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Admission Details ai
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NC / CNC Technolog)'
t.
Introduction
rqlion in which
l,o/s. This dara
ormation.
r
'
s knou'n as
irr.rog nrethcd;
2.
a) Prograrn of instruciions
b) Controller unit, aiso called as the machine control
c)
All
unit (MCU)
are;
;ii-rd
Machine tool
belcu
tr]
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i.luenl sectrons.
a) Program of instructions
The program of instnrctions of tlre NC machine is the step-by-step set
of
instrucri.
thattellsthemachineswhatithastodo'Thesetofinstructionsarecodedinnumen
or symbolic form and written on certain mediurn that can be interpreted b,v
controller unit of the NC machine. The mediums commonly used earlier for rwitiirg
insiructions u'ere punched cards, magnetic tapes and 35mm motion picture film,
now I inch rvide punched tape is used more commonly.
One can also input the instructions directly into the controller unit manuatty, r
method is called as manual data input O,[DI), which is used for very simple jobs. Tl
there is direct numerical control method (DNC) in which t. : machines are controlled
the cornputers b1'Cirecl l;nI: omitting the tape reader.
b)ControllerUnitorMachineContro||erUnit(MCU)
The controller unit is most vitalparls part of theNC and CNC machines. The control.-unit is made of the electronics components. It reads and interprets the progr-am _instructions and convcrts them in the mechanical actioru of the machine tool. Thus t
controller unit forms an important link berwecn thc prograr4 and the machine tool. T _
control unit operates the'rnachines as per the set of instructions given to it.
The typical conrrol unit comprises of tape reader, a databuffer, signal output channe
to the rnachine tools, fcedback chamel from thc machine tool, and the sequence contrto coordinate the ovcrall machining operation
Initially, the set of instmctions from the punched tape are read by the tape reader, whir
is sort of the electromechanical device. The data from the'tape is stored into the da_
buffer in form of logical blocks of instruction-s with each block resulting in certa
sequence of operations.
The controller sends the instructions to the machine tool via signal output channels th
are comected to the servcmotors and other controls of the machines. The feedbac
channels ensure that tle instrtrctions have-been'executed by the machine conectly. Tt
sequence control part of the eontroller unit ensures that all the operations are execut
in the proper sequence.
,:
One important thing to note about the controller unit here is that all the ntodern N
machines are equipped with the microcomputer that acts as the controller unit. Tt
program is fed into the computer direct.ly and the computer controls the u'orking tl
machine tool. Such machines are called as Conrputer Controller lr{achines (CN(
machines.
The follou,ing are the functions and motions which an lvfCU perforrns
o Turning the spindle ON and OFF
*o- Setting cuttingspeeds - - -
t(.
Adrnission Detaili at
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c) Machine Tool
1lc Orird besic comporcnt of er NC qrsfcxo
is lbc niacliDc bol or othcr contoUcd process. Itis pan of thc NC system wbicb paforns uscfirl work I! & Eoct comr3o! c:<ample of an NC sy6&4:
one d"-signed to lrrform machiniag opcrations, 6c nrchinc tciol oorsists of thc worktablc aad spiodli1
es rveJl es *re rnolors aad corrols ncc.cssary to &ivc fur& h also includes thc c'utting tools, worF
fixtu-cs, rnd othcr auxiliary cquipmcnt aee/rJ in 6c machiniag opcration.
$tructit:
numeric
:d by tl
rriting
film,
'c
rally,
).IC
nrach.r'ncs
rangc
in
driil
presscs
to hig!],
scphisricatcd and vcrsatilc tlachioing csnters. It is a multifuactios rutbhc wbich inarrporata scvffaf
tirnesaviag features inlo a singlc picc.c of aulornatcd produaion oguipacnr First, a machining ccntcr ii
capeble of pcrformiag a varicty of diffcrcnt opcrations &i[ing trpping, resoing, milling, aad borir$
Second, ir has &c cagaa;ity to chengc tools automalically rdcr tapc comina-od- A variety of machi'i.f
opcrations mcans tirat a raricty of cuning tools uc rcquircd. The lools are kcpl ia a tool dnsr or otbd
holdiag dcvicc. Whco thc t8pc.calls a particular toob erc lcpt b a tool &um or o&er boldiag devje*
\itbea thc tapc calls a particuJar tool, tbc drum rotalas lo positioo tbc tool for iasertjon r.." tbc spindJgt(
Thc ar:lornaric tool changcr thcn grasps tlie tool rad plecas it ino tlc spindlc chuck- A thir.t cepabiiit'
of the NC rnachiaiog center is workpiecc positioning. The machjne table can oricnt thc job so rhat {
th
obs. The
rtrolled b
can bc machjaed on sevcral surfaccs, as requircd Finaliy, a fourth fcaturc posscsscd by sogifi
machi'ii..g ccnlcrs is the prescncc of rwo ublcs or'pallcs on which tlrc workpiccc can bc firn:rcd
controllt rogram ( _
. Thus tL
: tool. Th t chdnne,
tce contr( -
}}rilc
rhc machini-.rg s"qutn.. is bcing pcrformcd on onc workgarq the opcratoi cel bc unJosdiag $f
complercd piicc, and loading tle ncxt ooc. This irnprovcs machinc trol utilization bccar.si
the machinc docs not havc to stand idJc during losding aod unloadiog of lbc workpa.ts.
;rcviously
3.
.
ComputerNumericalControl (CNC)
With the availability of microprocessors in mid
der, whic
o the dat-
in
certai
.
annels th;
feedbac
rectlY. TL
e execute
rodem N
' unit. Tl
'orking tl
res (gNE
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4
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These may also be termed as sofl *'ired numerjcat control i.. ,f," program can be
changed along with built in control fcaturcs.
'.
There are many advantages which are derived from the use of CNC as compared to NC.
Some of them are tie following:
i. Pan Program storage memo!-y.
2. Part Program editing.
3. Part Program downloading and uploading.
4. ' Pan Prcgram simuiation using tool path.
5. Additional parl programming facilities.
6. Local storage such as attached hard disk.
7. Using standard operating systems such as Windows for easier interfacing u'jth other
cornponents of manu facturing systens.
In reality, the controls w'ith the machine tools nou'ada;'s are all CNC and the old NC
control do not exist anymole. As a result, the terms NC and CNC are almost slnon)'mous.
'mm
4.
to accomplish the machining process, the cutting tool and u'orkpiece must be
moved relarive to each other. In NC there are three basic t1'pes of moiion control systems :
In
rcl. of
)NT
Per
1.
Point-to-point NC
.
.
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2.
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Workpiece
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ist
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cr
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o
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elP:ri
Cutting toot
toa
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; Starting
t poini
,.
,'f I
Too! path-op,;
performeo or
motion paral::,
v Exes.
Contouring NC
o
"
straight-cur operarions.
of
*i,
toor.
n"#*;..::
Tool path
Worlparl
Tool-J-.i
stiarting'
poant
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'rm
a
a
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OL
succcssion.
what resulrs is a machined outrine that
crosery
rr," a.sir"a shape.
the tool can "!pro""no
be
controtled
bv the rerigth
ffi'rTilitlili"fi,l",i:*een
or
I.
of
p"ii-il;"",v
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toor
Grinding
machines
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conventional machine
tools.
tr
be
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2.
For smali lot production, often for even single (one oii' ir-'i", t::oduction, Such as
protofyping, toot manufacturing etc,
3. For jobs requiring very high accl'racy and repeatabitii:..
4. For jobs requiring many set ups andror the set ups :r: . \'r ' ,,t'{:nsiYe,
, ;ilseguently require
5. The pads that are subjected to frequent design cir, ,,:
more expensive rnanu faeturing methods.
6. 7\e inspe;tion cost is a significantportion of the tolel ni'..i:.ilirvruring cosr.
geomelr
VC syste
l.
Numericai Control machine, the program is fed to the n-:: , ,-i:,' tirrtugh nragnetic
, rsic machine
tapes.or othersuch media. The originalNC machjnes vr'jr: ': '.: . ,
tools ryhich were modifled to have motbrs for mol'erne rti : ..it:s ti,i-. :..':.r..
ln
In a Computer I.{umericai Controlled machine, the machi-:r"... ,re inte ,-, :.,ced *'ith
computers. This maiies them more versatile iri the sense tl:"' :irpposr ; change in
dimension of a part is required. In a NC machine, jou rvo;r:i ii',rri l,;,;, tc change the
pro-eram in the tape and then feed it to the machine again. But r:r c i:i , . rnachine, you
just chapgg3 variable in the computer ald your.moC.ification I .i.:ne ii
,
t'siem,
th
nafh
raight-line
2..AnNCmacbinejsnumericalIyiontrolledbuthasnome.frt
the "tape" each time the machine cycles. A CNC machiire
.'
off
fr of
1.
the
TEE NC PROCEDTJRE
To uti lizc. n uoicii cai co ntol ii-inanufacturi ng, tbc follo wiag:stcps mus
1.
planniag. The ioginccring {"awing of tie *nqkpart s:,.;. . i r.oierprct( ' terus of tt
to be uscd This stc; is rcfcrred lo ,rs p.ccess pl;' ,ng 19d &r}
conccrned u'iCi tlre preparation of a routc she,ct. The routc sbeet is ri liflingG '-.qu.ncc o]
Process
manufacnring processes
illy
opgrafiols *1r.ich must be performed on the workpai.lt is callr,j e route shec . ,,isc il also
li$s-Ac-machircs ttrougb which tl:e psrt must be routed in oidcr :o accompli::], ,',i ,,.quencc of
operation3..\\/e ass'.rrne tlal some af tlre operations rlill be pr:forrred on i,r.i : more NC
the
2.
machines.
Parl prograntming. A part pro5rammer plars the process for the portions
' job lo be
accomplished by NC, Part programmers arc bowledgeable ai,;,ul he raa*l,,;.: , ,,iicess a11d
tley bave beer u-ailed to program for nurnerical control. Tbey *:e respcn..',,', rrni-ug the
scquircc 6f msshining sieps tri bc performed by NC ead tc docunenl rlr"':, i:, , ,al farmai.
Tnere a-re twc ways to prograsl for NC:
Manual par t programming
Comput er-assist ed pa rt pro gramming
:bs
and
ioh< in
;: {u:,
iled a pari
piorym msruscdpt Thc ma-luseript is a tisting of the relative ci.!i.r,a; ,i.&.; , ,;ioiu r.'hich
rn0-51-be folioued to mechinc the perf I'r computer-as-sistcd pi:r1 . .
,nri;r, . ,,trch of t-he
tedious computetioaa.l work required in uranr:al pail progra:r,,'::::, ka:. , ;red t.r tle
compuicr- Tiris is espccialll' appropriate for ccmplex n'oikpiece geori.r. ." il:d r' :,t, '*irh man.v
ri:achini-ng sieps. Use of the co:rpute; in Lhcse siruatioru resulu ia :,,. . ;icamt :;,\";rigs i,r pa:t
progranrming t:ne.
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Tbrcc rotatioaal aJ(6 atc dcflcd in NC: tb a, b,anl c Excs. th$c axcs spcify anglc$ sboul thc x, y,
and z otcs, rcAcaivcly. To distinguisb positive &om acgntivc ssgul^u Eotioas, fu tiglt-hrod rulc'
can bc us4 Usiog thc rid{ batd witb &c ihu'rlb pol'rti"g in tbc po:itiw tincar sds dirwtioa (x, y, or
z), thc fingers of th band rre crulcd to point in tbc positi'rc rmiooal dircction.
For nrraing opcrafi-ons, n*'o ixcs Erc Dorarlly dt 6d arc rcqui&d 19 so-raand tbc movement
of thc tool rclatjvc to tbc rotating-worpiccc; tbc z axir i! tb ods of rotatioo of tbc wodgi4 and x
axis dcfiocs tbc radial location oftlc crlting tool This arrangaorcot is illwtatcd io fig:urc.
Tbc purposc of tbc coordistc Eystcs is to prorddc a me8rxr of locati:rg tbc tool in relarion t-o
the
.workpicca Dcpcnding on tbc NC Escbirie, tbe pfft progrerncr Eay bavc scvcral difcrcrc optiorrs
available for spcci&ing this tocatio- .
.
plar- &
prog:aQ!
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Tbc programmcr mtrst dacmrine tbe position of 6c tool rclativc. to &c odgin (zcio pobr) of thc
coordinatc sy$tm. NC nachirocs bavc cithcr of tuo mctbods for spccifting tlre zr:m poinf lbc 6rst
po: -ibility is for drc 6gehins to havc a fixcd zcro. In this cssc, tbc origia is al*'ays loca::d d 6c saro.e
positon on tJrc machbc tablc. Llsudly, that position is the soudr*.cst corncr (lowcr lcfl-hand comcr) of
thc tabic and aJl rcol locations *ill b dcfucd by posirivc x aod y coordiosrcs.
Tlre sccond ald rnorc conjroon featurc on modcm NC rnachjncs allows u\e macljne opcrstol to
sct tj:e zcro point at any positioa on trc machiuc tablc. Thjs feanre is callcd floatilg zrro. T\" p"tr
Prograrnmcr is the onc who dccidcs *'hcre thc zcro poiot sboutd bc located. Tbc dcciiica is bascd oa
P8n Pto8tamtrfilg convcnicacc. For cxarnplg the worlrpart rnay bc slaomctrical aod tbc zcro poir:t
should bc cstablishcd st &c ccotcr of slomctry. Tbc locstio! of tbc zcro point is coinrquaic"ted to rhe
nrachinc oPcrator. At tbc bcgindng of tbe job, tbe opcrittor novcs thc tool undcr m.,:.nual ciutol to
some "target poinf' on tbc table. Tbc targa poinr is somc cooveaicat placc oa thc w,":*?iccc or tablc
for tbc opcrator to position thc tool For examptc, it might Uc'r prcdriilca hotc in'ttre *r,ortgiccc. 1.trc
targct Point hqq $64g rcfcrcnccd !o thc zcro poinr by &c part
FogrBEEcr. ln facl thc p:'agraacncr may
havc sclectcd tbc largct poinl as thc zcrc point for toot poSConiag. Wbcn tbe toot l* l"* positioncd
al &c targct Point tlc rnachinc opsrator prcsscs I "zcro' bu8oa oo tbc mashiae tool coosotg wirich
tclls tlic rnachine whcrc t}c origin is locaad for subscqucot tool oovcocots
ra This
spcciaJ
:ile tool
stablish
o takes
tcd, tbe
of the
ich the
a 6xcd
r p.ake
rile the
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are eq
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APPLICATIoNS oF NIJMERIcAL
coNTRoL
e) use
'Jrese
rnateri aJ
Milling
Drilling and related
processes
Boring
Turuing
Grinding
Satr;ing
\\'ithin the machining catagort', NC raachine tools are appropriste for ccrtai-o jobs and
i.na'ppropriale for others. Following are tbe general characfcristics of production jobs in mctal
n'iachining for whjch numerical conEot would bc most sppropriate:
7. Parts are pre665s6/frequently ond is smal! lot sizes.
2. The parr geortft! ls complex.
3 lv{any operations.tnust be performed on the part in its processing.
lit-c,ly.
The
C+I
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eosr!y.
{ O ADVA}TTAGES OF NC
,
.,
Following are ltc ldvlntagcs of nuocrical control when ir is utilized in the productioa
t.
Reduccd nonarcdudte ana Nuoericat contol hos littlc or no effect bo thc basic
cutting (or otha manufacnrring) proccss. Howwcr, NC can inaeasc &e proportion of tir:
Eaching is engaged in thc acfual p'roccss. Il accomplishcs this by 11tears of fewcr setups. i- :
timc in wtit4 up, rcdtrccd .wo*pcicc hmdting timg automatic tool changcs oo ,,--
macAbcs, andelon
Tbe advantagc for nd&crical conbol tcnds to increasc with tbc aore comptex procsscs.
Rcduced/inurhg. NC rcquira ftrh$es u/iich fue dnplcr and tcss costly to fabrjeare
bccausc tbc positioning is done by the NC t4pc nrbcr 6* thc jig or fxturc.
Rdacdman{oawlngkad dae Bcceusc jobs can bc sst ry more guic&ly witb NC s--c
fewer saugs arc gcocrally requircd wi& NC, the lcad time to deliver a job ro thc custorner is
2.
3.
rcduccd
4.
it is
tcss difficult to
a&pt ic
;c:
nsb ordcrs
Imprcvcd qualty concol NC is ideEJ for cornplicatcd workpara *'hcrc lbe chances o:
buman Biststes alc hiSb Numcrical contol produccs paru with gtcriter accuiilcy, rcduccd
6.
Rclaad ldvcnury. Owing lo bc fewa scarps rnd sborter lcad timcs {,itb sumcrical contro!.
tlc rnrount of iuvcntory csrid by tbc companysis reduced.
Relaccd/loor spacc rcqulncmcttr. Sircc one NC rnachining ccntcr cal oftcn accomplisb thc
poduaion of scvcral convcatioael nrlchiasr, tbc amount of floor spacc requircd in an NC shop
is unlly less tbu in a conveotiooal shop.
7.
.
&
I
Z
mrr
a:rd so on-
5.
'
DISA.DVANTAGES OF NC
Aloog with tbc advurtagcs of NC, there are sevcral fcaturcs about l.fC whicb must
bc
I.
Eighcr kvcsancnt
cot|
and complcx tcchnology. This lechnology cosls irorc to buy Lhan its non-NC countcrpart. Th.
higbcr cost rc{uirs manufacturing mar}agernents to use tbese machines morc aggressively t}en
ordinary cquipments. High machinc utiliiitioo is essentid i:r order to get reasooable rcturns or:
2.
invcsbenl. Machinc sbops must operate their NC machines two or three shifts per day tc
achieve this higt machinc utilization.'
Elghcr mainleaance cosl. Be,:ause NC'is a more conplex techaoiogy and bccause NC
machia-es ara dSad liaider, thi miririte-n'ancc proble::: bcccm'er:mbiC acijtc. Alrbougb the
rcliability of NC syslcms has bcrn imprcvcd over tlre years, mainrenarcc costs for NC
3.
rcl.
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71.4550
Admission Details at
!i,
-->
)
D
fr 'ollli'"'fr
f,a
rnroufactruing sysiem in
*ttcb a rrroe'bcr of
f,#'t#*"'*t":,1'-:"y',*1,T',,H5g;
Jffi
"*H'eff
t"-;';; ifi B ros Tti *1: iTryY'.'' :.1,:1Y*. q
ffi-T?Ttfiruffi 1;'"a"]'
'fi J'i6o-_oi'*ri*i*tii'"Tltd,13'::1'r'-l#*iq?o;"t
ffi:f ,ilill;&ffi
, .,cbincs. The DNC
bc'uscd to cootrol.morc d'ran lc0 se;r
iHittl, ";; il;;;;"t-;
m.achi.cc
Wbeo
Steo tbc Etach*c
:'r'
id ;:-:i:'
tooi i':r
conputcr is dcsigncd to providc insfgctions to cach rnacbine
:
. con]n^ands,'6"y
t- L-' ^-- comnunicarcd
tn
ir
immcdiatclvl.lir'"
L,i-..
inmcdiatcly.
-^*-,'-;rotrr{
o it
;.*[;;;l
.:.
u,
i.ps. i"t:'":':
and proccssing
a;:<3
tomcr is
rdapt tc
jobs fcr
rnccs of
reduc*d
cootrol,
ryrtem:
tlr *riigt"tioa of th
Components of a DNC
hbrieate-
NC
"r,
Fom the machine tool back to thc compucr'
Figr:rc illustatcs
..J- .;
^ar^
DNC's1ste:::
L
2.
3.
4.
'
''''r'';lvcs
.1 r'
"'' '{rc'
'
data cOlleAiOn
nUmcricsl
conrol
Tclecomrnunication lines
Machinc tools
ThecompulcrcallsthcpartprogrTinsrrrctiocafrombuli:'....'endsthcmtothc
' :' Tb'is fwo-$'a)'
Jicn t" i"r '
a.lso roccivcs
data back
'
rf" li'i" ' jr''s:tr'ctiolrs Eust
reccil'e
L':' t.esdy
rcl]st aJ'*:iys
bc satisficd almost itrrt-tt^."*ry. similarly, tbc cornputcr rcmarl*iig i:"i-trre of-tcthe DNC
iaformation from tbc machiacs and ro ropooi'rr*raiosty. -Tbe
sla'chins tools, eJl ir ;er" ';'me'
systcm is that tl. *o,putriis scrvicing a large of scpantc
plish thc
NC sbop
Tclecommusicarion
lincs
nust
besic
{. ';
be
isticatcd
lart- Tbe
rely tban
:hrrns on
(DNC) eyatem
General configuration of direct numerical control
r daY tc
ruse NC
rugb tbe
for NC
*tt
:rd NC
vic
lnc
to
r-be
DNC
l:of.
Salriar'
qsl 9:11550
2, AD
"+ .
*ry
-jf,lj#,[l
"dryti;";";t"j"gi;i.il iiii,
_Etcrc
@using
cNc) is 6"1 I
dyoT the non-productive tirnc in
opcration This timc savings is achievcd iy rcduci
-a.ra..^hining
nrb clcracats as wort picce b*di::E
d-:, sctup of rhe jcb, tocl chenlcs, and othcr ;i;-l
* Ir_!e".
of
cont!'of
=gaplive
dcvelo-p*.nioilfffiLr
In rhc
r:rachining sy$rems, rwo di.srincr approaches
to rhe probtem can be distinguistrcd. Thcsc are:
I
nn
l.
2.
7-
Ao.rgttvE
coxrnol
'lt
.o
mance is
Ip = a funcrion
\,lT
u'here N{RR
lr
?o
I
'nl.rD
I tY f\
of
N{RR
T\!R
iool x.ear
rate
Ficf
Sa,7ry
g.sf._a 744SSg
Admission Details at
rr::".,i341855
,l;,,
n that neasi
ll":::::::
inc
power. lo e
sys0ems
:::::|':::
in ocpcrimc
o lics in e1
ning bavc 1
IPre
,;,.-,;
; 'jll
C-f':.1'OJ
.:,J
of
oF AN AOAiTIV
coNr(oL sYSTrr
.C sysrem dr:ring
3:.T-.:q
AlthouE-_
iirrr
qt"
il;il*#ni;;;',
pngglls
ic,yri.""
OPE(AIION
is tbat N
by reduci-u
)rgggx1
Jl
rhc producrion
i,-)W
l)
.The
i*;;-;,Ld
"a,g::-*yr
,"ess or dep'.h
'f,:_J_*lfi
3,J.X.,i,'
;iX":Jtrn:y*:,*.ly;:*",."1'ff
-ru"r .,u1, il,,.
i,
u"ffi;il;*H;l
;,
#****f..{
t,
-$ilutta'-i,
'j,1,t3;: ryg -Y r9.* d',g.+. wb.' * ;';il, ;#till' ; ;
::':Y":*:i::,**{;;fi;";;;;t;Tlol'ii'i"u'io&er
side of thc!ap, rhc fecd reyerrs ui"r
," rr,.T#i?i; *ll"[I,'*"i
position-s o_
ud/or fi:ei-_
Itl srld,cpl
pond to -nt_
pability.
"
; and detcrmincs
Cutter force
S<t Vorqe
cutter forcc at
the sd vajue
Triple
Ferd ratc
4. !, I irras"d p rc dr
LFon lD.Ea
1'
i^
a"c:,r^:l<
d toor
Lt-
g pfcKc!,O 11
a^ ' Lcss oRrsI*l
! nJrr vt r.+
Prof.
L:
-Qania_12
z.\.c_li)
gllg
pO.r
744550
if tbe
cs of a low thresbold
';ntoUcr assuacs rhat
'. is doublcd Or triplcd
'ilgagcs metal oa the
Ctftcr
tle
or *idtb
ag to decrcascs in tbe
I tjses
13.
l.
CNC Programming :
Part Program
::::.::::larr.
onioff contror of
au
Block Formaf
NNSG
Y-
z_l---r-.K_-__F__
.\___ T _.\1--
asscciaie
'..
);' Y, and z codes are used to speci$, tie coordinate axis. Number follouing
rhe :
defines the coordinate at the end of thl mo'e relati'e
to an incremcnlai or absoJule refe:
point.
I, J, and K codes
I' J, and K codes are used to speci0" thc coordinate axis r,..hen d..finrng rhe
center :
circJe' Nurnber foliouing the code defines the
respecti'e coordinate f?ri- rhe cenrer ol rhe ci::
F, S and T Codes :
7mm
.
.
"
* asterisk sign
ncl.
of
ONT
rPer
it involres
red
actrral Tool
\{o'elnent
3ROL
Ib;- ;.;iachinii-rg
ce
:a:j:,j
.r: j.-,i,.
tooi
Lre u:
Admission Details at
| 98203418ss
iich signi
requirec
of auxiio
;e
cf
lera
toconti^rvivr:!rrt<
Code
amnlo
G00
I
,,{
ie:erl
lJ
G()2
(JUJ
.',i.:
t- l,-
.Jt!u
tr
I
j
fA
r\^,
:ber bv 5 *
GOl
Opiiation
C j rcu
Functjon
lar interpolation
(Anti - clockwise)
ct7-ct9
Plane selection
Gl9
y._zplane
c40
\-J{
G12
I tnci, Pr.rgr.,nrine
th. l"n
,i*
---lf;nr Sh
I c-'1 ct <
Programming
I
I
in
"metrjc'.
ttlttt
fi::ed c',
Used u'|isx
1li3
cuner is programi:red to
le s
Ii
(LU
C'tC ccntfli?fld.
ith
_-,--_'.-.,I 98
i 9 7.4J5 S0
:g the co:
e referer.:
:enter o;
the circ,:
in
resne
aii
dirne nsici-is
ci to ri'orkpiece oi.igiir
1 1C
i
I
Operatiou
incremental Dir.r ension,s
Function
:-J
defined
.Jir:ic:i::i,
i,,
j;j;
..1.. r
3. I\{iscellaneous Functions
(l\I Codes) :
]'fiscellaneous function perfo;ar a iai-iet) of au.':irian, comn:;:c t ,.l_' rc :lr_ ,.rj, - - i r-..=
F,iogrem. starting anC stopping lhe _.pind)e, r,_;ol ci:anS;es. cooianr c,n,,:,il- etc ]'1is;e Ji::..1
firnction are used at the being cr enc of the cr.c je and Jre identified b' the
letrer addrcss -1.
lollorved by a t$.o dipit number.
--Code
Operation
Fun ctloil
]_
--_.-__---.---ffi
Prograrnsrop
N400
N403
,/
N{04
sp;nat.cw
on coinmand
-_-ffi
t,:
calcel f
s:-i
I in to the rvorkoiece.
Spl"dl.
/
\
1,,106
Tool Chan
Coolant "Oltt"
Coolant "OFF"
I (nindlp
Spindle
I\{30
qr)lr - .
ln
ali
rescl
4.
{l
r
Circular Interpoiation
-.r
\\ihen a tool is to traverse aianq 3n a:c ii a plane- r,,c ll:nciion GCI or Cr-il
crr-ection of tlie nrotion is clocki',ise o:- a'iiici ,ik*i.re respecli.,.elr..
i-c
i:sed if : :
In oider to -speci$' the paih to tl'ie lrfCU iNlachine Conrrol Un jr) . rlie e nd poinr of rhe ::eiid the locarion of the cer,ter of rhe a;c sliollJ r,:,slrcif;ed. y.'jlhi;i lhc b.lcili i;.,,1,:;l
iirc C,' C0i code is proei-an-:ned. iire ceil:r-i ,if iir: :.:: is qi'. e :, r-.', sr:cifr ii;q ii: ,,t::,ii:,, r-:lari', c '
:-,
arc.
Pre-requisites:
i.
?.
1
1
i',.-r I lr
l -.t;1
i'. --:--,,'t
l't)iti,. \ j. -i : :
:.f,1855
Admission Details at
iiir
--
ql
:-(.i c
I r;:t!-t1
(Sla-'
(Ending Pt.)
(6s, 120)
-J-
;'(145. r
r.i;
'
: ellr..,.
1.'1rr1!c
Fig.
' :
Refening to the above Fig. 6.i7 rhe program block for QQ2 lG03
NOt G00 xl45 YilO *
:
*
N02 G03 Xi00 Yl30l45 J30 F50
(A ro Ar)
+
N03 G03 X65 YI20I0 J50 F50
(A1 ro B)
*
N04 I{30
-a--ol
lr:d scrt
I
OR
SCre\\
5. Canned C1'cles
r
(A to A1)
(A1
toB)
f the a;:
-1 - -"
rl.lC \,T'- -:{t
! !
Position the tool above the poinr n'here the hole rr.ill b,i: *.Jr!,
Feed the tool into the *orkpieee at a controlled feed rale t.
Retract the tool at a rapid raie io iust above the point rvi,.:-t
The same actions are to be repeated for each of the holes.
It is therefore possible to define a canned cycle or fixed cy'c,' ,,ich e
moticns rr,ithoul having to repeat the same information for e,,r ,: ; the I
The adi'antage io be derived in using the canned cycles can i.c ;lauged
part programs belou'for the coinponent shorvn in Fig.
the
: -ci.
:.4'
(a)
(b)
(c)
is
f*ft-t
a li l;.
csci :it
lSo
t i-9r
s.rindi,'
_""
rl
t.i if
as per
many of u'hich
mined depth
,aried
::peat
all
these
looking al
the
412.2
hotes
Fig.
For the cornponent shown in Fig. 6.18, the parr program for
u,ithout using canned cycles is shown betow :
N05 c00 x20 YzQ Z2 *
I
297 mn
)s.
/ tlncl. c
FRON'
. Paper
\
irr<\-
imited
3arrirrf
ho.r
N G8IX
7PF*
l\
X. \'refers to the centre cooi'dinates of rhe poini',r'here the driiiirl-e is to b'e aa.ied-oua
Z refurs ro rhe final depth of the nole ro be drilled
R refers to the positicn of rh: cleai-ance plane
C.ei is a calned c.,'cie
Tlie:'e are a number of cained crcles identified ht ISO in liiiqr.2rpLr.,r\ Trp
,iioiians e nbe id.,i ir: ', :; irr:S cenned cvcle s as cli iS.( trre chn r'. i- T"hl-'
LLLIb!.r_r
q!
r,t!
i!
_.
t,
| 98203418ss
Admission Details at
G80 / G00
G8r
G82
G83
Deep Hole
G84
Tapping
c85
Reaming
Drilling
\\'hen stock removal on a rurr'ing job is more, in such a case nurnbers of rough
operations aie required to rer-love the stock.
u,o holes
sD(100)
Tii%ii:4ilfA
uizil%iit
z1 (124)
I have to
drilling
Xi
'
J'oul.
' l\r,:a?i
'- i -..-
cutling
Q12.2 hotes
t/L
trt
,rt t
Fig.
'
-Lt
IL
Nts
PT
;RO
ed
U.-iJ
&.
&-J
E
-E
G00 22 *
t rnn
)Nt
Nl5 x60
Y-<0 *
N20 G00
xl00 Yr 00 250 *
N-
G8I
X_- Y-
Z--R----- F--
ri:
-.
Admission Details at
| 98203418ss
TvaUIIEU \-Ygle
Table : Canned
Clcle lgf
for Turning
I Uflltllg lJIrEfIUOtr
O
tion (G81)
G80 / c00
G8r
G82
G83
Deep Hole
G84
Tapping
c85
Rearning
Drilling
\\'hen slock removal on a turrring job is more, in such a case nurnbers of rough cuning
operations aie required to rertove the stock.
It may be noticed that a majoritl' of the motions are actuall,v repetitive in narure and
therefore can be embedded in ro a canned cycle similar to the driliing canned.
rq,o holes
Tii%iiTii/ffi
U1&,i/%//z
G61 ;X1 ',21
;X2 22:23;F'
ll have to
: drilling
xi
01'
value=D-d
,J
'
-out.
'
rr.
niie
--:
i?r'
9819 7.14550
6.
In milling operations such as contouring i.e. when milling around the outside of
workpieci and inside a pocket of workpiece, it becomes necessary to calculate the :
path for preparng the program by offsetiing the contour of rvorkpiece by an am
equal to the radius of the cutter.
Apart from the problem of calculating, one should realtze that rvhenever the cutler
changes, the program u'ould need editing
Also it is possible that owing to regrinding, the diameter of the tool rvill be different
the actual size, and consequently the workpiece produced *'ill be larger than that requi:
and henqp the reprogramming is required ro compensale rhe difference in
,
Ho*'ever, if a compensation equal to the radius of the cutter is entered and stored in
control systern, then the prograrn could be w'rinen for the component profile and thu*s rI
size.
changeinprogramwou!dberequired. Itisas
if programis*'rinen.rvr'thacufter
of ze:=..
radius.
Tool radius
is
compensation
activated
bi'the
(G codes)
o
o
o
G41
J*
lr
I
cqz
I
I
poc ket
L__
I
I
I
I
_l
-1
'";Pocket
I j:
-'J
)
G42 Cuttu, to the
in direction of cutting
iZ
Before acti\ atinE compen-.aiion the cuiirr- shculd be ai the pr-ogranirned C:pil:
ccordinate). \\'hen ihe c:..l:ier has co;:ipleie,j i:,: r:-rr.'hining. ihe ccrrpe n-i:iirrr lnu:: :c
5
::';
rrl
t
T
;ide
Forn Hole I u,
,.:,:
of
rte the
an am
erent
,red
in 'hf
7'
:d thus m
r of ze:c *
functicd
Fig.
$ r-c
ir?l
$ -t'L
/orKP rec:
r the Frg
of
rh!
shown i'r
le
6 o t'*qkr i .-3
Ci3 c
l<
n-s
StOct< ).{e c<lor'a\ i n trrcnl
Sloct-.. Rs-''o..rol in Fa c i n-s
tern RCP:Gll n 5
--1+ (Pccx Dn\1\ng onc)z-cxiS
n ). c\ >
'-r T-5
C4>-ctov<- c\{ t h'^S
_T
"-r
cgct
C
dh16adln6
t&iP!--+f r,ttl
lrr o abc Str\ J<- P os i li o o in]
.r
T-5
-^ c. 1
r\
ct,nst
I
-'.)
^^ .) -.
_\
?l'
-e?l
: 5
^-/1
Po L
31i
L--)
')l
fr
Sr.r r
fci'<
SPc e d eontu-o i
Cancel
,- 41
i ,'{.-r
}r
iUS: IC
9319 71155C
i- 'ji
'r5'ol ,l(f
r66n
\J
h'|
Examples:
part prowm Word Address Format to drill 4 lioles ni'oiq ac rlthe part drar+'ing using
,,?l
aP{6o.w
lb' c;'clg>{trh
:n
(b) Crytnd
AbsolgrCforrn /
i. c1{anne d c yCfe u i r h I rpr{^r
r, 16, m
;(Vrepue a CNC
dPh
c2ndcyyt
FLAII
't,/
Prepare a CNC Program lo engrove the given shape on a plate using the mach:
of 100 mm x I00 mm with l0 mrn thickness. Engrai'e tire shi:;.:
{r
l-:oJ
)7 mrr
Incl. o'
r.d Prep:re a CNC part program to drilJ, counter bore. counter sink and Jleam 2 holes
shorvn in the part cirarling. ciearly shorv the set point (safe parking poinr) and axes on
skctclr of the part. Prepare also rhe planning sheet (operation Sequence)
RONT
Front View
Paper
C:-if'1P PUa.:E
-. Pw Ua:erial Si:e:.
i20 x 1C{ x i5 rn
- GROI
rited
Tr p
-+++J
'
l'ic*
Pra't
Admission Details at
l.
982034785s
CulterLength Compensatlon.
5 as shog'l
SA. 1045
r, r 19.;?, S::: ;
: ?4,
1 rnrn
hou much
offset to allow.
''ar.
shones(
TLO
is considcred.
"
t*t
machinir:
re shape f:
|ii:},l:?lfinffiHlhen
To6l L,ength
01.
20a
50
uz.
170
03
I50
200+50-170 = 80
200 + 50 -150 = 100
holes a-.
xes on th:
\\'orkpiece
:--r
San/
Gt O)
No.
uv SSig 744550
B.
There are nvo u'ays that a machine spindle can position itself u'ith respeci r
coordinate s)'sterns. These ru'o systems are called Absolute Positioning and Inc::l
Positioning
Absoft., te Positioning Systems
'
In absolute positioning systems (Fig. 6.21), all machine lobations are taken frc:r
fixed zero point.
'
'
"
Note that all positions on tfie part are taken from the X0iY0 poinr at the lou'er ien :r
of the par.
The firsr iroie u'ouici i:ave coordinates oiX20, Y25; the second hole coo:dlnales ;.:.1
\'25; the third hole coordinates are X80, Y25. Et,ery time the rnachine rro'e:*
controller references the original zero point at the lo*,er Iefi corner of the part.
A drarvback of this system is that if an error creeps in a dimension, it conlinues r,:
=
in that particular dimension only.
The preparatory code used r+'hiJe programmng for absolute dimensioning is C90.
Fiq.
I n cremcn
?7 mn
'
In this s-t'stem, the tool positions or locations are indicaied n.itlr reference to a Lrrer,i.. -1
krog,n location.
In incrementai positioning (1ig.6.22) the X0r)'0 noint moves uiih the machine spi:
Note thai each position is specified in relation tc rhe previous one. The first i
coordinates ueX20.Y 25; tl,e second hole coordinates are X30. \'0: and the third i
coordinates are again X30, Y0.
After each machine move, the current location is reset ro X0iY0 for the ne.\t mc
Notice that s'ith incremental positioning. the coordinate s,\ -stern "n']oves'' u.irh
location. The machine controller does not refeience an-\'cor;tit.ton zero point.
A.n inherent drarvbackof_this sr:stem is that if an error creeps into rhe c'imensions of a
location. all the locations narked after that u'ill can,r, this error.
The pi-eparaton'code used rvhile programming for-incremenral din-:ensioninr is G9 j
I
'
{lncl. c
RONI
Paper
-|
7-^
\.J l<lv
'
.
,
Admission Details at
u)i For the following ccmponent shorvn in the Fig. make a CNC part prCIgram to machine tl-re
cuter profile of the workpiece. Clearly show the set point (Safe par,l"rri
poinr)
.*r, Ji
ne sketch of the part. show all the caiculations that are necessary.
"ro
h respect
and I
taken
ru'er Jeft c{
:,llale5
ar-e
-$
ne nloYes. t
*
?r1.
:inues to
s
bf
G90.
Specifications
1.
^^
For tlre Fig. shown .below prepare a CNC part program to p,':
operations.
1. Dri!ling of 2 holes
2. lr{achined the outer profile
3. Slot Milling I0 x 3 deep
R.arv
;- F-Atr!,1:r-.L J L I rUU-.
Sec
F-V.
:e spinc',:
first hc.:
: lhird hc.:
:x
.,i
nto\'3
ith
-:.s oi
th:
an'.
l9l
;-
\r.r!!!nt',47974.1i\tt
'
^^1^
C--,-,'-..
': .i
the folJou.ing
l,r3
l'
&
mrT
7'
i.i.tt)
cl. o
)NT
Per
.e
\
\
rr<\Jl
ztz
c^, D /^ n
\___i_::_r:__:____:_*
4 l-'e'"<.a
Plale Thi:i'ress = 12
ed
mr
drill &
't41855
Admission Details at
For the following componenf shown in tbe figure prepaic ;
machine the outer profile of the workpiece. Clearly 5fu6p,, ir
point) and axes.on the sketch of the part. (All dirnensions arr :;
part progam to
'nt (Safe parking
r,lY
operations
(a)
I'
- 2 }.1t,
fc,:';n
the follou'ing
-i/
ciill & red
I
-L
'i
i:epare a CNC part orograrn ro macl:ined from u,orkpiece 6f inirjrl d;a1nefcr.:.-epare the operation sheet.
Pan I'iame :
Piii
llatl
: Brass
qar!,
9819 744s50
mn-,
i;m. AlsO
II. For the following component make apart prograrx on a verlical axis machining
Clearly show the set point and axes on the sketch of the part. Also prepare the o;
t,3lr-ne*tftt lct'
{s 1f.ver
OtL
g:t-i':*-:
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rynbol = I{ACRO/prnmcter
Thc rulcs for aaming thc MACRO qmbol are thc sarne 8s for any otber A?T s.rmbol. h
bc six cbaractcs or fcwcr and at teast one of lhc cbaractcrs mu-st bc a letter of the alpbabe'paramcter dcfinition(s) following trc slash would idcntify ccrtain variables in the subroutiacs
migbt changc cach time thc subroutine was callcd into use. Equarion (1) would scrve as thc dC:
firn IiDe of a I,IACRO subroutine. It woutd be fotlowed by the set of APT statemenc that
subroutirrc. Tbe ver; Iast statem:lb in the set musl bc the APT word TERh{AC. Thls
termination of tbc lvlACRO.
To acttvote the L{ACRO subrautine wilhin oa APT program; the following cail sletemens wo
used:
C.{IL,/s;'mbol, prre m etcr specifi ca tion
Thc s1:nboi would bc the nasr, of the I'{ACRO that is to be celled. T}e paraneter specif;
identifies the particuJar values of thc parameten that Ire to be used in this execution of the
-(O
subroutincs.
Aa examplc will scrve to il.lus&ated tbe usc of thc li4ACRO statements aril hox' the
*ouJd bc called by thc main APT program.
rl
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en6 would t_
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T \r
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1. t^l-;r.fi
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APT .. 'rfroqrtrn
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: nalrix ol hcles are lc be dr;lled in lhe rnanner illustraled in the {igurel.The numbe r of holes in
r':jtecticn ars 5 and the nurnber of holes in lhe y-direclion are 7, lhus.rnaking 35 hoies in all.
1.>.rof/ f e
{.ll C-fi} .
'r\r Fo*
.'.r';ie the A.FT program making use of lhe I'4ACBO lealure to establish lhe hole cocrdinates.
-cles of l2 mrn diameter are to be drilled in the manner as shown in Figure:.Write the APT programm
-::.,p use of rhe "Macro" featdre to estab!ish the hole co-ordinator.
tt^.r
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tne ceornetry rnd the loof path and indlceta the purpose o(each ol lhe
P,AF.T
NO
EXA'APLE
PAFT
MACHll.l/l''llLL,
INT(iU.001
ou'l Tou'001
CUI TER/'5
SETPT = POI {T/-s, -s, 4
POll{Tl0,0, 0
Pi=
POli'JI/o, 1.75, 0
P2=
POt.{T/5, 3, 0
rJ=
POINT/4,0, 0
PA
=
l4
LINE/P1. P2
LI
LINE/P1, Pd
L2=
LINE/P2, F,tGFiT. AT,A.NGL, 20, L1
IA
LINE/P3. PARLEL, L2
L:
LINE/P3. PARLEL: L1
iA
LINE/P4, LEFT, ATAI.JGL, 70, L2
pl 1
PLANE/PI, P2, P3
SPINDL/l000
FEDRAT/s
COOL NT/ON
FROM/SET PT /--->
GO/TO, 11, TO, L%TO, PL1
GO LFTAl, PASTT$*---/
GO RGTAs. PAST, L4
GO RGT/I.4, PAST. L5
GO RGT/I-s, PAST, L6
GO FIGT/16, PAST, L2
GO RCT/L2, PAST, L1
GOTC/SET PT
ccoL Nrrorr
FINI
d ;n t1{
,A4: rght holu b& / 10"^^ ole to be 216rtt
ctk
rnaK'nq t'-'h t
ln R3"r'r ' r'u-xili tk Ae T Prgtqrn
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Chapter No, oS
(1t\i.{}''i,.:
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P ar
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'
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;.rchining of
'r;cks) a nd
jjii
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acrL,irrplish I i r.: iiy gf 1 l-ta
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part progromm:,
A) Port prooramm
:J:6 7 il tcr(n6
20 nrrn .
_-l
I
I
;J
Sequence
I
I
1.
I
I
i
I
-1
I
I
Senjat 9Ai9
/ttJJU
'basic
ie pa rt
i-'i the
;rs
in
Fig-2
Sarnple Fart
x
l'learly any component that can be conceived by a designer can
be describec
points, straight rines, planes, circres, cylinders and other mathematic
aily defi:
surfaces. lt is the part progra'mer's task to identify and enumerate
th georn:elements of which the part is cornprised. Each elernent rnust be defined
in terms
its dimensions and location refative to other elements.
/
,,/
tb
2.
After the part geometry has been defined, the part progra.,nmer rrrUSt ogxt
speci:.
the tool path that the cutter will follow to machine the part. The tool path consists
:'
a sequence of connected line and arc segments, using the previously define:
geometry elements to guide the cutter. In addition to defining part
geometry an:
specifying tool path, the prograrnmer must arso accomplish various
oth:programming functions, such as :
r Naming the program
. ldentifying the machine tool on which the job rviil be perfornred
.
.
.
of the
sIep9:
{\
'
3. Editing
4. Postprocessing
1. lnput Translation
;-
'i-he input
translaiicn rncdule ccrl,,!.is the ccCed instructions containec
prograrl in to ccnrputer - usable forrn, preparatcft,to furthEr processing.
95ii
714.5:,3
follo,.,.,rni
2. Arithmetic
Sample r-art
3.
Editing
accomplished.
4.
; +L^
t 'E
I r=U
]1,1
.:
DATA. \a/hen
r-rachine tool
,
on
format.
follo'..:ing
I'
.. :;
,
ir a fcrrnai
lob rvitt be
Postprocessing
.of G
rodule is a file
'..i,Ests, this file
,-
'
be described b.
:aratically define:
3: th e geomtri:
:f'ned in terms o:
irr. , : .ii ,
:,.
,.3
i,'
7+tSS0
rhe CLDATA
i',:-.6On,rO,tUt
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1f,:!ti5
--
, ,; address
6A
\J
Chapter No. o4
I.
ir-
Group Teehnologa
:i
f'batch production'
_:::
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.,
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t t\.f,.
lr: . c
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): n-or
l:f sry&gur11lg ed \_anlage _derir_ed floln grouping $6sli;,3ns
u'ith reference to Fig 2 and 3.
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to- lamijie-s
Sonjo;,,
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74.4550
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h compone
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zl simila
6(il.{0,flG
mass prod,
56 could be do4
imilariry, of I
su/.fA(E
GRlN0fi6
1+
I r-l
:he sequence in
he smooth.
Thus the pait does nol ha'e to tra.,'el a lot in the shcp sirt:-t. t1...t
alu,a),s placed b1.the side.
rachine tool is
2. Part Families
The biggest single cbstacle i;r cha;:ging over {o grou-
rechl ,-
productionshopistheproblemofgroupingparisintofami;!es.,i,:i
for solving this problem
a) \/isual
= =.rplai;:ed
-.-.
..ri!
Inspection
Ir ini cli'es tne classificaiior of p:ns in to fa:'iriries b-, lrrkirr,: :i ,,,:i,ei riie -L,.-:-.-'
l'''-t>ttct
iai-1s o; r,h::o:raphs and a-:nlin: ih::r in t;, sin;ii-:: ,-,r-r1,-:p;:.. '.,,is r. iel;icd is
Se nera!l.r cc:lsiiered ro b,e the least accuraie of the thre-:
t,i.ltvul>
-::r C\tr:.1
i:,,i.ir a t;aditional
,.ri {hreelxethods
'l.rl
D-^i
cd n; a,
9:Ji.a 741550
t^-di o
Cr Socni t ies d -gc.."d i ng oc'' dx- c";<isr-''' t "?h..,';
bosed on q .9c.bo$ ru(cj
Gcrrn P O n erl.) '
Arovrd i ng qS c'' r>o\ hs d1-.Cod i.5
->
b) Product Flow
Analysis (PFA).
sl,stern
The third method, parts classification and coding, is the rnost rirne consuming zcomplicated of the three methods. However, it is the most frequently applied *it,
and is generally recognizel to be the most po\r,erfijl of the three.
_
Cocl', r5 S$3 3.
- t.he'rOrChr Cc^)
rr\ql nC CCd <
- Ptl-'- b.r )e
one of the picneering efforts in group rechnology and probably rhe besr knc.
opitz coding s.l.slem. The o9r::
ccd<
Polx
v/
I-trrt-,-n
c{ /
l/ rrr r ><z(r
?
{
Pad dass
Main
Rotational
shape
plane surface
Machining
Adcrl_;
Gtor tcckf h
Macfi ning
Form;nq
,0
.'
0.5<[/lD<3
(!
li . :,eleq9nl.
:,
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sleF
j
3?
Other holes
,)
'l
..
:-.Sotaiional
GII
.
Spe cial
shap
As3
c
c
NC >1
AE>3
418 <3
Aic<1
Sreciel
J
L --l
,r
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stiage
'
r/-;n
------.|/
'Llachini;rg ol
L)tane
.
---l
OIher holes,'
for';iiing
:.1
.tt
snace
sr-idace
uo>2
.'.
plane . sudace ,
'r--l:-
c:
Wilh deviatirrr
.i,
.
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.;i
.:.'..
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shape
orG
679
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3.
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5.
6.
7.
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tsuming al,:
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m*ti:r
four mor,:
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Ihe
ive diglr:;,
j(D
iated machin
tiven shoil
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PrcE te rr
GT promotes standardization of tooling, fixtures (u,ork holding device) and set ups.
lr{aterial handling is r'-duced because parts are moved nithin a machine ceil rather
than within rhe entire faclory.
P:oducrion scheduling is simpler.
l"{anufacturing lead time is reduced.
\\;ork-in-process is reduced.
Process ptanning is sirnplified
5 :-
PEn5
rf the parl.
ures (e g
MachinesABCDEFGHl
drute rhc
of use in
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Machines
1
Fank
M6chines
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s at Tg e< L C sho'.-,', aJ
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in Ccr FlJi
ei&ehonol thn-,rb
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4For a tamily of compon erils shown below, deslgn a composiie componsnl for developlng a
CAPP,
o/
t/
t
I
,\'\
(1) TURNTNG
(2) FACTNG
(3) TURNING TO PRODUCE STEP
(1) EXTERNAL CyLtNDR|CAL GBtND|NG
(s) DFtLLtNG
(6) COUNTER BORE
(7) TAPPtNG.
Chapter No. 05
)gaR
@e-d-m-aEijrr"e-ar"gqplra$3tgr9s
part
r ;
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4
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I,
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lou,ing srtips:
l.
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Dota cq!lecrton. 'l'he minirnum data needed in thc analvsis are the part number and
operation seguence. u'hich is containcd in shoi-r rlocumenls calied route shrets or
opera{i<ln sheets or sotle similar name. Each operation is usually,associalcd u.ith a
particular nrachine. and so dctsrmining the operalion scqucncc also dercrmines thc
machine seq uence.
2. Srtrtntioti of procrst rt4tlj46sJn this step. thc parts are arranted into gr()ups :rccorcJJirl rc-iHelim-llrnty;f ,h;;"1p.o..rr; rourines.To frcilirarc this src . allopcrar,,)ns ur
"
tt."'1:i,'
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TABLE lo-
o^--:Lr^
18.2 Possible
^r
Code
Numbers
^-rIndicarinc
Operations andr'or Machines for Sortation in
Production Flow Analysis (Highly Simptified)
Cperation or h4achine
Code
Cutoff
UI
athe
a2
Turret laihe
c3
Miil
Drill- manual
I'lC drill
05
06
Grind
07
lahle l.\2.
,.,,,r;r
',
f ii:4
-...* c/:i,'; The piricsse-i u:ctj
a vaiue (rl
ih caiiesLroniirre pai-t i recui:es prrrcessir-,! on niachine;i. alid
ii,ar nr p,.,..r,inn Cf..ompo,,cnf i'i-. acgsxitl;rh.j en n achineT. For l::3 i;t1l it:t:i]\.. tlie {l s a;-r itiler.; ,i:i;lirJ as bl:i:! icnri-rir ) ei:i;ic.:. I
-l
= ll
.:l-:l)'l;l
rl
pil|6i.
0ther packs
our
TA8LE
18.3
Itlachines (l )
\.1
2
?
4
o
1
4. Cluster a_f?ls'!::.-From the paltern of dala in the PFA chart. related groupings
identified and rearraneed into a neu'pattern that brings togerher packs rvith si:.
rnachine seguences One possible rearrangement of the original PFA chart is shc
TABLE
18.4
Macfrines
(7')
z
6
5
7
A
in Table I8.4. s,here different nrachine groupings are indicated .*'ithin blocki
biocks might be considered as possible machir,e cells,
i-
- --^t
+-q\
v
1F'? e-ap.
It
(but n:
Thble 18.a) that some packs do not fit into logical groupings.These parts mipr
analy'zcd to see if a revised process sequence can be deve1ep.6 that fits into a;the groups. lf not,these parts rnu-ct continue to he fabricaled throueh a convenr::
process la1'oui. In Section 18.6.1, u'e examinc r svstematic technique called :
o,der clustering that can be used tcr perforrn th cluster analysis.
The u'eakness of produciion f"!ou'analvsis is that the data used in the tcchnique
derived from existing produiiion route sheels In all likeliiioo<i.Jlres9 route sheets have-b.
_p-19p_ar-ed--hy: different prggg$ plq1g1s' a-n( the toqJjngs may contain operations th;i_
nonoptimal. illogical, or unnecessary Consequenth', the final machine groupings obtaine:
ihe anal;'sis rnav he suiroptimai. Notu'iihstandine this i.clkness. PFA has the i'ii'ti-i=
requiring less time than a complete parts classificaticn and coding procedure. This is a:'tiye-i,o.,!G!)t_firnt
rij5frjlg,lo In[qdg1s etggp-_l-qghgloei_!4q iheirplanr operarions.
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A pairwise similarity coefficient is calculated for each nnachine. These co< f';'cients could be displayed in a similarity matrix like the one ir: Figure 3Since the ma'rix rs sl,mmetric, only the lower triangular portion is neede(.'
2. The similariry matrfx is scanned to locate the largest sinrilaritl' coefficient.Thr:
<Iesignales the two machines that u'ill form the initial cluster'
3. The similarity rnatrix is then scaoned to locate the largest remaining cot-fs -
l.
uup.
The algorithm is terminated when a.ll the machines are clttslered inlo 'one
group or untit rhe remaining similaritl'coefficients are below sorne specified lcVc I -
M ach
FI
G.t.
inrr
Similarity matrir.
andEaretikeu,iseg:"oupedtogelher.Atavalueof0'5.machineDisciuste
u,ith rnachinel B 4nd c. The machines are cluslered together into one Srotrp
similarity coefficient value of 0. l2'
Results of SLCA
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1.
2.
Retrieval
their manufacturing
characteristics' For each part family,
I standard process plan is established.-ihe
standard Drocess pian is stored in computer
files anri then rerie'ed for neri,
n'orf:parts,.vhich belong to that famil1,.
-t
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User enters
part code
Part fanily
number
matrix file
Machine
routing file
5tandard
operation
retrieve / edit
Operation
sequence
fite
The standard process plan is examined by the user to perrnit any ne:
editing of the plan to make it compatible r.;ith the ner{ parr design.
After editin& the process plan formatter prepares the paper dccuuren:
proper form.
If an exact match cannot be found befween the code numbers in the ccfile and the code number for the ne\v part, the user rnay search the r=
routing file and the operation sequence file for similar parts that could t.
to develop the plan for rhe ner,r'part. oice the process plan fora nern,panumber has been entered, it bcomes the standard process fcr future p.
the sa me classiflcation.
3. Generative
;;-
.;i. ;i,141855
Admissron Details at
involve the use of some form of part code number to surnmarize the rvorkpart data,
but it does not involVe the rerrieval of existing standard plans'
i
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IF
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TECHNICAL
IN (:OIIE
LO6ICAL DECISION.-S
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Benefits of CAPP :
Other
applicati
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l compu?
re mach:l
rld be usc
part cc'*
re paris f
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seconds.
he
4. Cornputerized
re ins
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i along the
fraction of
nputer
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r the parts
ruld help rhe
caiion of the
n
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Z. Inspection Techniques
ne b;i I
&
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coor-dinate'lea5uii
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ir.n cri'ihc r.-:achine is sim:lir_,., ,n.'\C
'i mrchincs
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,
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,fij|:"tPuters'
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:
rbr ini;xcriun rxrlonncr who
are; inc.xperienc
rncxpenenc!
ancJ convers-ion rourines
berween porar and cfiesian
co:
AbyANTAGT5
uq!"r.r
Savings in inspecrion tlmc
"' 'ntf:.t':n ri by using coordinate r,leasuring nrachinc.
nltrcant. Tl,pically.
Lrlrveen 5 anj
ri_^ t.
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and |toe0% nr
af rr,rhe rirne
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of the first rrorkpiecc in a
batch.
[ct t:
DrsAbvANr^6s
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inspe.crion finne
linne are si-sr,ificant
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B)
NONCONTACT INSPECTIoN
METHODS- OPTICAL
in'spection method'
Oprical s!'slems are the dominant type of noncontact
and comtechnology
of microelectronics
Tl-rese systems generally rely on the use
puter processing of the sensing signals'
used for inspection
There are a varietY of oPtical sensing techniques
.
2.
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Machine visicin is rhe acquisition of image data,follo'*'ed by'the processing and interpreralion of rhese dara by computer for some useful application. lr'lachine vision (alsc called
coplputer vision.since a digiralcomputer is required to Process the image dara) is :i gro\\'ing technology. u'irh its principal applications in industrial inspection.
.z'<tl
lr{achine vision
l\{achine'v'isiorr
A.r
"
The operation of a machine vision system can be divided into the follou,ing three
functions: (1) image acquisition and digitization, (2) image processing and analysis. and
(3) interpretation. These functions and their relationships are iliustrated schematically in
Figure t
il
c advanccs rrG
s table,' inte;t
t. lrnage rcquisition
cxpericnced c
2. lmage processirrg
.i. Intcrnrclati()n
and analvsis
rflesian ctxrrcii
Digitizalion
lrnage
Compulcr
(processing)
in te
rPrctai;on
Cai-n': ra
Lirht r-
Dccisions
and
actions
sturce \-
Pa;-is
;.tll:catron
iih ;i Ctr{i\'
.rdin:.rlc rnc;
,r
hinc. usuai
rrlcd l'rorn Ii
lc,-r"'eral dl'
I.
ttgtlrc {,
niage acquisirion and atgitizztion is accomplished using a video camera and a digitizing s1'siem io sioi-e ths inae: J:re foi sut'srqirent analr.'sis.The camera is focused on the subject of
j;:erest. and an inaq,e is obiained bl ciividing the vi:u'ing area intc a mairix of discrete pic:u;-e elernents icalled pirels). in *'hich each elei-neni has a value that is proportional to ihe
ii.iht i::rensitv c,f rhar F,,3irir)n of the scene.The intensitv value for each pixel is converted into
The operation of vieu'in-e a Scene con;lr eCUi\alent dlg;i:l r':lue b-r an ADC
sisrjne of a sin-,Fl: cbrecr rhat ccntrasts sut,stantialiv *'ith its background. and diviciing thc
s:ene into e coirespoiding nratrix of pictuie elenlents. is depicied in Figur-c 2 '
i
\:-_--../
{")
(c)
Figurc 2
Divi<iing the image into a matrix of picture etements.
where each element has a light intensi(1' value corresponding to
that port;on of the image: (a) rhe scene; (b) 12 X 12 marrix super_
imposed on the scene;and (c) pixel intensity values, either black or
white. for the scene.
Z.
anal;'sis.,
q,a:n /irtninallr:
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| 982034185s
ln thc nr*r\urunlcn(
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Obiect ro
be
rneaJured
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FIGURE
en ts.
rg lo
l.
2
P'LT -
kor
.1. Ulirasonic.s
ocesstng eil
sed is sign:i
rrnplete
rallzing
oat
:hr
rcessing anr
ntj seEraral:
are thresh:ensity leiej
re in tensiii
r than tne
ihreshoJci.
'means of
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v !/J
be Iu'e :i:
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lJltrasonic lnspection f,lethods. Ultrasonic lechniques
r'.qu)forvariousinspectitrnlasks.Sonrc,rlfl.:
riiques arc performcd manually. wirereas others are autom:rlcd. Onc ol the au,methods involves emitting ultrasonic \^,Aves from a probc and reflectins rhcrn
object to he inspectcd. In the setup of the inspcction procedurc. an ideal rcsr p;rr.r ,.
in front of the probe to obtain a reflectecl scund pattern.This sountJ parrcrn hccl
standard against which production parts are la{er comp ared.If the reflectcd patterr-.
given production part matchcs the slandard (rvithin an allo,*,ahfe statisticat variaric
part is considered acceptable; orherwise. it is rejected. One tcchnical prohlcnr
technique involves lhe presentaiion of producrion parts in front of thc prcrhe.
extraneous variations in the reflecled sound patterns. the parts rrusl llrr.:rr,s hc
the same position and orientation relalive to the probe.
ADVANTAG
oF
It usualll, eliminates
it
eliminates rnechanical
',icar cncountered v,'ith the contacting inspection
probc because it climinares rhc probc"
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*cee
f .g
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5 5'J
Admission Details at
1855
Another set of techniques in image processing and anall'sis ihat t; rrmall,v follows
segmentation is feature extraclion.lr{ost machine vision systers { :re!-af 1{ ze an object in
f
perimetrer,
the image by means of the object's features: its area, length, ii'iti'ir rii,rrlr er.
.r:
::i'
deterrnine
methodi:
extraction
Feature
ratio.
center of gravity, and aspect
{
olding,
edge
obj:r:
of
the
these features based on the area and boundaries
.rbject
,.
tt;
,,,
,t
r,
.,
can bg
detection, and other segmentation techniques). For example. ti;,'
:
,iir,
'
itiplying by a
determined by counting the ndmber of pixels that nrake up th'; i . ' ,:,
I
"
factor representing th.e area of one pixel. Its length can be four:''1 '
tirc'
l,
ui
(in terms of pixels) betg'een the two exlreme oPPosite ed$s
Par
i:
the
distance
Interpretation
i
i
*,"r-,
of thc ri
au
l()rTa
crn of:
rrt is p!a
cc()n'lc:
ri
tern fril
iation).1
n with fir
:, Ttr ei't
: pl;tc. -l
d features.
For an1'given application, the image mus{ be interpreted base, l,,: "i
'
rsk
terrned
u'ith
recogni:':i;:
concerned
'
The interpretation function is usually
;entif.y
'.,!'r
,
thc;'
the
object recognition or pdttern recognition. The objective in
,
T*o cornobjecr in rhe image b;'comparing it *'ith predefined models or stairijarci '.,
monl.v used inter-pretation techniques are template matching and feali.ire wi 'i'i ,,i:.Template
matching is the name given tovarious methods that attempt toconlPare (':r{ 'nore fear in co m'
t ures of an image with the corresponding features of a model or ternplat '-: ' ,
ii
i
wlri<
i,i
image is
puter memory. The most basic template matching technique is one in
compared, pixel by pixel, with a corresponding computer model. Within cc,':,;it statistical
tolerances, the computer deterrnines *'hether the image matches the templa:, 'lne of the
rechnicaldifficultiesr+.iththismethodistheproblernof aligningthepartir;t: , .zmeposition and orientation in frontof the camera,to allow the comparison tr: hr ',,l"jr: without
complications in image processing.
Feature n,eighting is a technique in which several features (e.g..:.i1.. it:::tth, and
perimeter) are combined into a single measure by assigning a weight i , ;,cli feature
according to its relarive importance in identifyin$ thc object.The score of ir!i: ( lrj. {:t in the
image is compared r+r'th the score of an ideal object residing in compt,t,'r' ', ,rlory to
achieve proper identifi cation.
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rf
Dinr.,rtsiritta! tt'reusitrc nerit. Thcse applicarions involve detcrrnin!ng thr ,r of certarri cjinrensional features of parts or products usually moving at i :, r.ly high
'r
speeds on a nrclvinq convevor.Thc machine vision sYstcm mus{ compai { I features
deteridime nsions) u,ith the corresponding features oI a ct'rmputer-storccJ trir iri
mine tlre size value.
. Dintensionai gaging.l-his is similar to the preccdirtg except thril ti
, rrnctiOn
rather than a measltrement is performed.
.. ri.[.
" llcri/it'atir;ti of the prescnce of L'ot?tl)Otteni.s. This is donc itl an ;rl',.' '
..:, ;lar io
o l:t'riii<uriott af ho!t lacarion ond nuntherof holes. Opcr;rtionallr {l';
ve
componen{s.
cjiinensional measurement and rilication of
,j ,r i,ail Of
o Dxtcciiriti ,,i siirft:t'c ilnuts anl lt'j'ccts. Flari's anC dcfccts Lrn []ii' t'rri;
,
t ':. I i'1'r Cl O
ixalci-iti ofierr reieal thentsclies as a change in rcilccteiJ liglit.Tlri:'.,
i-Jcntif-t' thc de r iaiion t'iom ar, ide r! model oi the s,rfztcc.
o Dt'!cc'iir;ti r;.1 f/ittt'.t in it 1:rintttt irtl:ei.Tlic iJcl'ect catr trc iri tlie lortrt ol ,,
'',',, l,: ',icJ
iabel or poo;li prinliC tcxt. nunrhrrinq. tti'graphic-s crtt iie liilrli.
:isl 3lcrg
a con\
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' !r ;n:
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f\
a
8
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Srgnal
prccersrng
FIGURE
systethe lcns sy.\le m to detccr thc intcmiprion rlf the lighr h:lm as it is bltrckcd h.
ob.icct.'fhc tinre hpsc orrrcsgindin-e to lhc rntcmrptirrn ol'rhc lighr l-rc.run i,::'.
tlred to detcrmine lhc desircd drmcnsinrt of thc'part. Tt'picallr,. ri l11iqp,rpf i'r't...
progranlmcd to ma\c thc conycrsion ol'lhc time llpsc intrr:r tlimcnsirrnlrl r;rlii..
to pcrlilrnr other func{ions. such;rs siun:rlinS lin l'}ul()iililll(' nilfi\-ic jeLiir',r ::-,:i
ism to c.icct a defcctrvc pafl fioni thc ljnc.
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Conrputer-aided testing is simply the appJication oi Ii,'i]Lrii':', itr"r r: the testing procedure. There are different levels of automation r'.;rich '. ii L;. found in
CAT. At the lowest level, the computer v,,ould be used simply to rironilor the test
and anall,ze the results, but the testing prcredure itself is manurllv sei up, initiated. and controlled by a human operalor. In this case tire comp:rrr"r rs'rives rhe
data from a data logger or a data acguisition systm
and
prepare.s a report of the test results.
At a much higher level of aulomation arc cornputer-inlep'r:irii {r:i cells,
rvhich consist of a series of tesring stations (a dozcn or moir r retion: r rri' ,,:rcommon) interconnected by a materials handling system. An a:.iomaigri r i il has
mo.st of the earmarks of a computer-integpated manufac{ur:ng:i}'stf ..r
These cells are ofien interfaced ciirecii: ',r: ti:. j;embly'line so lhat the products flow automaticaliy from finaj a,csern'i,.: ir r:,. r 1gs1ing. All facets of the operation gf the test cell are under coniplrirr li" ,i The
individual stations typically opera(e independently of each orL,:,,r. D,'.,., ,)eration. a product is transfer-red bi' the handling syslem to an ii,. ',,: hle i,
tion.
The test station automalicaliy registers the product in the propri' i+*::rion , , ,, ,,rientation. and attaches the required connecting appantus to condi,i;t tb, test. i i,:: testing then begins with the computer monitoring thedata and anaivzing the r, .irs. If
the p;t;dur't passes the test, it is automaticali,v moved to the next,assembl, ,:ieralion or fin:rl packing. In the event thc prrxlucl fails to pass thc tsi {herc
' 'flen
lhe o:-oi'i-siLrn to trarsfcr the proCuct to a manual station fi.r:- eri,,iinai:i ;)y a
hui,-ran operator. The corr,putercan ofien be helpful in this regerd b;. .;rdici ,,the
reason the test failed, or even diagnosing the problern-.and rerrmll;i ,r,ii;l tl :rioSt
promising repair aiternatit,e. Arother fcature of sonre test cei:,' is t {:t:i ' :i.\'to
I opmal:e adjuslments in the product during the test cycle to fine-t: ,,e ii ,ur,,
era
tion
:r.,ljL-1,
:.!tua-
,;i:: fli:.,ltitigS.
i{. I .i.1 ., llC.{.1
.;:
Another way
in which a
is helpful to QC is *'he:.
engineering changes arc made to the product. Of course, engineering changes ar:
liable to have an influence on inspection and testing. It is helpful for any changes
to be recorded in a colnmon data file for all departrnenis, including @, to use.
Finally, another area wherc CAD/Crl\{ benefits rhe QC fut'rction is in cor'*'puter production monitoring. The t;.pes of production records that are Senerate:
iuring computer monitoring arc some'.irnes usefu! to the quality control departme:':
in traiing rhe cause of Frcnr quality in Rarticular productic'n I1t,
1
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Prc:'. Sar:iai.'98f
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7'44550
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Admission Details at
Chapter No. oB
llL) rse
er-aided quali
,irh CAD,'C,{\
rted
rrl,a tlp
rtes the
rpplernents thi
lhe,@ coniri
)t rnust use th
Computer Graphics
P(ocess
GENEEAL DEsIGN
jilrl'ri
OJ Ar'
Tht FIQG,r6 8(' cl' t tgn;ng' j-5 Cho*
st<pj
A6' Stx
Cbnstsk:
;g.roltve gntrd*rrr , '^t'luch
l. Recognition of need
2. Definition of Problern
3. Synthesis
.,on or
4. Analysis and
: i;:tem
.*_ _-J
5. Evaluation
('. Prcsenta:ion
{
i
i
;t
_--J
NC programs
measuring
ctively5en bc downdre controller'
e for sorne of
rie
A nal ytis
oprirrli!
al
nd
io4
)C is *'hen
changes are
my changes
to use.
: is in com: generated
'Cepartment
,@invo]r.estherealizationbi,some.onethai.a1rcble1
existsffictil'eaction51rouIdbctaken..Ihismightbethe|&ntlFr-
it is ap;
in rhe opcrarions of a manufacnrring firm'
To eppreciate the scope of cAD/cAM
and n
thailust.y
r.tJi,iJ
cxamine the various
cvcle'
"fi."t,ir"r"r'io o"r.r.,i"itiesand funclions as the product
(a).
in.tt.. product cycle is' present'd in Figrrre
F. diagram shou.ing L\e various.,t.p,
is drivcn by customcrs
:n'"1r,
*u,k.,r rather thar- one monolitluc
-o *it:ls
ilil||il:
:T".YII:-'l*.o.'ttn
dl
;i ;4;.
t'::*:t-ll;l',fr,''l?,j" "f*,il
-a *"i**
lill'.T,::,,"f""?ff";; .L,or., groupt
the produ=
rhcre *itl bc diffcrenccs in the *ay
Dcpanding on rhe p"rar"rr*
fun"tioni
In some cascs, lhc design
activaled. j;
"''?'
"':J'!rry'fo*,"11l.*:",".:':ii*:*ig
ur1:T:1,':
;;''""
c" an9
i.T;'
T
i
i#'.il
ii
illff.l' whatcvcr
i:
*i'l
"T:T:l;
thc case, rhe product
same firm.
i
T,:::t]':ldr::
;:
:*"";
produc
the
ptan
ror
'yti-utgiti
f,illfi Jf:::;: :;"tr;::i;;-,;;;p;';d ;ij ,onstated iilo a
indusuiar
m an
t-hc
d:sigr
p'ott"' fi't
fij.;1"Tt#;::J.ll,
should
"ngin."nng
perform
perlormfor
complctes
.his
'hls comPlcrcs
iii:i:
plen'is
g*1l::it^O.it-i::::,t":Tjr?i":r:?1tffi;
indicaring bo*' u:
. r ---:--r!., r^lnr' r|,p nrorilrcr througlout its lengincering changes which. npicallv-l]]"-.i,,:1;,:"t?:::lJ:::*:;:5
in rlgu" t"l.-,3'.1:i::::l::':r'::",1::'*:3TS""'j;
tl,.
t"" a.sigi-i'ii';ii"'
""'=n'tr'ior*ui;,J *fri.rt spccifics rhe xquencc of production oPeratro:rs
r#'rr',nJ';;;;.' u.'a"quirca to producc
fi.1o;:'"'"1''n..*,
esuipment
-o
the -r.nSnufacture ::
producr ;
r'.n dates. Onc. all of these plans are formulatcd' thc
JO" proaLily
customer'
foltowcd by quality tcsting' and dclivcry to the
[lll6t
fijr"tioa
tc
"n
Desigrr
Drafting
cnginecring
Ordcr new
Proccss
cquipment
Plann!ng
land tooling
Quality
citritrol
Production
Production
schcduling
'
Figure (a)
Product cycte (deslgn and manufacturing)
TheimpactofCAD/C}\!isr11i|eltinallofthedifferentactivitiesintheproiuctc..:
in Figurc Ol-= t;;putir-ajd'd design
c:T:"-::::
;' ut o n o r rli J prcd11-."u:11"i::"j:1:':.1r";
"::::'.:t't .'-.
*
indicsted
and schcduling
,o
io.ro
J::.'; li"::J
;d-l--
offi't
m irt; desrgn
a
Fr\'ast'e'
fi:=m, the comPuter he-s-becone
F.rn.rion,
#.ffiJ-l;if;,:i;:
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fi'.s ani thb people ,,'ho aie e*iirlt'" er :.
ffi#;;-;"1';;"r".,".g
underta,rd CAD/CA\4.
io :<
Admission Details at
9820341855
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Compurer-automated
drafiing and
docuncntat!on
tis
and man
Desigr
re (a). Thc
rink of thcsc
Drafting
engineei"ing
onolithic
e
product
rd &e
Order new
Prod
cquipment
a'rd toolin
omplished
: a product.
: producl
nesn'lg
bow thc
Quality
contiol
Production
Schcdul ing
acture of
product
Computcrizcd sched*i
Cornputcr-aidei
produce'thc
mate
qualiqv control
rial
rco ui re;';le i: i
gocs
6 (Oue.urg DY
.-'' DeslGN-
occ u rrin S.
prixJucr
ensurc
l! '
ciproducibility'and cuslciri
i:iiui-e 1 5|i1'rr,' s flo*'diagr::ms for borh sequential (or tradirional) er:,
,:i't lnd qualir-r b.v dcsign or corlcurrent engineering oh the righr. In qir:,r'
cniinccring (such:rs rneciranicai. clectricat. structural. qrraliry, mater.
proCuct c1c.:
utilized i:
process
in
Pl:---
proCuci:
.iSed io ;e::
rc)
ca.se
'
treousll
f action.
, ()n rhe
l',. .icsign,
,;j' ,'rcti()n,
.l r'-, t.t[rfnefs
'ign,
fx'st,
t.{
Sequeotial
Ingineering
Engi nrcnng
lr,;nufrsturr ng
rroducl
Pcrformancc
-.-
Dcsign
Cost
Ir{ ar kc
ra
t'il i ry
Aesrhctics
\trification
Verificadon
fr
T
Flgure
lF*
The
qual!ty b-v design (or concurrent) engineering method combines
.n ,t,.r* steps into one.
The product is designed to be successful at cach srage ofits life cycle.
It is deiigned correctly tie first time, ct'nsidering ailattributes and facets of its Iife. such
as marketabilit-r'. assernLrli', und serviceabjritl,. belbre relca.se ro tesiing
and. finally,, to pro<luction.
I
Admission Details
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Qualiry by design
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The prima* benefit of impremenung
quariry by design rechniquc: :
cie?se in ume ro marker. orher
benefits orqu"iiry uyiir:gn rechnjiri .:.1
;ii de-
se,
fhe
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Wire-frame models
Most currentday graphics s)Ttems use a form of modeling called wire-frame
modeling. In the c-onsrruction of thc wirc'fnrrr nndel, tbe cdges of the objecu are
tin... Figure t illusfated this form of rcprcscntation.
shown
"r
con. The imagc assunes thc appcarance of a frame
slructed ou' of *ire-hencc tlrc narnc "wire-frarne" rnodcl'
Ft6t
to
Thcre are lirnitations to thc nrodels which usc thc u'irc-frame ?pProach
casc
the
pronounced'tn
form the image. Thcsc limitatiofls are, 6f coursc, cspccially
of tlrecdirncnsional obj+ts. In nnr:y cases, wire-frarrr mqJels are Quite adequate
for two{inrensional rcprescntation. The'rbost conspicuous limitation is that aII of
thc lirrcs that definc rhe cdges (and contourcd surfaccs) of the model arc sho*n in
thc irnage. Many threc-dirncnsional rrire-frame systelrs in usc today do not pos'
scss an butornatic hiddcn-linc rcrnoval fearurc. Conscquently, thc lines rhat inCicarc thc edgcs A the rcar of thc modcl show right though the forcground surfaces.
This can causc thc imagc to bc sonpwfiat confusing to thc viewer, and in somc
cases the irnage might bc intcrpretable in several different ways (e.g., Figtne Z)
Perspective view ol
FIGURE 2
lhreeiimensional obiecl ol Figure 6.9
rvithout hidcjen llne rernovaj.
There are also linritations *ith tlre u'ire-frame models in the u.a-v many CAD
systetns definc tlie model in thcir data bases. for cxarnple, there migit b ambiguity in the casc of a surface definition as to *.hich side of the surface is solid.
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Solid models
An improvenrel! Qvet *ire-frane models, both in terms of realism to the user ald
definition to the computer, is the solid modeling approach. In this approaclr, the
models are displayed as solid objects to the vieu'er. u'ith very little risk of misinterpretation. When :olor is added to the image, the resuijng piciure becornes str-ii:-
ingly
I
I
I
realistic.
Admission Details at
Thcre arc trrro factors u&icb prornote future wide$rcad usc of solid modclers
(i.e., graphics syrterns witb the cripabiliry for solid modeline). The finr is the
increasing awareness amofig uscrs of thc limitations of wirc-franr systems- As
powerful as toJay's ri,ire-franre-based CAD systems have bccome, solid model
systems represcnt a dramatic improvenrnt in gnphics tmhnology. Thr second nrson is the continuing developnent of computer hadwue urd software $,hich n:::i:e
Two basic
I.
approachcs
to the problem of
G*p),
block approach
2.
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The t'*'o approaches have their relative advantagcs and dis:r,i.",rrrr:j j..: The
C'rep svstems usually have a significant proccdural advartage in li,r:. i;,,;,irj ;,rrrr.ru;a:ion of the model. It is rclatjvely easy to construct a precisc scijrj r:. ,:ir:l uut of
repular solid pdmitives b1'adding, subtracting, and intercccting drt;. (:$rntr3nen15.
Tir building-block approach also results in a rnorc compact file of thc mojel irr the
c:(a base.
On the otler hand, B-rep syslems have t\eir relative advantages. Ci,:. of
r-m becomes evident rvben unusual shapes are encountercd tl.ral
'.vould nr,: b:
:::,iuded *'ithin the avaiiable repertoire of the CSG s)'stems. This kind of sitrr:,r!on
:; exemplilied by aircraft fuselage and wing shapes and by auromobiie bojr,.rtl,l::-: such shapcs would be quite difllcult ro develop w,irh rhe buiidrn;,',lr l:
::'::-oach, but tlie brundarl'rcplesentation method is ver; feasible for thjs ,.: r:{
--'rlpm
::r
A-nother point of comparison bel*,ern tlie two approaches is the diffe,r r'r.i, :ri
u?.''the nrodel is stoi-ed in the &ta ba.* for lhe two systems.':r:l i,i,
':?:oach stores the model by a combination of data and logical procedirrr,, iri,
3.:clean model). This generally requrrcs less storage but rncre ccmi,
::::+Juce the model and iu image. Bi,contrast, the B-rep sysrcm stores i , :.t,i; .;
:,::lr:tion of die mode.l boundaries. This rcquires more storag? space bui .'.'!,
-'--essitate nearll the samc computation effort to reconstruct
ti':e imape.
t'|
:t::ili of tire B-rep s.\,stems is thai it is relati'ely simple to conr,*n baci: ' 'rli,
i i0::i
:<":.:n a bounda-1' representatjon anc a conesponding \\'iie-fianx ri):,', 1: 't l
--4si.ii is that the nrodel's boundary definition is simjlai lo the r, :tr l;,,r, i i,,
- :-. r'hich
faciliutes conversion of one form to the olher. Thi: ;irc:c" 1i;i r:iri
:
B-rel
s,\'stem.s
compat!hie n'ii; 6r.!_<1!19 C.$ st.si:r-,s .,rut ii .i;,i. i,, Li
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\'ISUAL REALISh{
will display all paru of Lfrc ob-:
The graphical techniques that have bccn discussed so far
are ob'scrved, internal deurcal.'objects
if
$e viewer, simply as a collection of lincs. Now,
q'ill
surfaccs will take on di5:
and
cast,
be
iJ"uti,""a from view, shador*s
CAD systems have 'l::
conditions'.
ligltfing
local
intcnsities asd bues according to thc
vicwing conditioas
cclebracd in reccnt ycars for thcir ability to simulatc such 'rcalistic'
in nlo disrinc:
&chniques
application.of
thc
involvcs
images
iil;;;'jlj
i{, g*;,ton
of rcalistic
or colouring
the removal of hidden surfacJ fiom rbc image, and thc shadiag
conditions'
lighting
tbc
modelled
to
swfaccs in a mautcr appropriatc
of the r:
tr'
*l3y,a9 i"-tti:t:-l:":::-t-:'i^lt.':
fi".t
of colour and shadc. An allied gioup of proceciures for ":
.r."
#;;;';il;;;
realism of rcmoYing obs:'
dispiays and plottcr tr."t it 5.9.P. acbicvc rhc morc limjted
removal'
edies and ,*i""" ctrvc is callcd hiddcn-line
'och
of thc early
These proccdurcs prciatc biddcn-surface rcmoval bccause
finl
vector icviccs, and tbercforc it is thesc that wc will address
1.
Hidden-Linc Removal
vcctors i:: the r-r
or
In.hjddcn-li:nc (sorrctimcs callcd bidden.cdgc) removal, cdgcs
-otrcr
or dispiai':
ihc
irnage,
of
thc diJplay
rhar arc obscurcd Uy viSUtc surfaccs arc omiui &om
visiblc
is
rechniqucs
rhe
for
artcraativc narne
'il;;.
ffi#i "Jt;;#
idcntification. T|c
proJs of g*;tinq
*i';;';;r;;;';;;;-Jd;
bourdaries. Ir is tlrercforci
f",ri6y
a hiddcn-line.irnages
i:.ti-"11{1ltly
tti"
appt;caiion
31 lf.t
pcrformancc'
subdivision of the model havc becn applicd to improve
Figureshowsatn'tchiddenJincimageofanobjectandt.|recorespondingirnage
tesse
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HNDEN-SARFACE REMOYAL
a-i
,
hc objoct
il detail
on d!
e-rees.
,.rurr
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ions
is',inct
rusc in su
' to etvc
s
thcYi
for veci
L3 obscurc
turthesr
po
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flris
m!nance
!::r
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thc
moCC
,isplayed er
,isiblc lir
n8 proccss.
shapeC
gc rs
ues such
rprtial
cohcrencc.
rnd spatii
on
t:ol1,g,
to
, iime, and
:. .r ljncs of
,:,,,., , : rarts of
.1,
tessellated
t" 1T: T
4+9!'q:"t
that is *idel1' applied,
known as
rge fron:
3-
,,1,;i;
to to_d
scan .onterrr'on,
projecred imagc of a given po!1,gon.
"il"h
irqpjel* rr;,
ii'iih
^esr.rlt
of
u5seo.ler.:
tl.--ilEi
lcffe.llq![9gLq
ir
-d,.fll cach
nmjlrio! of th? objecr, if rhe ri, . .f the oryccr &om *re
vieupoint is less tban rhe currcnt$dept\ thc &9tb rad colour velucs i,,r rhat
pixei'arc rcplac:d
b-v tJre vajues fo:
t new objccl Wbcn we ril objags i.n rhc rnodei - pr,i.esrid, tjre
procc5sed,
{y
of
poll'goa
al
Fi.of. Sanjay'98i
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* ti.r"1,, pia:,,;.
(x, 1,)
714550
at (.r,
1) is saved.
L,..
rrlo-o
.:ed b1'
,a-t ;^
:r,r
'
i;sest
from 0 at
iA'
At view-oianc Dosition (x, y), surfacc Sr has tbc snrallcsl dcpth from thc
visible at lhat positiorr.
vieu
plage e:.:
As implied by thc nane of tbis mcthod, two buffer srcas arc required. A dcpth bufcr is
slorc dcpth values for each (r, :) position as surfEces ere proccssed, and thc refiesh
stores thc intcnsity values for each position. Initially, all positions in the deptb buffer ar:
0 (mininrum dcpth), and the rctesb bufcr is inttiatizcd to-thc brickground inrcnsit).
surfacc listcd in thc polygon tabJes is tbcn proccssd one scari line at a time, calcr:lat
dcpth (z val-uc) at cach (r, y) pi1el position Thc calcul4-tcd d-ryth iq comparcd ro u\e
prcviously storcd in the dcpth buflcr at that position. If the calculucd dcpth is gnrer r
value stored in thc dcptt bufcr, tlrcn new dcptb valuc is storc4 aad the srdacc intcrsit>
position is dctcrmined and pleccd in tbc i;ane rry locatioo il the rcfrcsh buffer.
r
l.
2.
d+th (:, y) -
0.
refresh (r, y) =
h*oa
"!
l"fo
For cach position on cacb polygon surfacc, comparc dcp& valucs to prcviously
in thc dcpth buffer to determioc visibility.
value-c
.
.
\\"lrere ,fu,.rgu is the value for t}te backgrounC iniensiry, utd lrurt (r, y) is rhc projected i;.:
value for the surfacc at p!re! position (r, y). Aftcr all surfaccs bave becn proccssed, th:
buller contains depth values for the visiblc surfaces end the refresh buffer conu:--:
corresponding intensi:y values for those s'.rfaces.
j:r-iil.
-!
7L
$.;ith thc prolifcralion of cctnpulers rrrd s,rfr*arc in Oc market, il became nccessaD, ro sturr1.udizc
c:rtain cJencnts er caclt stagc, so lhal intesrrrient madc by compaaics in certain h.:,rdrvare ur sof:wrirc
1\'&5 rrcl totali-v lost arrd could be uscei rviih.rrrt rr:,:ch rnoditication on thc neu,er arrd rJiitcrcar
s).slenis.
Star,dardization in engineering hrrc!u,are is u,cil l;ntrvn. Fr.urhcr. it is posslble to obl,airr irarr1r+,a;c an.l
scft$'are from a n,r.nber of r'cndors and t\en !:'integraicd into s single sl'slcin. This rncrrs thlr ,-\crc
should b: compatibi,liry bet*'ccrr ya..reu.s sofir',,rr.'e lemenrs as also bct'rvecn Lhe hardrva.c a;-i,J soft*,agc.
'This
is achievei bv mar'nr:rjrring prcper iai;:rl,:lc ..t::Jida:ds al vario'rs level.s. F'otlorvir:g ul sorne ci'
thrn
'
.
.
.
"
.
.
'
.
.
.
.
GKS
PIIIGS
COR-E -
{Crphical
Kern,-.| .Srstc:r:s}
CK.S-3D
ICES
DXF
STEP
Dl\{IS
\'DI
VDI\{
GKSM
NAPLPS
(Dra*'ing
I
L.._
Craphics
Darabase
-'-t
"
i-^. ce l rn', er
lucrr
i Devicc i
I
!
Device Drivcr
Graphical Kernel
Sl.sren-. (CKS)
'lektronics Pi'rt I0
GI\O-F fi-oir CAII Crctre. C:rnh:-iCg,:
is
depicre,j
in
Figure.
6'
Ho*'ever, the real ellort as regards standatdisaticn ciunc from,lCM-Sl(;GI-I'{PH in thc frrrnt of I
in 1977. In 1979. DIN relcased tlrc vcrsion of 6KS. Tating- all thc exrstirtq
lnckzgcs, ISO has standardised thc GKS as a 2D :;tandad in 1981. lle rnriri r.bjcctirei thi;:-'
p:rt forward for GKS arc lhe follcsr;ng.
t. To provide thc complete rarrge of graphrcirl lrrcilitics rn 2D. including thc intcractivc caprbil,i.
2. To conuol all typcs of graplricdeviccssuch r.s plottcr:;rrrd displal'dc'viccs in I cott-<istcnt ma-':
standard
3. To
bc srnall enorrgh
workstations are
worksution.
urore
lh,a:
Application Program
Appl ication Orientcd La,ver
[-an guage-Independent Laye r
(i)
(ii)
(jii)
STRING
STROKE
charactcr values.
ro provicje continuousll'the locaiion values in world coordinates.
For dra*'ing lines, the concept of PEN is used. PEN has the attribulcs of colLrur. thick;res:
line gpe. Lines can be drawn with any PEN thst ca,r defineJ. 'l}e basic graphic primitives rhil rnade available are.
. POLYLINE for lines aftcrspeciff ing in thc l:nci t-r'pe. !ine rvidth anci li;re cr'lour
. POLI'F{ARKER for spccific marker t;'pcs aftcr specify'ing t}re t1'pc. size and ccloui.
" GEI{ERALISED DF.AMNG PRII\{ITIVES (GDP) for specific graphic pnmitiles s'-:arc, circte, etlipse, spline, etc.
o TEXT after speci$'ing font iy'pe, precisiolr. cclour, height of thc box, c.rrra;r.on t , ,
. FILL
oul ccrtajr generalised functions. In thc intcrest of i:rlerchangcab:lit.)', IS0 ha< idcnti fiei c-::
aaling ccnienrions foi-all-ihesti funr'{iirni :n. ';a:'fo',i !rn'_gu-a5ciirl dl.-r to aiitc?"ra ;f thc-iE7:
,
T
:,i3;' SE';t
Admission Details at
;q
f(rrnr ofC
cXr-s{t,lC
cti\e5
tl-,{):ir:
Pic Slice
.g-lii5
6,1rul
cteristics of
1 rnore
Circle
re laycr
5.
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Besidcs GKS, which is u'ell acccpted, a nurnber of separaic standards have been dcvelcpcd to acld:-ess
thc aspccts *'hich werc not covcred b.v GKS. Some of thesc standards are briefly d:scr-:l,td belo*..
sepa-:-atc
.
.
o
'
.
;taticns.
1: station.
Li:
fcrmats.
'
'
.
JT
cclow.
;mitit'es
:ansion
Tr.a;i-,a,:
ear.
be
iii
as
The colour look-up tables form pad of NAPLPS transmission .,r.hich enabl: a l:i;,, ,.a,rge of
colours lo L' produced instantaneousi;- on the hcst s).siein.
\\:iS the developments irr rhe VI-Si rechnologi, these graphic standards air..,:r,,:i1,sra;ieC
-::=:"an! in lta,-d*a.e iir thc fr,rni ol g;'aphic adaptcr carcs oi
spec;al ;.urpcsc c;r;ps ii'-' j rc iiiplr.r'e
--
: .-;lpl
c pcrfornranc e.
ri-a nh;1..c..-l-..
.^f
- iri--r'
l: t-dES Lt,e recorc-s are Die-(cn: ''r,il; E-1 coiurni f;ei;s, rrj:h cclur:rs I tc ?l p:r.., i:.r. ,--.e cetz
::.,.r.ns
?-l to 80 prc'. iC;ng d s3ri'uc.n:i t'.u,;bcr icl the record r,'ith identiilcaiion as lo ix: Jocali(rn
--:
:-1.-seciiJr
1Li: scq,ejrcr r.,::,1'c',, ;, -' :::.:- as :,..1,i:,:il l-cr Lhc d:r;r. I:. ial'!:,t::.--i.sists
--:
-: ',..:r.in! i
s-:l-se::rcn:.
!
.r'-
9S19:11550
userJ ro indicrte thc fcrnn in *'hrch rhe da(a is spccifi*d. Orieir.:r]ii,. -<
versions containcd thc data in ASCII format *'iih a ter1, dctcilcd stnrcrure . This has b.cen r.r.:
a nunrbcrof peoplc in viewof the tery luge filc sizcs From version J 0 onwards, thc lormal
standardizcd in the follo*ing rhrce modcs.
. ASCII mode default oprion
'
r
Binary firrm
The otha lwo options provided will hclp in reducing rhe butk of rhe dra*'ing exchange file
c'g'J?lf. su.nf'rr !::s a siarting char:c!:: signiiylng thc sub-secticn. They:-.::
S for Start scction
C for Clobal section
D for Direcrory enu1y sccrion
T for tcrminate scction
This scctioo contajns a man-readabtc prologue to thc filc. The informarion containcd in this
csscntially for tJre prson who would bc post processing rlris for aly orher application. Any nu
lines can bc contained in this section. A sample li-sting an IGES fitc for the diawing shown in F
(c) Global Scction
This contains information about dctails of the product, t-hc pcrson originaring tlre producr, nar::3 i
comP$y originating it, datc, the dctails of thc system which generarca ir, &anlng standard u:.::
rcme information requircd for iS post processing on the host computer.
d8t8.
This contains the data associated u'ith the entities. A free format is allcq'ed for rnu
convcnicncc. It may con,,ain any nurnber of records. The total number of entities tlrat are pr::-:
fi
Terminatc Section
Ee
Frof,
S:,-:,"a!-'
98ig
Z<-+55i1
eac-h
of
r.hc earlier
sections. TJris
Admission Details at
L2 . TEAruRE
RECOGNNION
b' a
A fcarure is a scometric shapc spccificd
rsrsF 'ri"rii"'i"i"rmadon a highcr r:rnceprual lcvcl. Thc
dcsig! 9t ryuf:"Yng engrnccr5'
dcsie,,"1"*ffi
at
crc',
t'"-?11l1Y:t;.
rhread, Itoove'
sloq rhY:'^g*ve'
ciher applications
(likc bolc,.slo,,
,1,, cther
'lrrs's'vsi;;;;
nccdce ,'i:r
t-rir."ioi.,
n..,ccArv information
informatioi;.?;;;
cgunlcd
manuiacruring'
maruracruring'
a.rd
and
use of such g4ups o' g-co*"tty
l.riu,:.
dcsigi:'
nf
rhc
T1-O--,,-, mcars of
linkirrn
orrinking
ffJ:"#'"#'f
ffi":'S"fl?;*fr*#""?J?Jffi ;;'o*"-
:lir,. tic
/..:r;.:
c^- ^ --..,i.r'l'r
';;;;'*
;T*ff
rf-ffiff [ il ,il r
r:nat haj
*rst
em,.
at
vc,*'i rh prope r
",cracri
"T
Typical iorm fear"res uscful for mode lling in a majority of axi'symmetric components widi all
the addlliona! milling featurcs such as holcs, slots, ctc. Here the user would start from one end to
asscmbtc rh' fCaturcs as rcquircd in thc final comPoncnt.
file sir.c
I.. is pos:ib!e r: i:ccrpcrale any ryl:tl of feanues. b,ot} cxtemal a-nd intcmal. Though it is nrost
convcnient for tumcd parts, a numbcr of such systcms hsvc becn dcsigncd and a-'c in con(inucus usc.
It is possible to incorporatc into the modelling systcm, such features which a-rc not csscnrial ly axi'
qmmctric but are found on these cornponents. Exarnples arc - kcyu'a1's, flats, pitch circlc d:-illing on
the flange, gears, erc. l',tajority of rhc hig}-cnd CAD/CAM systems are providing supPon for a variery
of fcaturcs, but mostly from thc geomctric vier*point only.
his scct
ly
Thc major advanage of this kind of modelling is that thc fcaturc clcmcnls ate more convcnicnl
for the pcnple involvcd in tlre manufacturing proccss than thc gconrttric clcmenLs, and tjic modelling
proc.ss is generally faster. Hence, macro languages available in the geometnc modclling s)'slems are
somc times uscd ro generale thc library of these 'featurcs' and provided lo thc user as menu for easicr
nuTl
rinFi
modelling.
nanc of
ud
Furrhcr advantage of this mcthods of modclling is that it can bc eariiy uscd to extend tlre
tcchnotogic{ processing of functions such c idcntifying the manufacrurin, rtquircmcnts- Process
and CNC part program generation.
plarning
Fcaturc availablc in a qpical solid modclling softwaic arc:
Thin
Revolvc
Ertrudi
Cut
Slot
Blcnd
uscd
cach.
Sonn:
scnr di
ln.
red. lt
Progtsion
ie Par
Round
Shaft
Flange
Hole
Chamfcr
Rib
Domc
hcil
Push
Offset
Ew
Lip
Pipe
Srveep
Drafl
i- Chamfer2x2@45
l0 dia .i Holcs
\-"
I
I xI
ruld alna
l'16 x
I LHT
UTOOVC
75
-._
i!_ _ _ _ -
[-
I
I
i=n.j
ay ggl-o 744550
S::ricear Ercia::c:
t3,
tfdurc-bascd
drar+.s a part by ad
geooctric elcmcats such as lines, arcs, circlcs and splines. ThJn dimensions
arc added
*"{"1[og a 3-D desigr is crcated by adding fcatures, one ar a tirnc, unril onc has an acc
complct r.?rscdation of thc part's geometry.
A festuG is a basic building block thar dcscnbcs rhc dcsign, likc a &cpray on sh.ea
fcaturc indicrtcs how to.add marerial flike a rib) or rsnovc a portioi
ormarcrjllit<. .ur
Fcatures adjnst automatically ro changes in thc desigrr n"r"
"
uy
This dso saves timcs r+'hen design changes arc madc. Becausc
fcarur., f,ru. rhaabiliry ro
ailo;; ,h"';il';;;;
c'
i"ili
refcrencc otber fcalurcs, thc changcs madc will navigare through dcsign
updating rhe 3-D rn;
affected areas. Figure shows a ribbcd structurc. lt coruisrs of flarure
fik.;U, and hojcs.
A Rlbbod Structure.
rL
---,l
I
{a)
'
(u)
gas;s
.,y61._=
1',,'q
or su,eep ir !o crea::
.i#r*riJr;;;;;;
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F l'':f . :*e:-
g
= i. t I e z/1/ F. :. i-,
Admrssron Uetarls
at@
I yJzu5q163t
by adding
added. ln
an accutat:
_pEF{!!Ij-9.!_-:' (,gtJa'borqfive
UlJd.J L^hb
bo ursnx
diat"'butrd
on shaft.
aculora
rf dcsign
duvelsrm.nr
/ lo intell
l-D rnodcl
(
E+gtnlrx'nX.
d!
possible because of the possibility of data harsfer betrl'een different applications. Hos,ever,
to day the necessily to collaborate befvr'een tea-s"rs worl.ing in places far apart 5as
arjse;r.
For example, the design of an add on board for a new generafion computer ma), De
carrjeci
out jn the Silcon Yal)ey, USA. The eng"i-neers working in the development group generate
tJreproductdata.Thetestingmaybeundertakenatchennai.TheproductaaLjst
ui-rsrurr"a
ria lnternet to the manuJactuing company in Sout-l'r Korea to make the chips. The printe,J
citflrit board ma1'be made in Malaysia- A fuu'r in Singapore may asrembie the product.
Thjs is shor+n in Fig. ' ' 1. The members in entire team involved collaboratjveiy work
Gr the facb of it may appear to be a sequenrial tasl- In realify Inkanet and Internet
ry*'tit the des:gn, manufachrring and testing tearns to collaborate during the developrnent
; to sketql
phase itseU so that the product can be infroduced in the market as earl-y
porsiUti". ft e
"s
comPany can also share the design data rr'ith the prmpective use,rs long before
the product
is rnanufactured. For example, let us assume that a company is developing
eO GB d.isc drives.
long before the product is launched in the market the rranufacturer can pass on the data
on
this disk drive so that the cornputer manufacturens can start devetoping new conrputers
*'ith this Cisk Crive. As soon as the disk drive is made available,-new computel ian
incorporate the same. In-add-ilion the designers, manufacturers and
the cusi.,,mers c,o
collaborate effectively_to develop a product, r*'hich meets the customer,s
perfor'rarce ang
qua-bty requiremnts. Thjs collaboraSon carr te both interdeparfnental
and intradepartnentrl
EEEE
E &m
oEs}Gr.l rE/r,{ I
(S{. Yailyl
TESTP'iG
{Jr*yei}
wa1's.
IH
r=-t*tlF--.lt
Cr
create rE
atiuc. H:=
Ing a
sc(
riabies
i:
tl:
:C Lhc sol :
block oi :
I'rr rlr<ird
l',-. .
(S./rc)'
Fig.
environmenEl
errd
15
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Mcchanisnns for daa sccurity thal cnsutc that data is available and casily accessi: :
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Thisisoneoftheoldestandmostpopularline-clippingalgorithmdevelopedbyDanCohenand lvan
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To speed up the processing this aigorithm perforrns initiai te:;ts that reduce the number of
intersections that must be calculated..
fr
Aisign a 4-bit code to each endpoint of the line. The four bit.codes are called region codes or out
codes. These codes identifv- the location cf a point relatir,,e to the boundaries of
winCov;.
The rightmost bit is the first bit & the bits are st to 1 based on the follorving scheme:Set Eit 1
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