduced by
5% for every additional 3,300
10
13
78 x 82 x 6113
78 x 126 x 6113
78 x 82 x 6113
78 x 128 x 62.513
78 x 82 x 6113
78 x 126 x 6113
78 x 82 x 6113
78 x 128 x 62.513
Stainless steel enclosure option available
F o o t n o t e s c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 5 0
49
2009 Central Inverter Specifications

Transportation
Lifting
provisions
Weight
(lbs)
Termination Specifications15
Minimum
Maximum
Number
dc cable dc cable size dc terminal
dc
torque specs dc terminal
size (AWG or
(AWG
terminals16
type16
(in lbs)16
kcmil)16
or kcmil)16
Minimum
Maximum
Number ac ac cable size ac cable
terminals
(AWG
size (AWG or
(per phase)
or kcmil)
kcmil)
ac torque specs
(in lbs)
Manufacturer
Model
Advanced
Energy
Solaron 333
kW
Forklift & eyebolts

for crane
2,175
4/0
500
275
Lug
4/0
500
275
Magnetek
PVI-Central-50
Forklift & eyebolts

for crane
1,650
2 x 3/0
2 x 3/0
315
Lug
4/0
250
315
Magnetek
PVICentral-100
Forklift & eyebolts

for crane
1,980
4 x 3/0
4 x 3/0
315
Lug
4/0
250
315
PV Powered
PVP30kW-LV
Forklift
760
1, 3
#6
350
Varies
Lug
#2
2/0
N/A
PV Powered
PVP75kW
Forklift,
all sides
2,750
32 x M10 holes
N/A
N/A
N/A
Holes on
busbar
24 x M10 holes
on busbar
N/A
N/A
N/A
PV Powered
PVP100kW
Forklift,
all sides
3,000
32 x M10 holes
N/A
N/A
N/A
Holes on
busbar
24 x M10 holes
on busbar
N/A
N/A
N/A
Satcon Technology
PVS-30
Forklift
1,204
N/A
N/A
N/A
Holes on
busbar
1/2/10
1/0,1/0,
2 x 4/0
300
PVS-50
Forklift
1,732
N/A
N/A
N/A
Holes on
busbar
3/0
Satcon Technology
1
#3
2/0
300
500
375
26.1/225.7
200
Satcon Technology
PVS-75
Forklift
2,150
N/A
N/A
N/A
Holes on
busbar
Satcon Technology
PVS-100
Forklift
2,350
N/A
N/A
N/A
Holes on
busbar
3/0
250
200
3/0
350
275
N/A
Holes on
busbar
250
500
447
250
250
225
500
500
779
779
Satcon Technology
PVS-135
Forklift
2,684
Satcon Technology
PVS-375
Forklift w/ spreader
bar
3,30711
2,50412
Satcon Technology
PVS-500
Forklift w/ spreader
bar
SMA Solar
Technology
ST 36
SMA Solar
Technology
11
12
N/A
N/A
24
N/A
N/A
N/A
Holes on
busbar
5,90011
2,67612
30
N/A
N/A
N/A
Holes on
busbar
700
700
Forklift & eyebolts

for crane
1,176
24
14
19
Lug
14
350
35 (#14#8), 80 (#6#2), 100

(#12/0), 200 (3/0350)
ST 42
Forklift & eyebolts

for crane
1,176
24
14
19
Lug
14
350
35 (#14#8), 80
(#6#2), 100 (#12/0), 200
(3/0350)
SMA Solar
Technology
600
600
SC 250U
Forklift
4,200
315
Lug
2
250
250
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 13kW
Forklift or minilift
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 15kW
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 60kW
300
300
6
8
12
4/0
2/0
2
4/0
2/0
2
380
1/0
35
Lug
Forklift or minilift
400
1/0
35
Lug
Forklift & eyebolts
1,626
2-4
1/0
750
340550
Lug
315
550
250
275
750
550
1/0
250
275
750
550
1/0
250
275
N/A
N/A
660
N/A
N/A
660
1/0
750
340550
Lug
Solectria
Renewables
PVI 95kW
Forklift & eyebolts
1,846
2-4
1/0
750
340550
Lug
Xantrex
Technology
GT100
Forklift or sling
points for crane
3,000
6 x M10 holes
N/A
N/A
660
Stud
1 x M10 hole
Xantrex
Technology
GT250
Forklift or sling
points for crane
4,450
7 x M10 holes
N/A
N/A
660
Stud
1 x M10 hole
50
Provided for reference purposes; size all wires

per NEC
45-50
750
2-4
Depends on orientation of disconnects

Provided for reference purposes; additional clearance
may be required per Code
1,782
14
45-50
1/0
Forklift & eyebolts
Inverter cabinet
Transformer cabinet
PVI 82kW
15
Solectria
Renewables
13
Optional fused subcombiners provide more

dc terminal and cable options
16
Disconnects & Subcombiners

ac
dc disconnect disconnect
(Load break
(Load break
rated?)
rated?)
Number GEC
terminals
Minimum
GEC cable
size (AWG
or kcmil)
Maximum
GEC cable
size (AWG
or kcmil)
GEC
torque
specs
(in lbs)
3 x M10 studs
N/A17
N/A
297
No18
4/0
250
350
Standard (Yes)
Listing
Data
Warranty
Integral fused
subcombiner16
Listing
agency
Safety listings and

certifications
Type of
databus
Standard
(years)
Extended
(years)
PM or
service
contract
No18
No
CSA
UL1741 US and Canada
RS-232, Ethernet,
modbus-TCP/IP, and
RTU21
10/15
Available
Standard (No)
Standard: 2 X 200A
CSA
UL1741 US and Canada,

FCC Class C
Modbus
10/15/20
Available
Modbus
10/15/20
Available
4/0
250
350
Standard (Yes)
Standard (No)
Standard: 4 x 200A
CSA

FCC Class C
N/A
N/A
N/A
Standard (Yes)
Standard (Yes)
Standard: 1 x 125A
ETL
UL1741, IEEE 1547,

FCC Class A and B
Ethernet and
modbus
10
20
Available
16 x M10 holes
on busbar
N/A
N/A
N/A
Standard (Yes)
Standard (Yes)
ETL
UL1741, IEEE 1547,

FCC Class A and B
Ethernet and
modbus
10
20
Available
16 x M10 holes
on busbar
N/A
N/A
N/A
Standard (Yes)
Standard (Yes)
ETL
UL1741, IEEE 1547,

FCC Class A and B
Ethernet and
modbus
10
20
Available
4/0
226
Standard (No)
Standard (No)
Option: 4 x 50A, 5 x 40A
CSA
UL 1741, CSA 107.1,

IEEE 1547
Modbus RTU
Available
Available
4/0
226
Standard (No)
Standard (No)
CSA
UL 1741, CSA 107.1,

IEEE 1547
Modbus RTU
Available
Available
4/0
226
Standard (No)
Standard (No)
CSA
UL 1741, CSA 107.1,

IEEE 1547
Modbus RTU
Available
Available
4/0
226
Standard (No)
Standard (No)
Option: 5 x 110A, 6 x 100A
CSA
UL 1741, CSA 107.1,

IEEE 1547
Modbus RTU
Available
Available
226
Standard (No)
Standard (No)
Option: 5 x 160A, 9 x 100A
CSA
UL 1741, CSA 107.1,

IEEE 1547
Modbus RTU
Available
Available
Option: 9 x 50A, 6 x 75A,

3 x 150A, 2 x 225A, 1 x 450A
Option: 10 x 50A, 6 x 75A,
3 x 150A, 2 x 225A, 1 x 450A
Option: 11 x 75A, 6 x 100A,
3 x 200A, 2 x 300A, 1 x 600A
Option: 12 x 75A, 6 x 100A,
3 x 200A, 2 x 300A, 1 x 600A
6
2
8
2
4
3
4/0
4/0
1/0
350
226
Standard (No)
Standard (No)
Option: 15 x 160A, 24 x 100A
CSA
UL 1741, CSA 107.1,

IEEE 1547
Modbus RTU
Available
Available
2/0
350
447
Standard (No)
Standard (No)
Option: 20 x 160As, 30 x 100A
CSA
UL 1741, CSA 107.1,

IEEE 1547
Modbus RTU
Available
Available
2/0
89
Standard (Yes)19
Standard (Yes)19
Standard: 24 x 15A
UL

FCC Class B
Inverter: RS485;
Datalogger: Ethernet
10
15/20
No
2/0
89
Standard (Yes)19
Standard (Yes)19
Standard: 24 x 15A
UL

FCC Class B
Inverter: RS485;
Datalogger: Ethernet
10
15/20
No
4/0
600
350
No
No
UL

FCC Class B
Inverter: RS485
Datalogger:
ModBus, Ethernet
6-20
Available
Standard: 4 x 350A
Option: 6 X 250A
1
45
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Option: 5-7 fuses 8-15A
Intertek/
ETL
UL1741, IEEE1547
RS232/RS48522
10/15
Available
45
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Intertek/
ETL
UL1741, IEEE1547
RS232/RS48522
10/15
Available
250
275
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Intertek/
ETL
UL1741, IEEE1547
RS232/RS48522
10/15
Available
250
275
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Intertek/
ETL
UL1741, IEEE1547
RS232/RS48522
10/15
Available
250
275
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Standard &
external (Yes)10
Intertek/
ETL
UL1741, IEEE1547
RS232/RS48522
10/15
Available
1 x M10 hole
N/A
N/A
660
Standard (No)20
Standard (Yes)
Option: 6 x 100A, 4 x 150A,

3 x 200A
CSA

FCC Class A
RS485/Modbus
or Ethernet
10/15
Available
1 x M10 hole
N/A
N/A
660
Standard (No)20
Standard (Yes)
Option: 15 x 100A, 10 x 150A,

7 x 200A
CSA

FCC Class A
RS485/Modbus
or Ethernet
10/15
Available
N/Anot applicable.
dc and ac contactors are load break rated
17
18
Per each Sunny Boy inverter

Integral dc disconnect is not load break rated, but is
interlocked with inverter
19
21
20
22
Wireless modem optional

Ethernet option available with datalogger
51
Co u r t e s y b l u e oa k en e r gy. co m
combiners and the number of strings relative to the number

of fused inputs. This is particularly critical for high current
modules. For a given STC system size, there may be a proportionately higher number of output circuits to maintain
the NEC Article 690.8(B) overcurrent protection standards.
Furthermore, inverter-fused subcombiners have discrete
options and restrictions as set by the manufacturers UL listing. For example, an inverter may have 15 each 100 A fused
inputs or seven each 200 A inputs. The system designer
should look carefully at the fuse quantity and rating before
committing to the fused subcombiner option. The designer
should also be certain the subcombiner is going to work
with the circuit ratings and the conductor sizes from the
array field. The fuse sizes offered in the dc subcombiners
vary in size from 60 A on smaller models to 300 A on larger
models. The subcombiner fuse size depends on how the dc
conductors are conglomerated by the designer.
Finally, the dc circuits involve large conductors and,
when routed through the array field, cover a significant
amount of cumulative area. The grounded photovoltaic
array equipment, the dc conductors and the inverter pad
can all act as an attractive ground path for lightning. The

added expense of a fused subcombiner at the inverter is
low-cost, additional insurance against potential damage
from lightning.
DC disconnect. Code requires the inverter dc disconnect to be within sight of the inverter. It is preferable to
have a manufacturer-integrated dc disconnect on the
inverter cabinet; that is one less thing for the designer to
worry about. However, few load-break rated dc disconnects
on the market can safely open 400-plus Vdc at hundreds or
thousands of ampsand this includes the dc disconnects
used inside inverter cabinets. If you look carefully at the
specifications for the dc disconnects provided by central
inverter manufacturers, you will find that many are not
load-break rated. In this case, either a label on the inverter
or the manual will state that the switch must not be operated while the inverter is operating. This is all fine and
well, as the NEC does not state that the dc disconnect must
be able to break the dc circuit while in operation. But it is
important for designers and installers to understand that
opening the switch while the inverter is operating is not
recommended and could shorten the life of the switch or
even extinguish it.
Termination specifications. There are connection
points inside the inverter for the dc and ac conductors. These
may be open holes on a busbar, studs on a busbar or box
lugs used for conductor termination. The designer needs to
be aware of several related variables:
How many termination points are available?
What are the minimum and maximum wire sizes?
What is the temperature rating of the termination for
proper wire sizing?
What are the appropriate torque specifications?
AC disconnect. The NEC requires the inverter ac
disconnect to be within sight of the inverter. Although the
inverter may include an ac disconnect, usually an additional ac disconnect will be required at the interconnection point. The interconnection design will need to comply
with utility specific rules and regulations as well as NEC
Article 690.64.
g C O N TAC T
Tobin Booth / Blue Oak Energy / Davis, CA /
tobin@blueoakenergy.com / blueoakenergy.com
Danny Lee / Blue Oak Energy / Davis, CA /
danny@blueoakenergy.com / blueoakenergy.com
Conductor termination In this installation, nine pairs of

source circuit conductors are interrupted by three 600 Vdc
rated, fused disconnects (two of three shown), then paralleled
inside the inverter cabinet at studs on a busbar.
52
David Brearley / SolarPro magazine / Ashland, OR /

david.brearley@solarprofessional.com / solarprofessional.com
Resources:
Go Solar California / gosolarcalifornia.ca.gov/equipment
(Inverter performance test protocol results and summaries available here.)
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Solar Site Evaluation

Tools & Techniques to Quantify
& Optimize Production
By Mark Galli and Peter Hoberg
Improve system performance

and energy harvest
projections with a thorough
site evaluation that includes
shading analysis and
insolation quantification.
54
here are multiple factors to consider when

evaluating a site for a photovoltaic or solar
thermal installation, and each may impact
optimal energy production. In addition to
latitude and longitude, which determine the
sun path characteristics, panel or collector
orientationtilt and azimuthdefines the
field of view that an array has of the sun. Shading from
trees, hillsides, buildings or other obstructions can cause
significant degradation in energy production. Additionally,
local and regional weather patterns result in site-specific
seasonal and daily fluctuations in solar insolation.
These factors combine and interact to determine the
solar energy incident on an array and therefore impact both
financial returns and customer satisfaction. Tools and techniques used in site evaluation emphasize shade analysis and
optimizing solar access.
The Importance of Site Evaluations

An early and thorough site evaluation can lead to better
system designs that will result in the following benefits:
increased energy production by selecting the best location for the solar array; improved accuracy in energy production estimates due to better quantification of shading
and other site-specific issues; optimized financial incentives, such as state-specific rebates that adjust for panel
orientation and shading; improved system installation and
materials cost estimates; and increased customer satisfaction and confidence, which in turn can lead to repeat or
referred business.
Leading solar system designers and installers invest
significant efforts into on-site data collection and evaluation, especially during customer qualification, initial
design and proposal preparation. The site information
gathered includes:
Direct contact with the client to discuss additional

issues, including possible aesthetic concerns and
financing plan options.
Sun Paths
Solar access will depend on the suns location, defined
by elevation angle and azimuth direction, as it varies
through each day and throughout the year. This path
can be plotted for a given latitude and longitude. An
example sun path chart is shown in both rectilinear and
polar formats in Graphs 1a and 1b. Typically, sun charts
are centered around south (180 azimuth) for sun path diagrams in the Northern Hemisphere, and around north for
sun path diagrams in the Southern Hemisphere. Examples
shown in this article are for the Northern Hemisphere with
references to summer and winter from a Northern Hemisphere view.
The sun path is a function of latitude and longitude, and
it shifts with changes in location. This effect is illustrated for
two different locations in Graphs 2a and 2b (p. 56). Moving
north toward higher latitudes, the annual sun path chart
shifts, indicating that the sun is at lower elevations. Moving south, the chart shifts, indicating higher sun elevations.
Measurement of location parameters, including

available area for the array, roof pitch or site grade,
and azimuth.
Measurement of solar access and impact of shade causing obstructions, as well as evaluation of shade reduction strategies, such as tree trimming or
removal.
Identification of issues that could jeopardize the
viability of a project or result in increased design and
Jun 2 1
M a y 21
11am
60
10am
South
1pm
2pm
Apr 20
3pm
24
Dec 21
50
9am
Mar 20
40
4pm
8am
9h
East
Feb 21
30
5pm
10h
7am
Jan 21
Apr 20
60
19h
0
60
50
May 21
40
5am
Jun 21
30
East
150
180
210
Solar Azimuth
240
270
300
10
West
North
120
30
90
0
33
20
0
60
18h
70
7pm
Mar 20
17h
30
10
15h
80
5h
6am
Feb 20
14h
16h
6h
6pm
D ec 2 1
11h 12h 13h
8h
7h
20
Jan 21
West
Solar Elevation
21
0
15
Graphs 1a & 1b A sun path chart for Portland, OR, in (a) rectilinear and (b) polar formats.

55
D at a co u r t e s y s o l ard a t . uo reg o n . ed u ( 2)
12pm
12
0
70
installation complexity and implementation cost,

such as conductor and trench routing; proximity
of array to inverter; roofing material integrity; rafter
and beam spacing for engineering calculations; and
safety concerns and access issues.
Dec
Nov
Dec
Nov
10:00
Oct
Oct
Sep
Sep
Aug
Aug
Jul
Jun
12:00
Jul
Jun
12:00
10:00
16:00
8:00
18:00
6:00
Definitions:
Terms Used in
14:00
Graph 2a
Insolation. The incident solar radiation on the

earths surface in a given time window, typically expressed
in kWh/m2/day.
Solar access/shading. Solar access is the

ratio of the insolation in a given location, including shade,
to the insolation available at that location without shade.
Solar access is typically expressed in percent for a given
time period, such as a month, season, or year.
Optimum tilt and orientation.
For any location, the optimum tilt and orientation is the
specific fixed tilt and orientation for solar arrays that absorbs
maximum solar energy over the course of one year.
Tilt and Orientation Factor (TOF).
14:00
16:00
8:00
18:00
6:00
Da ta c o u r te sy so l me tr i c . c o m ( 2 )
Graphs 2a & 2b The polar

sun path chart in 2a shows
Sacramento, CA (38.6N 121.5W,
black lines), and a 2 shift in
latitude to the north (green lines).
Graph 2b shows a 2 shift in
longitude to the west (green
lines) of Sacramento.
Graph 2b
Moving west toward greater longitude, the suns path remains

the same, but the time for each sun location is shifted toward
later in the day.
Note that a latitude shift of 2 to the north (138 miles)
shifts the noon elevation angle by less than 2. A longitude
shift of 2 (108 miles at 38.6 N) causes a time shift of about
10 minutes at noon. When making measurements at a site,
using exact coordinates is ideal; but it is normally sufficient
to use the sun paths for locations within 50 miles of the site
being surveyed and in the same time zone.
Shading Analysis
Shade can have a dramatic impact on solar production.
Evaluating it is critical before getting too far into the system
design process. Various on-site analysis c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 5 8
TOF is the solar insolation at the actual tilt and orientation

divided by the insolation at the optimum tilt and orientation, expressed in percent.
Total Solar Resource Fraction

(TSRF). TSRF is the ratio of insolation available account-
Co u r t es y s o lm et r i c .c o m
ing for both shading and TOF, compared to the total insolation available at a given location at the optimum tilt and
orientation and with no shading. TSRF is also expressed
as a percentage. TSRF = solar access x TOF
Magnetic declination. Magnetic declination is the azimuth offset between magnetic north and
true north, expressed in degrees east or west.
Typical Meteorological Year (TMY).

TMY is a collection of weather information that includes
data about insolation for every hour of a typical year
computed using historical weather data.
56
Image 1 Using a fish-eye lens, solar access measurements

and computed results can be charted.
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Extending Point
Measurements
C ou r te sy so l me tr i c . c o m
This article focuses on ways of characterizing the solar access

from point measurements, for example with the fish-eye lens.
Specific modules in an array will experience shading at different times of day and year. Typically, to get a good estimate of
a systems performance, multiple points should be measured
in and around the array, such as at each corner of the array.
Some techniques and trends for combining multiple point
readings are listed below. The different techniques vary in
accuracy and complexity.
Image 2 A screen capture of a Google Earth image with an

incorporated skyline plot map showing monthly shading data
for Skyline Number 2 (Sky02).
70
shading profile
P Interpolation techniques. Use linear interpolation to

estimate the solar access at locations in between measurement points. Precise measurements of the relative locations
are necessary to enable accurate interpolation.
Solar Elevation
60
D at a co u r t esy solm e tr ic .c om
PAverage multiple point measurements. Average the monthly

solar access values from each reading to generate 12
numbers that reflect the average monthly solar access for the
entire array. The California Solar Initiative program requires
that the measurements be taken at the four corners of the
array and averaged in this manner. More points can improve
accuracy but can be time consuming.
50
40
P 3-D modeling from on-site data. In this case, the height

and elevation of each obstruction must be known. This can
provide some measurement challenges. With few obstructions, this approach is practical, but the complexity increases
with many obstructions.
30
20
10
0
60
90
120
East
150
180
210
Solar Azimuth
240
270
300
West
Graph 3 This graph represents a morning shade profile with

sun paths superimposed.
tools and techniques can be used, including viewing reflections from a mirror dome (SolarPathfinder), multiple digital pictures (Wiley Electronics ASSET) or using a fish-eye
lens and digital camera to capture the whole sky in a single
image (Solmetric SunEye). The result is information about
the shading obstacles elevation versus azimuth. The sun
path information described earlier can be overlaid directly
onto these views, so that the impact of shading can be
determined either graphically or numerically. An example of a polar chart taken with a fish-eye lens is shown in
Image 1 (p. 56).
58
P 3-D modeling from aerial/satellite imaging. GIS and mapping technologies are advancing rapidly. Tools like Google
Earth, Microsoft Virtual Earth, and ArcGIS Explorer are extending our ability to view buildings and obstructions online. In the
future, these technologies may provide the 3-D details necessary for initial estimates and may provide a useful complement
to on-site evaluations.
Even for small residential arrays, shading analysis typically requires taking multiple readings at various positions.
These readings can then be averaged or processed in simulation programs to modify the energy production estimates
for the entire array. For larger commercial and utility scale
projects, readings from various locations can be tagged
with their GPS coordinates and then compared on a map,
like the Google Earth plot map shown in Image 2. Shading data can also be shown as elevation versus azimuth as
depicted in Graph 3, using the same data as Image 1. Sun
elevation and azimuth are also shown. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 6 0
r
D
H/D = TAN (r)
r = TAN-1 (H/D)
Illustration 1 To quantify shading, determine the elevation

angle () as a function of the distance to the obstruction (D)
and its height above the measurement plane (H).
X
H
g
D
r = TAN-1( (D x TAN(RADIANS(g) ) - H) / (D + X) )
Illustration 2 The necessary calculations for extrapolating

ground level measurements to the roof, simplified for a single
plane.
Elevation Angles and Extrapolating Measurements

Elevation angle is a very useful way to describe obstructions. However, the angle alone may be insufficient to
describe the shape and direction of the shade on an array.
For a more complete analysis, the distance to the obstruction and its height can be measured. Shading is sometimes
quantified in this way. The relationship between elevation
angle (), distance to the obstruction (D) and height above
Longitude
W
10am2pm 9am3pm
EST
EST
40.7
74.0
2.8:1
4.4:1
Atlanta
33.7
84.4
2.5:1
4.2:1
Miami
25.8
80.2
1.7:1
2.6:1
Table 1 The minimum D:H at several example locations

guarantees shade-free status during the specified times.
ridge
west
string
New York
60
Array Orientation
The tilt and azimuth of an array establish the field of view,
and the sun paths as seen within that c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 6 2
tree
Minimum Distance to Height Ratio

Latitude
N
the measurement plane (H) is shown in Illustration 1.

The California Solar Initiative requires that the shading ratio (D:H) must be at least 2:1. This is equivalent to an
elevation angle of less than 26.6. If a site meets these
requirements, it is deemed to have good solar access, and a
detailed shade analysis is not required.
An alternative way to specify shading is to determine
a sites shade-free hours, such as 10am2pm or 9am3pm.
In this case, obstructions are allowed to cast shadows only
before or after the specified time period.
The minimum D:H ratio can be specified for the shadefree time periods for a given location. Some example calculations are shown in Table 1. Note that this requirement is
worst-case and applies only at the lowest sun elevation of
the year within those time windows. This may be too conservative and restrictive for typical pitched roof applications, but it may be useful when considering row spacing in
flat-roof or ground-mount system installations.
When collecting shading data, it is possible to take the
data in one location and extrapolate it for another. This can
allow an analysis using ground-level data by extrapolating
up a distance H and over a distance X. This approach is
useful and often necessary when taking measurements at a
location where the building is not yet constructed or when it
is not practical to get shading data from the true height of the
proposed array. The calculations can be complex for the
full 3-D analysis. For reference, a 2-D equation is shown in
Illustration 2. For this equation to apply, the lines must all
be coplanar.
east
string
chimney
D a ta c o ur te sy so l me tr i c . c o m ( 3 )
repositioned
modules
South
Illustration 3 Two modules in this array were repositioned to

avoid the impact of shading from the tree and the chimney
east of the array.
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Annual Insolation as a Function of Panel Orientation

Location: Sacramento Metropolitan, CA. Optimal Tilt=30, Azimuth=176, Insolation=2050 kWh/m2.
Station ID: 724839, Latitude: N38.70, Longitude: W121.58.
2
kWh/m
90
roof pitch
24/12
20/12
16/12
12/12
10/12
8/12
6/12
60
30
4/12
2/12
0
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
100% (2050)
99% (2029)
95% (1947)
90% (1845)
85% (1742)
80% (1640)
75% (1537)
70% (1435)
65% (1332)
60% (1230)
55% (1127)
50% (1025)

Location: Sacramento Metropolitan, CA. Optimal Tilt=36, Azimuth=213, Insolation=1745 kWh/m2.
2
kWh/m
90
roof pitch
24/12
20/12
16/12
12/12
10/12
8/12
6/12
60
30
4/12
2/12
0
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
100% (1745)
99% (1727)
95% (1657)
90% (1570)
85% (1483)
80% (1396)
75% (1308)
70% (1221)
65% (1134)
60% (1047)
55% (959)
50% (872)
Graphs 4a & 4b Graph 4a plots the annual insolation versus tilt
and azimuth for Sacramento, CA, with no shading. Graph 4b adds

Site Specific Weather Pattern
significant morning (eastern) shade and shows the resulting impact
Quantification
The insolation values for specific sites are heavily on insolation availability.
influenced by the weather patterns for that particular location. Various weather and insolation data
Location: Honolulu Intl. Arpt., HI. Optimal Tilt=22, Azimuth=143, Insolation=2060 kWh/m2.
is available for locations worldwide. The National
kWh/m2
Renewable Energy Laboratory recently released
90
100% (2060)
updated weather data for 1,020 locations in the US.
99% (2039)
roof pitch
95% (1957)
The database, known as TMY3, records insolation
24/12
90% (1854)
60
20/12
during all hours of the year and can be very help85% (1751)
16/12
12/12
80% (1648)
ful in estimating weather-corrected insolation for a
10/12
75% (1545)
8/12
given site.
30
70% (1442)
6/12
65% (1339)
The effects of shading and weather can be
4/12
60% (1236)
2/12
observed using an annual insolation chart. Graph
55% (1133)
0
4a shows a plot of annual insolation vs. tilt and azi50% (1030)
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
muth values for Sacramento, California, without
shading. Graph 4b incorporates significant shade Graph 5 Annual insolation versus tilt and azimuth for Honolulu, HI,
to the east, as in the Skyline shown in Image 1. shows a significant eastward shift in the optimum annual values due
Notice that the optimum value shifts in azimuth to cloudy afternoon weather patterns.
and tilt, and the optimum available insolation is
reduced. Sacramentos insolation chart is close to
symmetrical around the southern direction, which indiThe impact of climate change on insolation levels
cates that morning and afternoon insolation is similar.
could be significant over an arrays 30-year operational life.
Honolulu, Hawaii, shown in Graph 5, reveals a significant Although general trends may be clear, precise modeling is
eastward shift in the optimum values, indicating significantly difficult, and results may be controversial. General trends,
less insolation in the afternoon than in the morning, most such as drier or wetter, could provide a qualitative indicator
of either higher or lower solar production. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 6 4
likely due to patterns of afternoon clouds and rain.
62
D a ta c o ur te sy so l me tr i c . c o m ( 3 )
field of view will determine the solar insolation. Note

that the field of view will also determine what shading obstacles will impact solar access. For example, if
the field of view is toward the west, it will decrease the
impact of shading obstacles on the eastern horizon
and increase the impact of shading obstacles on the
western horizon.
For rooftop solar installations, the roof parameterspitch and azimuthtypically determine the
array orientation and layout. Therefore the field of
view can be adjusted only by picking the best section
of the roof and the ideal location within that area.
Rooftop obstacles, such as chimneys and vent pipes,
can cause shading in locations that are otherwise
desirable. In some cases, relocating modules that
would be shaded can help significantly. Not only does
this preserve the production of the affected modules,
but, more importantly, it also can preserve the production of one or more series strings by minimizing
shading and keeping string voltage within the inverters maximum power point tracking window. Multiplepoint shading analysis makes this kind of performance
optimization possible. An example is shown in Illustration 3 (p. 60).
The Bottom Line

The financial plan for a photovoltaic or solar thermal project involves costs and benefits, and a detailed site evaluation
can make or break a projects success. Contractors, investors
and clients will all benefit from an open, honest review of
the solar access data upfront to avoid unwanted surprises
during or after project implementation.
The site assessment itself represents a project cost.
Depending on the size of the array and complexity of the
site, a thorough site assessment can add a few hundred to
a few thousand dollars to the project. In the precontract
phase, contractors are typically not getting paid for this
work, so quick results with sufficient accuracy are critical.
Often a preliminary site analysis is performed as part of the
sales process with a more detailed analysis after a contract
is signed.
Solar energy project success requires a good site assessment. Location, panel orientation, weather and shading
all interact to influence solar access and therefore energy
production potential. With the right tools and techniques,
solar installers can dramatically improve the chances of
their projects success.
g C O N TAC T
Mark Galli / Solmetric / Bolinas, CA / mark@solmetric.com / solmetric.com
Peter Hoberg / Solmetric / Bolinas, CA / peter@solmetric.com /
solmetric.com
Resources:
California Solar Initiative /
gosolarcalifornia.org/csi/index.html
National Renewable Energy Laboratory /
nrel.gov/rredc/pvwatts
(photovoltaic performance calculator)
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, TMY3 /
rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/1991-2005/tmy3
(weather data)
University of Oregon Solar Radiation Monitoring Laboratory /
solardat.uoregon.edu/SunChartProgram.html
(sun path chart program)
University of Oregon Solar Radiation Monitoring Laboratory /
solardat.uoregon.edu/PolarSunChartProgram.html
(polar sun path chart program)
Shading analysis tool:
SolarPathfinder / solarpathfinder.com
Solmetric / solmetric.com
Wiley Electronics / we-llc.com
64
Data Management, Performance Monitoring and Reporting Services for commercial scale power systems
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Advanced datalogger manufactured by Campbell
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802.865.3866
Thermal Collector
Considerations
The Good, the Bad and the Opinions
Complied by Chuck Marken and Joe Schwartz
vacuated tube (ET) collectors were just another bright
idea at the patent office when flat
plate (FP) collectors were already
well established. FP collectors
have not changed much at all in
the last 25 years. Once manufacturers have developed a product
to its simplest and most efficient
or elegant form, change ceases.
Flat plate collectors were nearly
there 25 years ago when evacuated tube collectors started gaining popularity. The ET design
grew from the shortcomings of
FP collectors in colder climates
with marginal sunshine. ET collectors, with better performance
at higher temperatures, also
addressed new markets like solar
absorption refrigeration systems.
Early ET collectors had their
share of flaws. They were very fragile and expensive, and
many models lost their all important vacuums after a
short time. The flaws made collectors using this design
a poor value, and they all but disappearedfor a while.
Tube designs have changed significantly in the past quarter century. Improvements in design and lower costs are
now allowing evacuated tubes to encroach on the moderate, sunnier climates that had been the flat plates exclusive domain.
Flat plate collectors excel at collecting heat, while evacuated tube collectors do a great job of limiting heat loss.
When comparing the technologies, it is almost a match
between the best offense versus the best defense, and the
cost of each type of collector. Everybody in the industry has
da c re s.or g
an opinion on which collector is best, and many are more

than willing to share their thoughts. We contacted several
professionals to get their take on which collector they like
and why. As a wide variety of options exist in the field, this
article is not intended to be conclusive, but rather a starting
point for continued discussion on solarprofessional.com.
The Interview Responses
Six out of the seven solar thermal system designers and
installers surveyed responded that value, cost-to-performance, was the most important consideration when specifying one type of collector over another. The remainder of the
questions we posed was met with a diverse range of experience-based responses.
Contributors Scott Crawford | Matthew Dickey | Hollis Fitch |

Thomas Isaac | Kelly Keilwitz | Bob Ramlow | Boaz Soifer
66
How do your companys total installations break down

by type of collector?
Scott Crawford, Solar Assist, Eugene, OR | 90% FP, 10% ET.
Matthew Dickey, Argand Energy Solutions, Columbia, SC |
75% FP, 25% ET.
The climate in Santa Fe is very sunny and not too

cold during the day, so we use FP collectors exclusively
except in process heating applications, in which higher
temperatures are consistently required.
Soifer |
Do you size thermal collector arrays based on SRCC

data or manufacturers data?
Hollis Fitch, Cinco Solar, San Antonio, TX | 100% ET.

Thomas Isaac, Techsun Solar, San Marcos, TX | 100% FP.
Kelly Keilwitz, Whidbey Sun & Wind, Coupeville, WA |
For larger space heating systems we use manufacturers data and sometimes F-Chart runs provided by
engineering firms or the manufacturers. We typically size
residential systems based on the number of people in the
home and hot water usage patterns. For our location, the
SRCC numbers are very close between the two collector types
and are required to determine utility and state incentives.
Dickey | We size thermal systems based on SRCC data
because they are completely objective in the rating process. This is the only way that we can compare output
between various manufacturers and models.
Fitch | We use manufacturers and NREL data.
Isaac | We dont rely entirely on SRCC data. Their system
performance ratings are off.
Keilwitz | Ive found that SRCC data doesnt accurately
reflect the performance of ET collectors in our environment. I postulate that this is because SRCC data does not
accurately take our low ambient temperatures and, especially, heat loss to wind into account. Full sizing by SRCC
usually leads to overheating with ETs. On the other hand,
manufacturers data can be suspect for all products.
Soifer | Both SRCC and manufacturer data are considered.
Crawford |
10% FP, 90% ET.

Bob Ramlow, Artha Sustainable Living Center, Amherst, WI |
100% FP.
Boaz Soifer, Cedar Mountain Solar Systems, Santa Fe, NM |
98% FP 2% ET
What are the characteristics of the local climate

within your service area and how do they impact your
collector choices?
In Oregons Willamette Valley we have largely

overcast conditions in the winter months. Approximately 70% of a systems annual yield is during the summer
months. ETs outperform FPs on clear cold daysthe higher
the Delta T between collector and ambient temps the
betterand slightly better on overcast days. But in our
location, this represents a small percentage of the overall
annual yield and is not worth the added cost of ETs$1,000
plus per system for residential applications.
Dickey | In our service area, which includes North and
South Carolina, it is very important not to oversize a
systemthat would lead to overheating. We frequently
install a heat dissipater to handle excess heat generated
during the summer months. We are not as concerned
with snow or freezing as other northern climates, but we
still have to design a system that will withstand both.
Fitch | Here in Texas, our biggest concern is wind and hail.
ET collectors are better in both circumstances, since they
let the wind through in hurricane zones and offer easy
replacement of tubes from hail damage.
Isaac | In Texas, as most of the US, we have the tripleheaded monster for solar hot wateroverheating, scale
and freezing. FP collectors with a drainback design work
best. There is no contest.
Keilwitz | Were in northwest Washington state, in the
Northern Puget Sound. Due to our cool ambient temperatures and windy conditions, we use evacuated tube
collectors for most situations.
Ramlow | Our climate has over 9,000 heating degree days
with lots of snowover 100 inches last winter. Therefore
we see flat plate collectors dominate the market, since
snow and ice buildup are big issues with ET collectors in
our climate.
Crawford |
Do you specify different collectors for different end use

applications?
| For residential domestic water heating systems we always use FPs here in the valley due to better
cost-to-performance. For radiant space heating combined
with domestic hot water, we usually specify FPs, although
we rarely install this type of system in our climate due to
low insolation availability during the heating season. The
handful of systems we have installed on the east side of
the Cascades, a drier and sunnier climate, have been ET
because of the lower temps in the winter and increased
direct sunlight during the heating season.
For commercial or large mixed-use systems, our
collector choice depends on the job. Project budget and
customer or engineer preference may sway the decision.
We use FPs for commercial systems that are in a drainback configuration to avoid overheating issues. Some ET
manifolds do not drainback well in our experience. In
addition, the tubes may not be designed to sit with a dry
manifold on the roof.
Crawford
solarprofessional.com | S O L ARPRO
67
Thermal Collector Considerations
For commercial applications, we try to specify the

largest collector possible to decrease installation time.
For residential applications, collector size is very important as they are installed most often on pitched roofs.
Fitch | We specify ETs for all applications.
Isaac | If the customer needs water over 170F ETs are
better, but I dont trust the durability of the current
models.
Keilwitz | We use flat plate collectors in installations
where we need to dump excess heat at night, minimize
heat collection at high temperatures, or both. This can
occur, for instance, when an owner frequently is away
during the summer, or when the collector is oversized
for peak summer use, without a significant dump load.
FPs are more aesthetic to use in drainback systems
less slope is required to drain.
Ramlow | We see mostly flat plate collectors in all categories.
Soifer | For domestic hot water and space heating systems, we specify FP. For industrial process heat we specify
either FP or ET depending on a number of variables
including roof space, with temperature requirements
being the foremost consideration.
Dickey |
In your experience, what are the pros and cons of each

type of collector?
Lower cost per square foot of collector area; ease of installation once the collectors are
positioned on the roof; proven reliability over the long
term; serviceabilityfreeze breaks can be brazed, collectors with all-copper absorber plates can be fixed
without scrapping the whole collector. FP cons:
Heavythe lift to the roof is no fun. ET pros: Light,
easier lift to a rooftop; can be installed by one person
in many cases. ET cons: No drainback configuration for
many types; larger systems may require a heat dump
design to control overheating; questionable reliability; fragility; difficult to monitor tube vacuum losses;
untempered glass tubes are dangerous when broken;
snow load can cause bent mounting brackets and possible tube breakage.
Dickey | FP pros: Less expensive than ETs with only slightly
less output per collector area. ET pros: Higher temperature
output and easy to transport as separate components.
Fitch | FP pros: Slightly cheaper. FP cons: Susceptible to
freezing and weather deterioration at joints; bulky; water
can be trapped inside the collector; low efficiency at high
Delta T. ET pros: Higher temp output; flat efficiency curve
for simplified system design; ease of installation and
repair; no freezing issues. ET cons: Added expense, at
1.25 times a quality flat plate; overheating potential.
Crawford | FP pros:
68
Durable; higher performance for domestic hot water in most US climates; lower expense. ET
pros: Perform better at reaching 170F and higher temperatures. ET cons: Vacuum loss not always warrantied;
cannot handle hail larger than 1 inch; untrustworthy for
drainback systems due to internal header connections
and potential issues with 400 stagnant temperatures and
60 to 70 water entering the header.
Keilwitz | FP pros: Somewhat self-limiting in terms of
temperature gain; drain better in drainback configurations; proven for long-term durability. FP cons: Heavy;
bulky; lots of copper so cost is highly subject to the
fluctuating commodity price; high shipping cost. ET
pros: Less costly to ship, handle, get up on the roof and
install; damaged tubes easily can be replaced individually without draining the system or removing the manifold from the roof; flow rates can be kept lower, requiring smaller circulators in closed loop glycol systems;
less wind loading for collectors installed at tilt angles
greater than the roof pitch. ET cons: Systems overheat
if dump loads fail or are incorrectly sized or when the
water use is insufficient, such as vacancies at peak collection times; not as amenable for drainback designs;
unproven for long-term durability; fragility; potential
damage during shipping.
Soifer | FP pros: Reliability; proven performance; compatibility with conventional hydronic heating. FP cons:
Lower performance in very cold or cloudy weather;
aesthetics. ET pros: Higher performance in cloudy or
very cold weather; potential for automatic disconnecting
in high temperature situations. ET cons: Incompatibility
with conventional heating equipment, such as pumps
and insulation, due to higher temperatures; shortened
longevity with many manufacturers recommending or
requiring tube replacement every 5 to10 years.
Isaac | FP pros:
Is there any additional advice you can share with fellow

solar thermal designers and installers to assist them in
specifying one collector technology over another?
We specify collectors that have the highest output per dollar spent. We look for a collector that is rugged enough to withstand transportation and installation
stresses. The mounting system is also very important
anything to simplify the work on the roof is extremely
valuable.
Fitch | Look for a local distributor, long-term reliability
and consider the high temperatures required for many
commercial jobs.
Isaac
| Check the warranties from ET companies to
see if they cover gradual vacuum loss. When I visited
Dickey |
the top 10 ET collector manufacturers in China 5

years ago, every company stated that the tubes will
lose vacuum within 10 to 15 years. Research the SRCC
ratings and make sure you compare size versus size and
primarily use Section C. Youll find that most FP collectors outperform even the better ET collectors. A 2005 study
in Germany showed that FPs outperformed ETs in cold
climates, primarily due to snow and ice buildup on tube
collectors. Finally, the FSEC states, in reference to customers deciding on a collector, buy the best value per
Btu and consider durability and aesthetics.
Keilwitz | In systems using ETs, be cautious about fully
sizing or oversizing when a diversion load is used. And do
not rely on SRCC tables to accurately predict ET production. This can lead to overheating.
Soifer | Always compare apples to apples for your application. The most efficient collector is not necessarily the
right one for the job. When your customer asks about a
more efficient collector, be prepared to talk about how
only a whole system provides benefits, not a component,
and to do so a system must be reliable and cost-effective.
It needs to be compatible with the off-the-shelf parts like
pumps or radiant tubing and be serviceable. Efficiency
comes after all of these parameters.
Controllers
Have you discovered them yet?
g C O N TAC T
Chuck Marken / SolarPro magazine / Ashland, OR /
chuck.marken@solarprofessional.com / solarprofessional.com
Joe Schwartz / SolarPro magazine / Ashland, OR /
joe.schwartz@solarprofessional.com / solarprofessional.com
Scott Crawford / Solar Assist / Eugene, OR / solarassist.net
Matthew Dickey / Argand Energy Solutions / Charlotte, NC & Columbia, SC /
argandenergy.com
and
s US
meet nal codes
atio
intern
Hollis Fitch / Cinco Solar / San Antonio, TX / cincosolar.com

Thomas Isaac / Techsun Solar / San Marcos, TX / solarme.com
Kelly Keilwitz / Whidbey Sun & Wind / Coupeville, WA /
whidbeysunwind.com
Visit www.resol.com
Benefit from 30 years experience in
solar thermal control technology
Bob Ramlow / Artha Sustainable Living Center / Amherst, WI /

arthaonline.com
Boaz Soifer / Cedar Mountain Solar Systems / Santa Fe, NM /
cedarmountainsolar.com
Resources:
SRCC / solar-rating.org
export@resol.com
Solar thermal system designers, installers and collector manufacturers

continue the discussion online at solarprofessional.com
solarprofessional.com | S O L ARPRO
69
Strategies
for Meeting Workforce Demand

By Lisa Cohn and Elisa Wood, with Charles Thurston
Just how bad is the shortage of
workers in the solar industry?
Mark Culpepper, a SunEdison
vice president, says on a scale
of one to 10, the US hovers at
a manageable five. But if the
industry grows as expected,
watch out.
c a r a m i a des ign .co m
70
xtending the federal tax credits for solar through

2016 is expected to create 440,000 permanent
jobs in the US solar industry, according to
Navigant Consulting. These jobs will be in manufacturing and distribution, as well as the building trades, spurring new demand for electricians, plumbers,
roofers, designers and engineers. The immediate concern
among companies is finding enough qualified installers.
Those are big numbers. The industry is going to have
to adapt and figure out ways to accelerate the development of qualified personnel. Right now I would call it a
marginal roadblock. In the future, it could become a very
big road block, says Mark Culpepper, a SunEdison vice
president. In preparation for a tightening of the workforce,
solar companies are taking a careful look at the best ways
to attract employees.
More Workers Needed

Job demand tends to be highly localized as specific
states and cities initiate programs for rapid growth of PV
installations. SunEdisons Culpepper describes them as
mushrooms popping up all over the country. The most
prominent mushroom is California, which dominated the
market with 58% of all PV installations last year, according to the Solar Energy Industries Association.
In fact, high-demand solar jobs are expected to grow
by about 50% over the next year in Californias Bay Area,
creating 1,900 new jobs in the region and 5,000 statewide
according to a report, The Bay Region Solar Industry Workforce Study, completed in March by the San Francisco Bay
and Greater Silicon Valley Centers of Excellence.
A lack of workers is one of the biggest problems in the
industry, says Abigail Baxley, executive director of the
Northern California Solar Energy Association.
NavigatE Cyberspace
Internet recruiting has become an easy and inexpensive way
to find employees for many US businesses, and the solar
industry is no exception. Solar companies rely heavily
on their own Web sites and job posting boards to attract
applicants. Sites like Craigslist, which gets over 30 million hits
a month in the US, can deliver a large volume of responses
quickly. Sites that offer content about clean energy or
environmental issues can narrow the field to job seekers
with an interest in solar technologies.
I like Greenjobs the most because they are hyperlinked

directly from the job posting at Solarbuzz and have a great
Web site full of solar industry resources. Another site,
Indeed, returns the most listings from several portals. They
also have great salary survey information. Monster and
CareerBuilder both have benefits, including learning
resources for effective career searches, says Liz Merry,
owner of Verve Solar, a Davis, California consulting firm.
Merry teaches a class called Find Your Dream Job in Solar
for the Solar Living Institute and elsewhere.
SolarCity, a solar installation company headquartered in
Foster City, California, received tremendous response when
it posted a position on Craigslist, Linkedin and Renewable
Energy World Online. Within 6 hours, the ad attracted more
than 100 responses.
Depending on a companys recruiting budget, selecting
appropriate sites for posting an opening may be limited.
Some Web sites offer free listings while others charge a fee.
Recruit Training Program Graduates
Community and junior colleges have stepped up to train
workers for the emerging green-collar economy. Solar companies partner with colleges to help them develop curriculum materials and design programs, particularly for solar
installersthen they recruit their graduates.
The community college system is an excellent way
for employers to find well-qualified applicants. Part of the
reason is that were so connected to the industry, says
71
Strategies for Meeting Workforce Demand
Web-Based Solar Recruiting Resources
C ou r t e s y s an j u an c ol l eg e .e d u
The pool of potential workers is growing on

college campuses as state governments ramp
Fee
up funding to cultivate a green-collar workforce.
Company
URL
Free
Based
About 750 to 800 students have trained through
EcoEmploy.com
ecoemploy.com
the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) program over the
Energy Jobs Portal
energyjobsportal.com
last several years. And next year the number of

Environmental Career
ecojobs.com
participants could double, according to Adele

Opportunities
Ferranti, who oversees NYSERDAs workforce
Environmental Career.com
environmentalcareer.com
development program.
Greenjobs
greenjobs.com
Not all training programs are equal, however.

Weekend training workshops are cropping
GreenBiz.com
greenbiz.com
up
around
the country, but neophyte installNorth American Board of
nabcep.org
ers
need
far
more than two days to understand
Certified Energy Practitioners
the complexity and rigor of rooftop solar work.
Renewable Energy World
renewableenergyworld.com
Weekend workshops are a starting place where

Solar Energy International
solarenergy.org
novices can explore the industry in short classes.

SolarJobs.us
solarjobs.us
But to find workers with solid training, companies

need to look to graduates with nationally recogSolarPro
solarprofessional.com
nized certifications, such as those who attended

local community or junior college programs.
Internet recruiting Some online recruiting resources are market specific,
These programs offer the depth and breadth of
while others draw from many industries and all parts of the country.
training necessary in the industry today, says
NorCal
Solars
Baxley.
John Carrese, director of the San Francisco Bay Center of
Excellence, hosted at City College of San Francisco. Carrese
worked with the industry to develop the Bay Region Indus- Search for Certified Workers
Employers seeking assurance about an installers level of
try Workforce study.
The companies can also help us with faculty and training may want to hire workers who are certified through
student internships. They can help train faculty to teach. If the North American Board of Certified c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 7 4
colleges can build programs tailored to
the occupations and do it with industry
input, the industry will hire those graduates, Carrese says.
Many of SolarCitys workers, for
instance, begin by attending a six-week
program that the firm helped develop at
San Mateo County Community College
in San Bruno, California. Other community colleges offer two-year programs
that give the graduate an Associate
of Applied Sciences degree. Lane Community College in Eugene, Oregon, for
instance, offers an Energy Management
Technician degree with an optional
emphasis on renewable energy. The rigorous 100-credit program is housed in the
Science Division and is ISPQ accredited
by the Institute of Sustainable Power.
Program Coordinator Roger Ebbage
says the program began in September
2003 and has seen this years enrollment In high demand San Juan College in Farmington, NM, has a wait list for enrollment in its certificate and degree programs in PV system design and installation.
nearly triple the first years.
72
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C ou r te sy sol a re n e r g y. o r g
international standards, including training students properly to pass the NABCEP test. IREC lists
accredited colleges and other institutions on its
Web site, irecusa.org.
Borrego Solar Systems often begins its search
by looking for installers who are NABCEP certifiedbut it is not easy. Were looking for technical people, says Mike Hall, president. Its hard.
There arent many sources. You can get a list of
the NABCEP-certified installers, which is a pretty
good source for people on the installation and
design or engineering side. But there are only a
small number of NABCEP-certified workers. As
of September 2008, that number stands at 514
for PV installers and 72 for thermal installers.
Mine the Trades
The housing market slump has increased the pool
In training Solar Energy International students have been taking advantage of SEIs in-depth trainings to jump start solar careers for over
of available tradespeople. Solar installation compa17 years. SEI has more ISPQ-certified master trainers than any other
nies report that they seek out these workersoften
institution and expects to train about 2,400 people in 2008.
through word-of-mouth in local marketsand train
them in the skills unique to solar installations.
Still, it can be difficult attracting much-needed
electricians,
partially because of an unwritten code in
Energy Practitioners (NABCEP). To achieve the certification,
the
trades
that
electricians do not climb roofs, accordstudents must pass a national exam and complete a specific
ing
to
SunEdisons
Culpepper. In the trades, roofers typicombination of on-the-job and classroom work.
cally
tend
to
be
at
the
bottom of the hierarchy. Electricians
Colleges are increasingly trying to align their curricuare
at
the
top.
So
you
find yourself with this interesting
lums with NABCEP standards. Meanwhile, the Interstate
mix
in
the
solar
fieldelectricians
working on roofs,
Renewable Energy Council (IREC) reviews and accredCulpepper
says.
How
does
an
employer
its training programs to ensure they are meeting certain
c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 7 6
Outsourcing to Accommodate Growth
ypically integrators need crews for larger jobs faster than

they can be trained, so they outsource part of the job, as is
customary on any construction project. The outsourced crew
provides its own insurance, license and credentials. However,
the solar contractor may be forced to guarantee against any
potential work defects that crop up under a client warranty.
Details of the subcontract may mitigate this liability. When we
sign contracts with subcontractors, we may require them to
take a piece of the warranty risk, explains Mike Hall, president
of Borrego Solar Systems.
Even though subcontractors may be held accountable
for their work after installation is complete, the integrator still is likely to be left holding the bag on a warranty. If
a subcontractor performs in a way that is detrimental to
the brand, any smart integrator would cover those issues,
though it would be invisible to the customer, says Isabelle
Christensen, director of customer education at REC Solar
74
in San Luis Obispo, California. Unfortunately, in the solar

industry there are a whole gamut of processes but not too
much standardization.
One successful strategy that large integrators rely on is to
maintain standing relationships with subcontractors in related
trades. Borrego works with a lot of electrical subcontractors
in Southern California, where large jobs involve complicated
alternating current work, says Hall. In these relationships, he
adds, new business often flows both ways.
Integrators and distributors may also develop strategic
relationships with specialized solar installers, especially when
the market demands skills not considered integral to their core
business. A lot of solar companies that are doing just grid-tied
projects want us to handle their off-grid client work, says Scott
Gould, president of Energy Alternatives in Arkville, New York.
They also need us to design these systems, since they are
more complicated than grid-tied configurations. {
Allied Tube & Conduit, the pioneer of in-line galvanized

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Others in the solar thermal and photovoltaic power industry
have already experienced the advantages of using in-line
galvanized steel profiles from Allied for mounting their products.
In-line galvanizing differs from secondary operations such
as batch hot-dip galvanizing. This advanced processing
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On-the-job training is the key, notes

Liz Merry, owner of Verve Solar. Its a new
industry and there isnt a lot of talent in
terms of numbers. Companies need to see
whos skilled in other industries, adapt
their talent and leadership skills and give
them some training.
overcome this problem? For one thing, pay and benefits
must be competitive. Many companies provide an attractive, long-term environment for workers by offering full
benefits, ownership in the company and stock options. And
it is important that a solar company develop a reputation
as a good place to work. A lot of it is word-of-mouth. The
trades tend to be tight-knit. If things work out for one person, they will talk to others, Culpepper says.
In-House Training
Workers who come from the trades may have the right general skills, but need training to understand the specifics of
solar installations. Many companies find on-the-job training shapes the kind of workers they need.
SolarCity often begins looking for an entry-level
installer by searching for someone with a construction
background. We love someone with experience in carpentry, roofing, tools and heights. As the economy has slowed
down in the housing market, we have had a tremendous
response from workers who have been displaced, says
Juan Ajuayo, SolarCitys director of human resources. The
company then begins in-house training, which Ajuayo says
is critical to building a capable workforce. We have a formal training department that has trained 80 to 85 workers,
he explains.
Borrego sometimes hires workers just out of local community colleges. However, even with these employees, the
company insists on in-house training, Hall says. All new
employees receive two formal days of training to start.
They also receive safety training. Before they go out in the
field, they are required to take part in a day of office or
warehouse training. They also participate in a mentoring
program in which new employees are assigned to managers
or other senior employees.
Buying and Stealing
Some integrators strategy is to have a very aggressive
merger and acquisition campaign to acquire crews and
companies, says Isabelle Christensen, director of customer
76
education at REC Solar in San Luis Obispo,

California. SunEdison, for instance, has
grown into one of North Americas largest
solar energy services providers since it
opened its doors with a handful of employees in 2003. The company now has more
than 300 workers, some of whom it gained
through acquiring companies in California,
Hawaii and Oregon.
Some of these companies, however,
are growing too rapidly and quality might
suffer, cautions REC Solars Christensen.
Whatever the motivation for absorbing a
crew, the key to a smooth transition is ample due diligence,
she suggests. The acquiring company has to do extensive
checkswith the Better Business Bureau, for Diamond
Certification, and so onand interview clients, competitors
and employees to see what they say about the company.
Other companies even engage in downright thievery
to find employees. They attend renewable energy conferences for the sole purpose of pilfering trained workers.
Absolutely, there is a lot of stealing of employees, SolarCitys Ajuayo says.
While some integrators will acquire entire crews, most
prefer to recruit individuals. You can inherit some personality issues with an entire crew, points out Hall. And while
you can retrain to instill best practices for quality, you still
might have some resistance with an acquired crew that has
its own group sense of what practices are best.
Will consolidation among installers mean that the US
solar industry will one day wind up as just a handful of
national integrators? I dont think we will see that much
US consolidation in terms of pure installation of projects,
says Borregos Hall. But I think we will see a consolidation
of distribution channels, so there will be a smaller number
of people buying the PV from the manufacturers, who will
want to off-load huge amounts of product at once. Its an
odd value-chain right now.
Whatever techniques solar companies useInternet
advertising, college partnerships, cultivating tradespeople,
acquiring smaller companies or luring employees away from
othersthey must brace for a worker shortage. The work is
coming. The workers may not follow quickly enough.
g C O N TAC T
Lisa Cohn / Portland, OR / cohnmerk@comcast.net /
realenergywriters.com
Elisa Wood / Charlottesville, VA / lisawood@aol.com /
realenergywriters.com
Charles W. Thurston / Cotati, CA / cwthurston@comcast.net
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Array to Inverter
Matching
Mastering Manual
Design Calculations
With too few modules in series

an inverter cannot maintain an arrays MPP
under high temperature conditions for
the site, sacrificing energy harvest.
Too many modules in series

results in voltages above 600 Vdc, which can
damage equipment, violate the NEC
and void the manufacturers warranty.
By John Berdner
atching array output to inverter

input is a critical step in PV system
design. The primary goal of matching an array to an inverter is to
ensure that the inverter can capture a high percentage of the available energy that the array produces during all of the environmental conditions anticipated at the site. Often a secondary
goal is to maximize the inverter capacity so that the inverter
will operate at or near full power during high irradiance
periods without power limiting. It is important that power
limiting occur only during exceptional or transitory conditions, not under normal operating conditions.
The array in a typical grid-direct PV system consists of
one or more strings of five to 20 modules wired in series. The
exact number of modulesthe number in series and the
number of stringsdepends on the electrical characteristics of the module, the input voltage and current range of
the inverter, and the expected high and low ambient temperatures of the site. In a well designed system, the arrays
operating voltage, current and power output will be within
the inverters operating range at all times.
78
Inverter manufacturers typically provide string sizing

guidelines or online programs to assist in matching a particular array configuration to a specific inverter. The system
designer needs to provide the record low and average high
temperatures for the site. Some online string sizing calculators generate detailed results that integrators can use to
optimize their designs. However, the main function of these
programs is to calculate the maximum and minimum number of modules in series, providing designers with a range of
acceptable array configurations.
Manual Calculations
The necessary calculations can also be done manually.
This is an important skill to learn, especially for designers.
Building integrated products are seldom included in string
sizing calculators, and new products on the market may
not immediately be added to the inverter manufacturers
online calculators. On the roof, the ability to manually verify array configurations can avoid costly mistakes. Without
wireless laptop connections, crews in the field cannot rely
upon online string sizing tools. But solar professionals can,
and should, master the steps detailed in this article.
To illustrate how to calculate these configurations manually, the following example assumes:
1.

2.

3.

4.

a rooftop PV array mounted at the plane of the roof

and elevated by 34 inches;
an environment with an ambient temperature range
of 045C;
a 7 kWac inverter with an input voltage range of
250600 Vdc, a MPPT range of 250480 Vdc, a maximum dc input current of 30 amps and a California
Energy Commission (CEC) weighted efficiency of 96%;
and
a crystalline PV module with the specifications listed
in Table 1 to the right.
Maximum Modules in Series

Maximum input voltage for an inverter is a hard stop design
limit. Exceeding the maximum inverter operating voltage
can result in catastrophic failure of the inverter and could,
in some cases, result in NEC violations. Therefore, the maximum open circuit voltage is the most critical value to consider when designing a PV array.
The number of modules in series determines the array
open-circuit voltage (Voc). Because voltage is temperature
dependent, Voc must be temperature corrected in order to
calculate the maximum PV system voltage (see 2008 NEC,
Table 690.7 to the right). This temperature corrected Voc will
determine the maximum number of modules allowable per
series string. Conservative designers will use the record
low ambient temperature at their site as the cell temperature for these calculations.
A good first step for designers is to determine the
temperature differential for their site, in this case the low
temperature differential. In our example the record low
temperature for the site is 0C, which is a differential of
-25C from Standard Test Conditions (STC). As cell temperature drops, output voltage increases. This effect is
described by the appropriate temperature coefficient,
which in this case is given as a percentage of Voc.
In our example, we have a low temperature differential
of -25C and a -0.34 %/C temperature coefficient of Voc. The
maximum module voltage (Voc_max) is then calculated as:
Example Module Characteristics (STC *)

Rated power at
STC (Pmp)
195 W
Temp Coefficient of
Pmp (%/C)
-0.49
Open circuit
voltage (Voc)
32.9 V
Temp Coefficient of
Vmp (%/C)
-0.47
Maximum power
voltage (Vmp)
27.1 V
Temp Coefficient of
Voc (%/C)
-0.34
Short-circuit
current (Isc)
8.15 A
Temp Coefficient of
Isc (%/C)
0.06
Maximum power
current (Imp)
7.2 A
Temp Coefficient of
Imp (%/C)
-0.02
173.3 W
UL series fuse rating
15 A
Rated power at
PTC (Pptc)
* Standard Test Conditions: 1000 W/m2, 25 C cell temperature, AM1.5 spectrum
Table 1 Temperature coefficients for modules are usually

published in cut sheets provided by the manufacturer and
shall be used in place of NEC Table 690.7 where available.
NEC Table 690.7 Voltage Correction Factors for

Crystalline and Multicrystalline Silicon Modules
Correction Factors for Ambient Temperatures
Below 25C (77F)
(Multiply the rated open circuit voltage by the appropriate
correction factor shown below.)
Ambient
Temperature (C)
Factor
Ambient
Temperature (F)
24 to 20
1.02
76 to 68
19 to 15
1.04
67 to 59
14 to 10
1.06
58 to 50
9 to 5
1.08
49 to 41
4 to 0
1.10
40 to 32
-1 to -5
1.12
31 to 23
-6 to -10
1.14
22 to 14
-11 to -15
1.16
13 to 5
-16 to -20
1.18
4 to -4
-21 to -25
1.20
-5 to -13
-26 to -30
1.21
-14 to -22
-31 to -35
1.23
-23 to -31
-36 to -40
1.25
-32 to -40
Voc_max = Voc + (temp differential x temp coefficient of Voc)

= 32.9 V + ((T_min T_STC) x (-0.34%/C x Voc))
= 32.9 V + ((0C 25C) x (-0.34%/C x 32.9 V))
= 32.9 V + (-25C x -0.1119 V/degree C)
= 32.9 V + 2.80 V
= 35.7 Vdc per module
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 70 2008, National Electrical Code, Copyright 2007,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. This reprinted material is not the complete and
official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard
in its entirety.
The maximum dc input voltage for the inverter we have

selected is 600 Vdc. The maximum number of series wired
Voltage correction factors The 2008 NEC expands Table

690.7, providing greater granularity than in the 2005 code.
79
A rray to In v e r t er M a t chi ng
Nmax 600 V 35.7 V

16.81
= 16
A quick cross check of Table 690.7 for minimum temperatures of 40C yields a voltage correction factor of
1.10. The maximum allowed STC open-circuit voltage
allowed by the NEC is therefore 600 Vdc 1.1 = 545 Vdc.
With a module Voc_STC of 32.9 Vdc, the maximum number
of modules in series allowed by Table 690.7 is 545 Vdc 32.9
Vdc, or 16.57. The example 16-module series string configuration meets NEC Table 690.7 requirements using both the
manufacturer supplied temperature coefficient of Voc and
the table correction factor.
ns
1
0
10
15
20
Voltage
25
p.
ow Tem
io
ondit
Test C
ord L
Re c
20.7 Vmp
dard
80
n
Sta
The inverters minimum input voltage range in this

example is 250 Vdc. The minimum series string must be
greater than or equal to 250 Vdc divided by the Vmp_min.
A string with 12 modules in series will have a minimum

expected module maximum power voltage of 12 20.73
Vdc, or 249 Vdc. While close to the inverters minimum
MPPT voltage of 250 Vdc, this expected value falls just
outside the tracking window for the device. This suggests
that 12 modules in series is a marginal design for this location. After the deleterious effects of other array derate
factors are considered, this configuration would likely be
determined unacceptable.
emp
igh T
ge H
Vmp_min = Vmp + (temp differential x temp coefficient of Vmp)

= 27.1 V + ((T_rise + T_max T_stc) x (-0.47%/C x Vmp))
= 27.1 V +((30C + 45C - 25C) x (-0.47%/C x 27.1 V))
= 27.1 V + (50C x -0.1274 V/degree C)
= 27.1 V 6.37 V
= 20.73 Vdc per module
Nmin 250 Vdc 20.73 Vdc

12.06
= 13
ra
Ave
Minimum Modules in Series

Excessively low array voltage can have a dramatic negative
impact on PV system energy production. If the array voltage
falls below the minimum operating voltage, the inverter may
not be able to track the array maximum power point. If this
low voltage condition occurs rarely, such as on extremely hot
afternoons only, the overall impact on energy production
will be negligible. With extremely low array voltage, however, the inverter may shut down completely on hot days,
which would result in substantial energy loss and very poor
system performance.
The minimum operating inverter voltage is calculated
using the modules temperature corrected maximum voltage (Vmp_min) at the average high ambient temperature. In
order to estimate the actual cell temperature, it is necessary
to factor in the temperature rise (T_rise) resulting from the
actual mounting conditions. In this case, T_rise is assumed
to be 30C based on empirical data for PV arrays mounted
close to the roof surface. Other mounting methods that provide for better airflow around the array may result in a T_rise
value of between 20C and 25C.
The temperature corrected, minimum expected module
maximum power voltage is calculated as:
This is calculated as:
Amperage
modules (Nmax) must be less than or equal to 600 Vdc divided

by the maximum module voltage. This is calculated as:
30
35.7 Voc
35
40
IV-CURVE PER CELL TEMPERATURE FOR 195 W MODULE

IV-Curves Shown for the example 195 W module at various
cell temperatures.
Maximum Strings in Parallel

The maximum number of parallel strings that can be connected to the inverter without causing current limiting
can usually be determined by a simple calculation without the need for temperature correction. To calculate the
maximum number of parallel strings, divide the maximum
inverter input current by either the module Imp or Isc,
depending upon what the inverter O&M manual specifies.
A maximum short-circuit input rating is not specified for
our example, so we will use the maximum power current
for our calculations.
The maximum number of paralleled series strings should
be less than or equal to the maximum inverter input current
divided by maximum power current at STC. This is calculated using the equation:
N 30 A 7.62 A
N 3.93
N3
c o nt i n u e d o n p a g e 8 2
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Maximize inverter capacity so that it

will operate at or near full power during
high irradiance periods without power
limiting, which should occur only during
exceptional or transitory conditions,
not under normal operating conditions
for the site.
Using the voltage and current constraints calculated

here, the designer can determine that the possible array configurations for this inverter consist of one to three strings
of modules in parallel with each string made up of 12 to 16
series connected modules.
Maximum Array Capacity
The last step in determining the array to inverter match is to
examine the array maximum power. Some array configurations that do not exceed the voltage or current constraints
could still result in power levels that exceed the inverters
output power capabilities. If this happens, valuable solargenerated energy will be dissipated into the environment as
waste heat or otherwise lost when the inverter is forced into
power limiting.
The analysis and optimization of the array to inverter
power match can be quite complex. Some of the variables
involved include module mounting method, array performance in real world conditions, inverter efficiency versus
input voltage, inverter efficiency versus output power and
the statistical distribution of irradiance versus ambient temperature at the site. A full optimization is beyond the scope
of this article, but array to inverter power match can be done
reasonably well with some basic assumptions.
One way to match array input to inverter output power is
to consider the arrays PVUSA Test Condition (PTC) rating.
Manufacturers specify module power as STC ratings, but
real world module performance is typically lower than
would be projected. PTC ratings better reflect real world
A
14 modules in series
performance. In most cases, matching the PTC rating

of an array to the inverters continuous output rating at
40C is a perfectly reasonable design decision for maximum array generating capacity. The CEC maintains an
online database of eligible equipment. The database, which
includes PTC ratings of PV modules and weighted average
inverter efficiency, can be found on the Go Solar California
Web site (see Resources). The PTC rating for the module
we are considering is 173.3 W. If this information were unavailable, a fixed module power derating factor of 0.90
Pmp_STC could also be used. This fixed factor will tend to
overestimate module output and therefore result in a conservative system design. Using the fixed factor of 0.9 in our
example module would yield a power rating of 175.5 W.
While this fixed factor guesstimate can be used for design
purposes, it should not be used to estimate actual system
performance.
After matching an arrays PTC rating to the inverter
output power, consider factoring in c o nt i n u e d o n p a g e 8 4
UL-listed
fused combiner
Unfused
dc disconnect
7 kW inverter
PV+
PV-
L1
L2
N
MODULE SPECS
Pmp
195
STRING SPECS
Pmp
2,730
ARRAY SPECS
Pmp
8,190
Vmp
27.1
Vmp
379
Vmp
379
Imp
Voc
7.20
32.9
Imp
Voc
7.20
461
Imp
Voc
21.6
461
Isc
8.15
Isc
8.15
Isc
24.5
Example diagram This three-line wiring diagram includes electrical specifications for an 8,190 W array on a 7 kW inverter.
82
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String Configurations for a 7 kW Inverter
the inverters CEC weighted efficiency. Because some of the array

output power is lost in the inver1 String
2 Strings
3 Strings
Number
sion process, it is often acceptable
of
% of
% of
% of
modules
to increase the array generating
#
Pac_out
#
Pac_out
#
Pac_out
max
max
max
in
series
capacity to take this into account.
Inverter output power in this case
12
12
1,897 W
27%
24
3,793 W
54%
36
5,690 W
81%
should be less than or equal to
the array PTC rating divided by
13
13
2,055 W
29%
26
4,109 W
59%
39
6,164 W
88%
the inverters CEC weighted effi14
14
2,213 W
32%
28
4,425 W
63%
42
6,638 W
95%
ciency. In most climates, an array
sized this way will leave very little
15
15
2,371 W
34%
30
4,741 W
68%
45
7,112 W
102%
inverter capacity on the table. Fur16
16
2,529 W
36%
32
5,058 W
72%
48
7,586 W
108%
thermore, the high irradiance conditions that could lead to inverter
Table 2 Note that three paralleled strings with 15 modules in series may result in
clipping are transitory, brief in
power limiting and is not recommended for high irradiance locations.
duration and generally seasonal.
The equation for calculating the
maximum number of modules in this manner is:
might be more appropriate. In some cases, however, the
customer may be planning a future expansion of the array,
Inverter Power N x PTC x CEC weighted efficiency
so a 1- or 2-string configuration would be appropriate in the

7,000 W N x 173.3 W x 0.96
interim. The performance penalty for a small array on a

N 7,000 W 173.3 W 0.96
larger inverter during the interim period is typically very minor.

N 42 modules
Actual full power inverter efficiency is typically slightly

lower than the weighted CEC efficiency. In addition, voltage
drop, module mismatch and array soiling could result in
other system losses. Array installation details are also relevant. A flat roof installation, for example, is ideally oriented to the sun for summer energy harvest, but high cell temperatures significantly derate peak power output. Cold and
clear conditions at other times of the year are unlikely to produce theoretical high peak power outputs, because the suns
incidence angle would not be ideal. This is a case where oversizing the array in the example may be acceptable. A further
derate factor of 0.95 can be used to estimate the combined
effect of these additional factors. This is meant to give a
better real world array to inverter match and does not
account for any limitations imposed by local rebate programs. This estimate is calculated as:
Inverter Power N x PTC x CEC weighted efficiency x 0.95

7,000 W N x 173.3 W x 0.96 x 0.95

N 7,000 W 173.3 W 0.96 0.95

N 44 modules
Using all of this information, the valid array configurations showing the total number of modules, the maximum
estimated output power (Pac_out) and inverter utilization values are summarized in Table 2. Inverter utilization
factors below 80% generally indicate that a different inverter
84
Powering Down
While we have just shown how to maximize an inverters
PV array generating capacity, this does not mean that the
goal of every design is to maximize PV input to the inverter.
You may wish to consider limiting the array size, especially
where the inverter is exposed to high ambient temperatures
or the array to high irradiance. This will extend the life of the
power electronic components in the inverter. Also, the peak
efficiency for most inverters normally occurs at 50%80%
of rated power output, meaning that system energy harvest improves slightly when the inverter operates at lower
power. Finally, inverter cost is a relatively small part of the
total installed system cost. From an economic perspective,
therefore, a slightly undersized array is often preferred to a
slightly oversized array. Over the life of the system, the value
of energy lost due to inverter power limiting or increased
system inefficiency quickly outweighs the value lost by operating the inverter at slightly less than its rated output.
g C O N TAC T
John Berdner / groSolar / White River Junction, VT /
john.berdner@grosolar.com / grosolar.com
Resources:
Go Solar California / gosolarcalifornia.ca.gov/equipment
(Module PTC ratings are published here.)
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85
Interview
An Experienced Perspective
Bob-O Schultze, Electron Connection

Boots on the Ground and No Bull
s h aw n sc h re in e r.c om
ike a lot of first generation

apprentice. That forces
installers, Electron Connecus to keep it small.
tion president Bob-O Schultze got
I could hire more
into renewable energy by living
journeymen, but Im
with it. In the 1970s, hydroelecgetting to the point in
tricity powered his off-grid cabin
my career where
at Starve Out, a remote mining
I dont want to
claim in the Salmon River counexpand, I want to
try of Northern California.
de-spand. Now both
In the early 90s, Bob-O and
my former apprentices
his wife Kathleen relocated to
have their licenses.
Hornbrook, a small community
Weve hired another
on the Oregon-California border
apprentice, and thats
where they worked closely with
as far as I want to go.
Home Power magazine publishers
The bigger you get, the
Richard and Karen Perez. He has
more headaches, more
been designing, installing and
trucks, more tools,
maintaining RE power systems
more insurance.
ever since. Bob-Os service area
straddles the state line and
JS: So whats your
approach when projrequires him to be licensed and
ects are on the table
current with regulations and
that are larger than your
incentives in both California and
crew can handle?
Oregon. He holds a C-10 electrical
license in California, a Limited
BOS: We dont subRenewable Energy Technician
contract; we team up.
license in Oregon, is NAPCEP
Weve teamed up with
certified, and sits on the NABCEP
Kerry Whitehead and
Bob-O Schultze of Electron Connection Bob-O thinks there
board of directors.
his apprentice and also
are two kinds of people interested in solar: those who have
Joe Schwartz, SolarPro publisher
pulled in a couple of
not done it yet and those who want more. He is definitely in
and editor, recently talked with
journeymen in Oregon
the latter group.
Bob-O at his triple-threat off-grid
in the past. So when
homestead that utilizes PV, wind
we get a big job, if were
gotten one dime of the California Energy on a time crunch, or if its just going to
and hydro sourcesthree good reasons
Commissions Go Solar California incen- take us forever and we could possibly
the power company does not send him
tive. So were not seeing the same boom
lose other work, we have installers were
Christmas cards.
in my end of California, which is Pacific
used to working with. Its more of a coJS: You operate a relatively small design
Corp territory. Go about a mile or so by
operative venture: I need your help; you
and installation company by todays stanair to the Oregon state line, and some of need my help. Everybody gets paid.
dards. Why, and in what ways does that
the best incentives and tax credits in the
affect you in the marketplace?
country exist.
JS: What would be your recommendation
to someone wanting to get into the busiBOS: Our location affected it as much as
But Oregon has a very specific oneness, in terms of training and licensing?
anything. In this part of Californiathe
to-one apprenticeship program, which
upper three countiesno one has ever
is basically one journeyman to one
BOS: In some ways, c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 8 8
86
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87
Interview
its a lot easier now than in the old
days. Theres a reason they called us
sparkies: thats how we figured stuff
out. Whoa! Whats that? (laughter)
But now really good schools exist. For
someone wanting to start a new career,
Id recommend training courses like
SEI and the MREA offer. There are
some really nice college courses here
in southern Oregon and a lot of other
states. Certainly thats the place to
start. After or concurrent with training
you need to figure out how to get time
in the field. It all depends on what your
state requires for licensing. The days of
the outlaw installer, even a competent
outlaw, are quickly coming to an end,
so you just have to bite the bullet. For
most states, thats a 2-year or 4-year
apprenticeship. That may mean getting
into a standard electricians program.
Its not really where you want to go,
but on the other hand theres a huge
amount of crossover: voltage drops,
conduit, grounding, NEC requirements.
JS: Do you see mainstream electricians
getting involved with PV in your service
area?
BOS: In this section of California where

there are no incentives, the answer
is no. In Oregon were seeing it more,
as mainstream electricians are finally
seeing this is an actual trade. Its just
another arrow in the quiver if they can
do it. But theres no big rush. Not here.
Not yet.
JS: What is your involvement with
NABCEP?
BOS: Im on the board of directors,

and I also am a certificant. NABCEP is
a national certification program that
initially focused on PV. Now we do solar
thermal and small wind certification,
and well be moving into other areas as
the industry grows.
We started out NABCEP thinking
this would be a completely voluntary
sort of thing. It would be like an ASE
certification for a car mechanic. You
know, youre going to take your car to
88
The manufacturers that

realize the installers in the
trenches are their real clients
are the ones that get my
attention and my money.
somebody who has it rather than somebody whos working under a shade tree.
Whats happened, out of our control,
is that some state agencies are adopting NABCEP certification as a way into
their incentive program. It makes sense
when you think about it. Theyre thinking they are going to get a betterinstalled system from someone who
has that certification than from someone who doesnt. A whole new issue,
and again we have no control over
this, is that some states are saying it is
mandatory. Implementing their own
testing program or special licensing
procedures to certify installers is very
expensive. So theyre asking, Why
should we reinvent the wheel? Theyre
ISO certified; theyre accepted. We
actually encourage states to make it
voluntary; we dont want NABCEP to
be a pay-to-play kind of thing.
Its a very exciting time for NABCEP.
I sit on the board as the certificants
representative, so people who are certified get their inquiries channeled to me.
I interact with them if they have issues
either with NABCEP or some licensing
agency, or they want to give feedback
to the board or if they think we should
offer a different certification.
JS: Do you think the manufacturers are
doing a better job of getting enough
beta hours behind their equipment
before its released into the field? Or is a
lot of involuntary beta testing still falling
on the backs of installers?
BOS: The first problem is what we

call vaporware. Thats where manufacturers are advertising product thats not
ready; they dont even have it; or you
cant buy it yet. The other problem is that there are so many
different applications, especially
with the off-grid market, that
theres no way manufacturers
can test in all different environments, all different combinations. Beta testing is extremely
important, and most manufacturers beta test fairly well. But
some manufacturers hardly do it at all.
They just send a few samples out to
their biggest corporate clients. Installers all know how well that works.
Weve come a little way in the industry now in that everyone understands
even if you have done a lot of beta testing, when you launch a new product
there are going to be situations that
were not envisioned. There are going
to be some issues. Manufacturers now
recognize that when that sort of thing
happens with a new product, there are
expenses involved for the installer
and theres some embarrassment, if
you will, that here Ive recommended
this product to the client, and now its
failing. You have to go fix it, and some
manufacturers compensate for that.
Used to be nobody got compensated;
maybe youd get a replacement part.
For the most part its more formalized
now. Youre probably not going to get
paid as much as youd like, but theyll
compensate you if a product fails.
JS: So how important is that manufacturer support to you as an installer?
BOS: Its everything. If a companys not

going to offer that support, Im not
going to buy its product. Big corporations get this idea that the distributors
who buy their products are their clients,
and nothing could be further from
the truth. Their client is the installing
dealer. If I dont specify a product, the
distributor doesnt sell it and buy more.
The manufacturers that realize this
say, Okay, these guys in the trenches
are the ones we have to support. Those
are the manufacturers that get my
attention and get my money.
89
Training
Industry-specific training and educational opportunities are essential to the success of your business.
Whether you are training new employees or in need
of NABCEP continuing education credits, SolarPro is
proud to offer this training schedule as a resource to
you and your business. Manufacturers, community
colleges, renewable energy associations and other
dedicated training centers are invited to become
subscribers and register events online at
solarprofessional.com/training.
Continuing Education for the Pro
Training accreditation key

ISPQ
Institute of Sustainable Power Quality program or provider
N-EL

NABCEP PV Entry Level Certificate of Knowledge approved

provider
N-TP: PV NABCEP Board recognized training provider for PV installer

exam qualification
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thermal installer exam qualification
N-CE
NABCEP continuing education credit provider
Instructor is NABCEP certified
Listings are for December 2008 only. Please visit solarprofessional.com/training for additional 2009 training opportunities.
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Dec 4
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Sharp
Dec 4 Dec 5
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Solar PV Sales & Estimator
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Dec 5
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Dec 8 Dec 11
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Engineers & Designers
High Sun Engineering
Dec 8 Dec 10
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sunengineer.com
Solar Thermal Overview
Buderus Solar
Dec 8
Londonderry, NH
$120
buderussolar.com
Solar PV Installer
Solar Staffing
Dec 8 Dec 9
Oakland, CA
$395
solarstaffing.com
Solar Thermal Overview

Buderus Solar
Dec 11
Londonderry, NH
$120
buderussolar.com
Advanced Case Study
DC Power Systems
Dec 12
Healdsburg, CA
$150
dcpower-systems.com
Solar PV Designer
Solar Staffing
Dec 15 Dec 16
Oakland, CA
$395
solarstaffing.com
Residential Systems Design
SMA America
Dec 16
Rocklin, CA
$125
N-CE
sma-america.com
Sharp
Dec 16 Dec 17
Mahwah, NJ
$500
N-CE
solar.sharpusa.com
Solar 101 Hands-On
DC Power Systems
Dec 16 Dec 17
Healdsburg, CA
$350
dcpower-systems.com
Commercial Systems Design

SMA America
Dec 17
Rocklin, CA
$125
N-CE
sma-america.com
Sharp
Dec 18 Dec 19
Mahwah, NJ
$500
N-CE
solar.sharpusa.com
Communications &
Datalogging
SMA America
Dec 18
Rocklin, CA
$125
N-CE
sma-america.com
Solar PV Installer
Solar Staffing
Dec 27 Dec 28
Oakland, CA
$395
solarstaffing.com
Have a professional
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to post?
Visit:
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training
renewable
enerGy:
powering americas
energy independence
Gold SponSor
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RETECH. The premier trade gathering of the all-renewable energy

industry in the United States. RETECH is an unparalleled opportunity
to connect with other manufacturing and supplier peers, industry
experts, and influential leaders as they share insights on renewable
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SupportinG orGanizationS
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Where will you be in 2009?
Mark your calendars for ACOREs upcoming events.

Renewable Energy Finance Forum-West (REFF-West)
Seattle, WA | October 2728, 2008
Phase II of Renewable Energy in America

Washington, DC | December 34, 2008
ACORE Member Day 2008: December 3rd
Renewable Energy Finance Forum-Wall Street (REFF-Wall St.)

New York, NY | June 2324, 2009
Further event information is available at: www.acore.org
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
& POLICY CENTER
Projects
System Profiles
COMMERCIAL GRID-DIRECT PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM:
Colorado Rocky Mountain School Solar Farm

Overview
DESIGNER: Scott Ely, President,
Sunsense, sunsensesolar.com
LEAD INSTALLER: Jeff Lauckhart,
C ou r te sy su n se n se sola r.c om (2 )
Operations Manager, Sunsense

DATE COMMISSIONED: July 2008
INSTALLATION TIMEFRAME: 90 days
LOCATION: Carbondale, CO, 39.6 N
AVERAGE SOLAR RESOURCE:
5.36 kWh/m2/day
RECORD LOW/AVERAGE HIGH
TEMPERATURE: -39 F / 89 F
ARRAY CAPACITY: 147.42 kW STC
AVERAGE ANNUAL AC PRODUCTION:
208 MWh
Equipment Specifications
MODULES: 756 BP Solar SX3195S,
195 W STC, +9%/-9%, 7.96 Imp,

24.4 Vmp, 8.6 Isc, 30.7 Voc
INVERTERS: 3-phase, 208 Vac
system, 3 SMA Sunny Towers,

42 kW each, 6 SB7000US per
tower, 600 Vdc maximum input,
250480 Vdc MPPT range.
ARRAY: Eighteen 42 module
subarrays14 modules per string
(2,730 W, 7.96 Imp, 341.6 Vmp,
8.6 Isc, 429.8 Voc), 3 strings per
inverter (8,190 W, 23.9 Imp, 341.6
Vmp, 25.8 Isc, 429.8 Voc)
collaborative effort between the

Colorado Rocky Mountain School
(CRMS), the Aspen Skiing Company and
Xcel Energy, the CRMS Solar Farm broke
ground only after lengthy negotiations.
The numerous approvals involved
made the design challenges seem simple
by comparison.
The main electrical design challenge
was proper wire and conduit sizing on
the ac side of the system. CRMS, like
many schools, has a 3-phase 208 service.
In order to run a relatively low ac voltage over a long distance with minimal
voltage drop, 3/0 copper was used from
each Sunny Tower to the utility interconnection. This increased costs and posed
ARRAY INSTALLATION: Nine Direct

Power & Water Large Ground Mount,
84 modules each, 180 azimuth, 35 tilt
ARRAY COMBINER: 15 A fuses
in Sunny Towers
SYSTEM MONITORING: Revenue
grade meter from Xcel Energy;

SMA Sunny WebBox with sensor
package monitored via Sunny Portal
minor logistical hassles. Meridian Energy

Systems in Austin, Texas, provided
consultation services to the Sunsense
design team.
Infrastructure requirements for
the project were considerable. These
included trenching and burying conduit,
as well as laying down service roads.
A fencing contractor provided both the
perimeter fence and the arrays structural foundation. Only after the infrastructure was complete could the installation team begin its work.
The Sunny Towers provided for
more than a clean and convenient
installation; they also make detailed
performance monitoring easy. Referring
to the online SMA Sunny Portal allows
the owners, operators or maintenance
personnel to verify performance for
each inverter and subarray.
Thanks to our crafty installation team, the
project went even smoother than expected.
Columns of modules were assembled on
the ground. Using a custom harness and
an extension reach forklift, each six-module
panel was lifted into place. This innovation dramatically improved installation
efficiency.
Scott Ely, Sunsense

92
NAME:
TRANSWESTERN
FIGHTING GLOBAL WARMING BY:
Improving energy efficiency and
reducing property operating costs for 250 corporate clients,

83,000 tenants, and thousands of business associates
SAVINGS IN 2006:
Getting deck chairs for the roof
PHOTO: RUSS QUACKENBUSH
NEXT PROJECT:
30% energy savings | $30 million in utility bills
JOIN TRANSWESTERN IN THE FIGHT AGAINST GLOBAL WARMING.

TRANSWESTERN is one of thousands of organizations saving energy with help from EPAs ENERGY
STAR Program. That means lower energy bills for TRANSWESTERNs tenants and a cleaner
environment for all of us. Learn how your organization can be a part of the solution at energystar.gov.
Projects
Commercial Solar Thermal System:
Lucky Labrador Brewing Company

Overview
DESIGNER & LEAD INSTALLER:
Bruce McLeod, Co-Owner, Ra Energy,

www.ra2energy.com
DATE COMMISSIONED: August 2008
INSTALLATION TIMEFRAME:
21 days
LOCATION: Portland, OR, 45.6N
C ou r te sy J ody M c L e od
3.52 kWh/m2/day
ANNUAL HEATING DEGREE DAYS:
4,276
RECORD LOW TEMPERATURE:
-3 F
640 sq. ft.
AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION:
30 MWh
COLLECTORS: 16 Heliodyne Gobi
410, 40 sq. ft. each

ARRAY: Two 8 collector subarrays,
sloped 0.25 inch per ft.
HEAT EXCHANGER: Custom shell
and tube
PUMP: Taco 0011-BF4
CONTROLS: Tekmar models 155 and
152, with additional custom control
FREEZE CONTROL: Drainback
COLLECTOR INSTALLATION:
Flat roof mount, torch down roof,

custom racking, 180 azimuth, 45 tilt
94
he Northwest Quimby location is

T
the second thermal installation for
Lucky Labrador Brewing Company by
Ra Energy, which is based in Portland,

Oregon. The first was a closed-loop,
glycol system commissioned in December of 2007 at the Southwest Hawthorne
location. This second installation was
configured as a drainback system.
A custom fabricated heat exchanger using 120 feet of 1-inch soft copper
was installed in a 1,500-gallon atmospheric tank to preheat domestic hot
water. The performance of this tank is
very important in the brewing process.
Sven Tjernagel, owner of STSS Company, designed and manufactured
the systems thermal storage tank.
Tjernagel has significant knowledge
and experience with atmospheric tanks. He also helped
design the system with high
capacity storage, resulting
in greater efficiency and
added flexibility for the
clients needs.
The existing brewery
pump and a new Taco circulator, in conjunction with
a shell and tube exchanger,
were used to pull in heat for
the brewing process. The
control system initiates the
exchange from the solar
storage tank to the brewing tank in the

middle of the night, until a minimal
temperature differential exists between
the tanks. The controller then energizes
the indirect boiler to heat the process
water to the desired temperature.
This project was definitely out of the box.
It was unique to this particular brewery and
needed to be installed accordingly. Our
primary challenge was that the brewery
process had to continue during installation,
requiring cooperation and coordination from
all involved. It gave us plenty of opportunities to interact with the brewery staff. The
brewers learned a lot about solar hot water,
and I learned a lot about brewing beer.
Bruce McLeod, Co-Owner,

Ra Energy
C ou r t es y Co nn or Mc L eo d
COLLECTOR ARRAY AREA:
Advertiser Index
Company
Page
Company
Page
AEE Solar
AEE/REC Solar
Allied Tube
Alternate Energy Technologies
Apollo Solar
Apricus Solar
Bernt Lorentz GMBH & Co. KG
Caleffi Hydronic Solutions
Conergy
DC Power Systems
Direct Power and Water
Draker Laboratories
Energy Star
Enphase Energy
Evergreen Solar
Fabrico
Fronius USA
Fullriver Battery USA
groSolar
Heliodyne
Littelfuse
Magnum Energy
Midnite Solar
Mitsubishi
NABCEP
Next Generation Energy
15
2/3
75
89
7
59
5
37
27
25
18
65
93
4
17
9
12/13
89
43
45
IBC
31
47
83
77
39
OutBack Power Systems

Phocos USA
RESOL Elektronische Regelungen GmbH
RETECH 2009
Rheem Water Heaters
Rostra Vernatherm
Sanyo Energy USA
SMA America
Solar Depot
Solar Pathfinder
Solarnetix
solarprofessional.com
SolarWorld California
Solectria Renewables
Stiebel Eltron
Sun Spot Solar
SunEarth
Suntech Power Holdings Co.
SunWize Technologies
Swhift Systems
Trina Solar
Trojan Battery
UniRac
Xantrex
Zomeworks
10/11
63
69
91
73
87
IFC
BC
23
85
87
85
81
29
41
57
64
87
61
19
95
33
21
53
1
64
95
Projects
RESIDENTIAL GRID-DIRECT PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM:
Allen Residence
Overview
DESIGNER: Bob-O Schultze,
President, Electron Connection,

electronconnection.com
LEAD INSTALLER: Eric Hansen,
Oregon Limited Renewable Energy
Technician, Electron Connection
DATE COMMISSIONED: June 2008
INSTALLATION TIMEFRAME: 3 days
LOCATION: Ashland, OR, 42 N
4.9 kWh/m2/day
sh a wn sc h re in e r.c om (2)
RECORD LOW/AVERAGE HIGH

TEMPERATURE: -6 F / 92 F
ARRAY CAPACITY: 3.6 kW STC
AVERAGE ANNUAL AC PRODUCTION:
4.7 MWh
MODULES: 20 Evergreen ES-180,
+4%/-2%, 6.95 Imp, 25.9 Vmp, 7.78

Isc, 32.6 Voc
INVERTER: Fronius IG Plus 3.8-1, 3.8
kW, 600 Vdc maximum input, 230500
Vdc MPPT range
ARRAY: 10 modules per series string
(1,800 W STC, 6.95 Imp, 259 Vmp,

7.78 Isc, 326 Voc) with two paralleled
strings (3,600 W STC, 13.9 Imp, 259
Vmp, 15.56 Isc, 326 Voc)
ARRAY INSTALLATION: Roof mount
on composition shingle, Direct Power
& Water Power Rail, 180 azimuth,
25 tilt
ARRAY COMBINER: groSolar Medium
Pass-Thru Box, no series fusing

SYSTEM MONITORING: Fronius
datalogger
Do you have a recent PV

or thermal project we should
consider for publication in
SolarPro?
Visit: solarprofessional.com/
projects
96
inger Allens home in the hills above

Ashland, Oregon, was a site begging
for solar. It had a relatively new roof, due
south orientation, good pitch and a wide
open solar window. A practitioner of
passive solar design in her work as an
architect, Ginger never had a client
who utilized either solar thermal or PV.
She purchased this home with the goal
of getting solar on the roof to finally
incorporate renewable energy into one
of her projects.
Designing the PV system involved
being mindful of real estate dedicated
to a future thermal system. When
the home was built in 2001, it was
pre-plumbed for solar thermal with
supply and return lines stubbed
out of the roof. Twenty Evergreen
180 W modules nicely fit the available roof space.
Originally a Fronius IG4000
inverter was specified. Late in the
process, Fronius USA offered the
opportunity to install an IG Plus 3.8-1
beta unit. The inverter and datalogger are installed in the unfinished
part of the homes cool, dry basement.

The first data dump from the datalogger to a laptop showed that the IG Plus
3.8-1 was operating well within expected
parameters.
Installation of the Fronius IG Plus is even
easier than the previous models due to a
two-part assembly. The bottom part is
installed first and includes the mounting
plate for the top part. The bottom also
houses the electronics and disconnects
common to all Fronius IG Plus machines.
This two-part system makes lighter work
of mounting the inverter.
Eric Hansen, Electron Connection
Q: When a
panel goes down
in the forest and
nobody knows about it,
do you still lose money?
Monitor your fuses and save

Remote fuse indication is proven to be one of the
most effective methods to save time and improve
productivity when a circuit opens. Since most of the
commercial photovoltaic systems are built at remote
locations, when a dangerous short circuit occurs that
opens a fuse, it may take days to find out. In the mean
time, a solar panel is down and your system is not
operating at optimal efficiency.
POWR-LINK technology constantly monitors

the fuses condition. Systems that utilize this
technology can be programmed to inform
maintenance staff of the exact location of the open
fuse, the fuse type and the necessary equipment to
replace it. Now your technicians will know what the
problem is before they arrive and can fix it fast to
restore your systems full capacity.
To solve this problem, Littelfuse engineered the

POWR-LINK remote indication fuseholder. The
For more information about POWR-LINK visit

www.littelfuse.com/solarlink
800-TEC-FUSE | www.littelfuse.com/solarlink
SC250U_Note_092908
www.SMA-America.com
How do we build the most efcient

commercial PV inverters in the world?
Combine a single vision with years of experience and best engineering practices; add unwavering
commitment to perfection and the result is the Sunny Central 250U, the rst in the next generation of
commercial inverters from SMA. An all-new user interface provides a graphic display of performance
data as well as inverter and grid status. The new modular configuration speeds installation and its
innovative design results in quieter, more efficient operation. At 97% CEC weighted efficiency, the
new Sunny Central 250U is the cornerstone of your next PV project.
Order today 888.476.2872
The Future of Solar Technology

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December/January 2009

String OCPD Requirements | Inter-Row Spacing

Op t ima l D e s i gn, I n s tal l ati on & Perfor m anc e

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Tel. ++49 (0) 4193-7548-0 www.lorentz.de

70 Strategies for Meeting

By Tobin Booth, Danny Lee & David Brearley

Extending the ITC means that the solar industry

54 Solar Site Evaluation:

By Lisa Cohn & Elisa Wood, with

By Mark Galli & Peter Hoberg

78 Array to Inverter Matching:

Mastering manual design calculations is a critical

S O L ARPRO | December/January 2009

Off-Grid PV as Simple as Grid-Tie

Introducing the ...

SOLAR POWER CENTER

...integrated into a complete

Call or visit online to learn more

The TrueSineWave Inverter/Charger and the T80 MPPT

10 Contributors Experience + Expertise

26 The Wire Industry Currents

30 3-phase One IssueThree Viewpoints

Bob-O Schultze, Electron Connection

90 Training Continuing Education for the Pro

SolarCraft Services Seth Cooper verifying the performance

S O L ARPRO | December/January 2009

Theres a side of solar energy that few

Fabrico is a trademark of EIS, Inc.

John Berdner recently joined groSolar as VP of manufacturing.

Tobin Booth is president of Blue Oak Energy, a PV design and

Ken Gardner owns and manages Gardner Engineering

Peter Hoberg is VP of sales and marketing at Solmetric

Please Visit www.outbackpower.com/smartre

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