Mary W.

Helms Before the Dawn: Monks and the Night in Late Antiquity and Early Medieval Europe (Anthropos, 99(1). 2004: 177-191).
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Before the Dawn. Monks and the Night in Late Antiquity and Early Medieval Europe
Author(s): Mary W. Helms
Source: Anthropos, Bd. 99, H. 1. (2004), pp. 177-191
Published by: Anthropos Institute
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Anthropos

99.2004:
177-191

IT]

Beforethe Dawn
Monksand theNightin Late Antiquity
and EarlyMedievalEurope
MaryW. Helms

and withformalrulesand especiallyritualthat

tenetsof faith
definedand activatedfundamental
offices.
organized
liturgical
through
carefully
Foremostamongtheseideologicallycharged
were
andliturgical
monastic
presentations
settings
attheveryheartofthe
thegardenorgarthsituated
cloistercomplexand theofficeof nocturns
sung
in thedepthsof thechurch.The garth,theonly
monastic
formal
spaceto standopentothesky,in
essencemanifested
light,notonlynaturallight(it
wasthecloister's
majorsourceoflumen)but,more
light(lux),thelightof
supernatural
significantly,
Mary W. Helms is Professorof Cultural Anthropologyat
As a quiet
first
ofcreation.
of
the
and
heaven
day
Her
USA.
at
North
Carolina
of
the University
Greensboro,
thegarthalso stoodas analoguefor
interestsinclude cosmology and the legitimationof political Edenicgarden,
Recentpublicationsinclude:Access
and ideological authority.
three
forthefirst
paradiseand,morespecifically,
to Origins:Affines,Ancestorsand Aristocrats(Austin 1998);
the
created
when
newly
daysof thehexaemeron
Sacred Landscape and the Early Medieval European Cloister
and Adam lived
worldwas stilland motionless
{Anthropos2002).
alonein innocenceandin fullunionwithhisGod
theoffice
(Leach 1969;Helms2002). In contrast,
called
nocturns
of
moncenobitic
In earlymedievalWestern
(sometimes
vigils),2by farthe
Europe,
of
both
features
distinctive
asteries1were very
withinthewalls 1 A cenobiumwas a formof monasticcommunityin which
Sheltered
townand countryside.
bothloofthesereligiouscommunities,
a master and disciples lived in a close village-like or
separated
communal
munfrom
the
intent
vocational
setting. It contrastswith a laura in which
and
cationally by
small cells of individual disciples were scatteredabout
of
dane earthlylifeoutsidethegates,thousands
the countrysidein generalproximityto a centralnucleus
menandwomendedicatedtheirlivesto praiseful containg
an oratoryand a few otherbuildings.
withthe divine. 2 The term"nocturns"is used throughoutthisessay to refer
worshipof and communication
in whichtheylived
to the main night office,although this service is also
The monasticenvironment
sometimescalled by some authors"matins" or "vigils."
with
labor
arthis
facilitated
and
religious
shaped
I shall followthepracticeof usingmatinsto refer
However,
thatencodedbasiccosmologifeatures
chitectural
to themorningofficefollowingnocturns.Authorswho use
in thevariousspecial
cal andtheological
precepts
matinsinsteadof nocturnsin referenceto the nightoffice
of
whichthe monasand
it as a very,veryearlymorningoffice)
places
purposespaces
(in effectidentifying
office"lauds."
term
the
Helms
was
regular
morning
1989;
2002)
(Gilchrist
composed
tery

Abstract.- Early Europeanmonkswere preoccupiedwiththe

night.They were quintessentialmen of the dark,fornocturns,
by fartheirlongestliturgicaloffice,was conductedeach night,
in theblacknessof virtuallyunlitchurches.In so doing monks
not only rituallyanticipatedthe coming of the dawn but
also, and especially,engagedwiththeprimordialcosmological
darknessthatprecededtheoriginalcreationof Genesis. Various
aspectsof daily monasticlife preparedmonksforthisprimary
nightlylabor,theemotionaland psychologicaleffectsof which
were probablyfurtherheightenedby physiologicalreactions
to chronicsleep deprivation.[Europe, early medievalmonasticism,spiritualqualitiesof night,sleep deprivation,ritualand
cosmology]

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MaryW.Helms

178

asceticalmoofthe"daily"liturgical men7who acceptedthedemanding

longestandmostimportant
weremost
of
all
life
and
was
in
the
nastic
services3and the officethat
chanted
Christians,
who,
and
to
a
committed
and
of
in
a
unlit,pitch deeply intensely
theology
depths everynight
virtually
blackchurch,manifested
darkness.It can be es- cosmologythatemphasizedlightas a supreme
and theologicalconcept,actually
understood
as connecting
themonkswith metaphysical
sentially
theprimordial
darkthatboth heldtheirlongesthoursof prayerand meditation
and pre-creational
creation
of in thedarkof night.8
theoriginal
precededandaccompanied
of the paradoxwould
To be sure,resolution
theworldas describedin Genesisand withthe
at
to
be
seem
of
that
was
felt
to
be
the
numinous4
hand,
giventhatthenight
readily
present
power
briefserfollowed
was
office
in itsinfinite
by another
closely
depths.
It is theintentof thisessay to exploresome vice (matins,sometimescalled lauds; see note
thecomingof thedawn.Thus
aspectsof themonasticlifeof thenightand the 2), thatcelebrated
as essentially
can be easilyunderstood
darkin lateAntiquity
and theWestern
European nocturns
thenightandwatching
"risingduring
earlyMiddle Ages.5To be sure,variouscom- anticipatory:
mentators
of earlymonasticlife have, moreor beforedawnexpressesthewillto purify
oneself,
of thefunda- the desirefor Christ,and the awaitingof the
less in passing,voicedrecognition
mentalimportance
of nightprayersand of the day"(De Vog1983:183). Yet,in termsoftime
but and energyexpendedand in termsof devotional
officeof nocturns
to themonasticvocation,6
of thedawnor
it was nottheheralding
detailedscholarlydiscussionsof earlymonastic intensity,
or
or
lauds
not
matins
of
the
lifetypically
theactivities
ofthedayas
anyoftheother
day,
emphasize
oftheday(see note3), butthephenomenon
muchor morethanthoseof thenightand deeper offices
of thenightthathad
of an emphasison the of darknessand theliturgy
ideologicalimplications
dawn
before
be
concluded
to
the
remain
of
(sincematinsmust
largelyunexplored.
spirituality night
In vocationalterms,however,the nightseems beginat daybreak;Kardong1996:183) thatwas
forthe
devotionalexperience
to have informed
theveryheartof themonastic by fartheprimary
in
be
It
can
I
in
am
interested
the
nature
of
which
that,
therefore,
endeavor,
argued,
community.
than
a
was
more
I
the
monastic
find
it
therenight
perspective,
investigating.
singularly
appropriate,
dimension periodof waitingforthe comingof day and it
discussthenocturnal
fore,to explicitly
of earlycommunal
monasticlifespecifically
and can be positedthatdarknightin its own right
and cosmologicalsigbecause
it
mattered
so
much
to
the heldadditional
directly
theological
partly
monastic
monksand partlybecause,at firstconsideration,nificance
relevant
totheultimate
spiritual
it would appearto addressa majortheological pursuit.
thecontext
ofthenocturnsIndeed,within
andcosmological
so muchoftheir
existence
thatconsumed
paradoxunderlying
earlymonas- centered
ticismgiventhat,forhundreds
ofyears,thedevout time and attention,
monkscan be appropriately thoughtof as essentiallymen of the night
3 The standard
Benedictine
monasticliturgical
officesin- ("darknessis our naturalelement. . ."; Harper
cludedthenightly
nocturns
and thesevenofficesof the 1968:129).
day: matins,prime,terce,sext,none,vespers,and com(1981),Taft
pline(Kardong1996:169-194).See Bradshaw
ofthehistorical
(1986)forgeneraldiscussion
development
The Dark, theNight,and Creation
ofthesevariousoffices.
4 The numinous
refers
to an objectivesenseofthepresence
of somethingor somepowerthatis extraordinary,
as of In fundamental
darkness
and
cosmologicalterms,
thesupernatural
orthedivine(Otto1950).
can
be
understood
as
with
sharing
light
5 This essayprimarily
references
theperiodfromapprox- night
an associationwiththegenerative
first
principles
whendesertmonasticism
imatelythe4thcentury,
began
to flourish,
to the formation
of the mendicant
orders thatinformed
originalcreation.Indeed,darkness
of the early 13thcentury.
This era was markedtheo- standseven closerthanlightto ultimate
cosmologicallyand cosmologically
by a generalemphasison logical beginnings
in that(as will be discussed
absolutefirstprinciplesrecognizingan eternal,Godandunchanging
universe in moredetailbelow) darknessis oftenidenticreated,
hierarchically-structured
inwhichthesignificance
ofall reality
was directly
referred
to sacredbeginnings
morethanto humanhistory.
See
7 Women'scommunities
are notincludedin thisanalysis.
Helms (2002:436-438, especiallyn.4), for suggested
Less is knownof themand it appearsthatthe spiritual
references.
environment
forwomen'shouseswas notthesameas it
6 For example,"vigilsis theOfficemostcharacteristic
wasformen.See Gilchrist
of
discussion
(1994)foradditional
monks"(Kardong1996:169, 210); nocturns
constituted ofthispoint.
"theprinciple
taskoftheentire
monastic
8 McEvoy1979; Pelikan1962; Tatarkiewicz
1970:27-35,
day"(Levi 1987:
177).
140-144,226-230, 233,289; Eco 1986.
99.2004
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BeforetheDawn

179

fied in lore and legend as one of the condi- verydifferent

circumstances
forhumanexperiencof the lighted ing. Wherelightemphasizesthe outwardforms
tionsthatprecededthe formation
world.Whendescribing
thecreationof theuni- andshapesofobjects,illuminates
theirboundaries,
of
the
and
ancient
those
the
nature
of
their
and
verse,many
myths
(including
exposes
spatialsurfaces
tradition
and theirpredecessors) appearances,darknesserases formsand shapes,
Judeo-Christian
sometimes boundaries
and surfacesso that"things"seemto
undifferentiated,
depictan amorphous,
in
and
dissolve
the dark,losingtheirdistinctiveness
chaoticprimordiality
anticipating
preceding
Wherelightcan be focusedandhas
ordered and identity.
theappearanceof a shapedand formed,
and organizedcosmos(Niditch1985; Van Over a distinctand obvioussource- a lamp,a flare,
the the sun, a creatorGod - and thushas edges
1980).The abstract
conceptoftheamorphous,
is typically and limitsof its own, darknessdoes not have
or theunbounded,
however,
confused,
of
in
the
disordered,
formless, an obviousfocusedsourcebut is all-enveloping
imagery
presented
also
elementsof the existing and all-consuming.
unlimited
or seemingly
Lackingsource,darkness
andthusappearstobe
oftheprimordiallacksedgesandboundaries
world.Thusthecondition
natural
withinfinite
depthandendlessmystery.
maybe envisionedas a greatrushingwind,as limitless,
absolutecalmand silence,as monstrous
battle,as Darknesslurksbehindthelight.Like silenceand
oceandepths(thedeep),as unfathomable
darkness, thevoid,darkness"does away withevery'this'
as inGenesis and 'here,'in orderthat'thewhollyother'may
ofsuchelements,
oras a combination
whenGod createdthe become actual" (Otto 1950:70, 220f.; Zajonc
1.1-2: "In thebeginning
heavensand theearth,theearthwas a formless 1993:2).
contrasts
betweenlightanddark
Theseinherent
void and darknesscoveredtheface of thedeep,
cultureswith
in
industrial
not
as
of
the
are
the
face
over
whilea windfromGod swept
apparent
to
means
the
waters."9
producestrongand
technological
so
that
artificial
abundant
oband
draws
Such imagery
light
day-likelightcan
upon qualities
so farintothedarkas
thatnotonlyareperceptionallybe extendedand intruded
servedconditions
at will. In such
to peoplebut also allow themythicallyto turnnightintoday virtually
familiar
betweennightand day,
and first societiestherelationship
remoteera of cosmologicalbeginnings
Insteadof givingway
to be eternally
presentin theconstant darkand light,is reversed.
principles
ineviofeverysea,thepowerofeverywind, each eveningbeforethe all-encompassing
restlessness
dark
and
the
of
of
the
darkness
or theenveloping
uneasily
sensing
coming
tability
impenetrability
industrial
otherness,
and silence of everynightas well as in the theadventof itssupernatural
make
and
send
have
that
numerous
of
rituals
physical
night
packing
peoples
religions
liturgical
builtuponthemesofdarkness,
silence,water,and lighttriumphover naturaldark. Concurrently,
here-and-now
thelike.10This is also to say thatcertainnatural thesurface-oriented,
qualitiesofthe
ofthe secularworldoflightalwaysseemtopredominate
anddarkness
suchas thestillness
conditions,
pertinentand night,insteadof beingin itsownrightqualespecially
night(tofocusonthosethemes
now is simply
and uncanny,
to thisessay),have longbeenperceivedas qual- itatively
mysterious
absenceor suspension
and extraordinary
regardedas thetemporary
chargedcircumstances
itatively
as quickly
of of lightthatshouldbe gottenthrough
potencies
spiritual
periodsoftimewhendistant
In
as
theuniversedrawnearerand people mayreach and insensibly possible. contrast,
among
shadowsto contactunearthlynonindustrial
outintothelimitless
peopleslikethoseof lateAntiquity
andtheearlyMiddleAges,whocouldnotmaster
powersandmysteries.
and controlthedarkso thoroughly,
benocturnal
direct
for
This potential
nightcarried
linkage
and clearly
in
human
affairs
heavier
the
is
the
and
tweenthehuman
weight
supernaturaltemporara
distinctive
of
a
realm
constituted
into
the
intrudes
when
"nightreality,
spatialday
ily suspended
onto season"as thetermwas oftenused in traditional
qualitiesof nightto forceattention
temporal
andtheseemingly
immediate
urgent, Europe(e. g., Neale andLittledale1976),qualitasurroundings
of tivelycompletely
here-and-now
day.11
separatefrombright
mundanity
thoughshort-lived,
In
other
cares.
and
activities
words,
ordinary
daily
inherently
present
(day)lightand (night)darkness
11 In manyrespectsdarknessand themedievalnightwere
regardedin verynegativeterms,beingassociatedwith
9 Russell1977:67; Keel 1978:55; Cassirer1955:96; Peters
sin,heresies,
airs,night-witches,
death,ghosts,malignant
and thelike.Yet it was
thedemonic,thieves,murderers,
1911;Picard1952;VanOver1980.
a timeformorepositivefamilyvisits,socialevents,and
10 Levi 1987:21;Le Goff1988:175; Cassirer1955:97;Otto
too. Nightalso providedthedeep silencethat
1950:68-70.
partying,

99.2004
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MaryW.Helms

180

thecrucifixion,
and thebetrayalin Gethsemane,
theresurrection.17
the Parousiawas also
For early Christians,
thesurenounced
Formonks,who,by definition,
dark
of night(Matthew
occur
in
to
the
the
world
of
the
of
secular
expected
day,
perficial
things
Taft
a
attraction.
side
of
held
1997:34,
35). This
24.29,42-14,25.1-13;
particular
spiritual
night
for
when
and
silence
may providepartialexplanation
anticipation
quietude
Nightprovideddeep
a
basic
were
devotions
one's thoughts
could be morereadilydrawnto thefactthatregular
nightly
prac("Meditationduringthe and verydistinctive
partof earlyChristian
mysteries.
supernatural
fathers
various
Church
tice.18
is
that
at
better
of
but
is,
course,
early
Writings
by
good;
night
day
ofAlexClement
. . . withworldly
Cyprian,
Hippolytus,
occupations
putasideandtheat- (Tertullian,
ofrisingat
thepropriety
stands andria,
thewholeman,at night,
tention
undivided,
Origen)emphasize
in the divinepresence";Niceta of Remesiana nightto prayandreferto assembliesheldat night
darknightwas the most (Bradshaw1981:48 f., 51, 54; Taft1986:18-24;
1949:63).12Therefore,
1959:100) and commentary
acclaimin communal Jungmann
timeto formally
by pagan
compelling
thatitwascommon
indicates
ritual(as well as in privateprayer)thepresence observers
knowledge
serviceswereheldat night
thatthechiefChristian
andthepowerof God.13
a very ("Theyare a skulking
In so doing,monkswere continuing
breed,theyshunthelight
of
of earlyChristianity
distinctive
attribute
that,to a
day";Minucius,quotedin Dodds 1965:111;see
also
Cabaniss1970:32 f.).All in all,theemphasis
in
lesserextent,
is reflected earlierJudaicreligious
valueof thenightin theopening
texts and traditions,
too. For example,major on thespiritual
was such thatGuiver
of
centuries
in
the
God
encountered
Old Testament
Christianity
figures
with
of thePassover speaksof it as a veritable"preoccupation"
dark14
andtheJewishcelebration
meal began aftersunset,as nightdarkened,in thedark(1988:51 f.).
The earlyChristian
of how (afternumeroustrials,
commemoration
emphasison thenightas
continued
someof whichalso involvedthenight)Pharaoh thepropertimeforreligiousexpression
indeeddefinitive,
of Israelout as a verycharacteristic,
allowedMoses to lead thechildren
aspect
thatdevelopedin the
of Egyptat night.15
The chaos of thefinal"day of theasceticmonasticism
in Egypt,Palestine,
centuries
andfifth
of the Lord" foretold
Syrby the prophetswas also fourth
Guiver
and
to be accompanied
the
the
of
1967:918;
ia,
sun,
(Salmon
Cappadocia
by
darkening
now declined
moon,andstars(Niditch1985:72-73). In theNew 1988:51 f.),although
nightprayers
whichcame
ecclesiastical
themajortransitional
eventsof Jesus' in nonmonastic
Testament,
settings
and evening
lifeoccurinthedark:thenativity,16
thevisitofthe insteadto emphasizedailymorning
shortweeklyvigilfrom
intoEgypt,themiracleofwalking prayers
Magi,theflight
alongwitha fairly
on thewater,thetransfiguration,
thelast supper cockcrow
todawnon Sundaymornings
(Bradshaw
1981:chap.4; Taft1986:chap.3). Fourth-century
focusedexplicitly
onthenightas
monks,
however,
meditation
andprayerful
unionwiththedivine. thebesttimefor
encouraged
andespeciallypsalmody.
prayers
See Wolkomir
and Wolkomir
(2001), Ekirch(2001), and Therewas considerable
in actualpracflexibility
Verdn
introductions
tothenonindustrial
(2002)forgeneral
tice
but
in
typically(and brief)Egyptiandesert
Europeannight.
The factthatthelengthof thehourvariedseasonally hermits
spentmostof, if not the entire,night
in day and in night,as each was dividedinto 12 parts
standingin personalvigilwhilemoreorganized
basedonduration
ofdaylight
andofdarkness,
respectively,cenobiticcommunities
(such as thoseformedin
andreflected
theseparation
betweenthetwo.
encouraged
thatpriDay andnightdo notbecomeone unituntilafterthe13th UpperEgyptby Pachomius)preferred
vate
watches
be
followed
a
communal
invention
of
the
mechanical
clock
with
night
century
by
escapement
mechanism
and theidea of theuniform
hour(Dohrn-van officeat dawn; alternatively,
(in lower Egypt)
Rossum1996).
mightbeginat cockcrowandendat dawn.
12 See also Picard 1952:134f.; Taft 1997:263; Chitty prayer
At
the
end of the day eveningand earlynight
1966:26; Mulcahy1938:26, 31.
wereobserved,followedby a periodof
prayers
13 Russell1977:139, 152, 154; Le Goff1984:178; Warner
restbeforerisingagain to prayin the dark.In
1976:106;Benko1993:65, 75, 214.
Night,theDark, and Early Monasticism

14 horexample,God wrestled
withJacobat theriverford
(Genesis32.22-30)andtriedtokillMosesatnight
(Exodus
4.24). See Russell(1977:180).
17 See thevariousGospelaccountsof theseevents.Guiver
15 Deuteronomy
an extensive
16.6; Exodus 10.21-23, 12.8, 29 f., 42,
listof New Testament
(1988:220f.) presents
14.20f.; see also Chupungco
references
to night.
(1977:16f.,56, 73, 81-84).
16 Liturgically
celebrated
on thedarkest
1962:111;Cabaniss1970:34 f.;
dayofthesolaryear 18 See discussion
byJungmann
Bradshaw1981:21,37-39,57 f.;Taft1986:chap.1.
(Rahner1963:164;Quenot1997:129).
99.2004
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BeforetheDawn

181

Near Easternmonasticcommunities,
Themonkmustsomehowregaintheperheavilyin- mankind.
fluencedby Egyptianpractices,
ofhisfirst
. . ." (Marx1946:9, 75).
creation
nightprayersin fection
in othercases at This fundamental
somecases beganat midnight,
principleunderlaythe monks'
cockcrow.19
to approximate
the incessantprayerthat
Regardlessof particulars,
nightafter efforts
of
wakefulness
and
was
would
their
souls constantly
united
night prayerful
psalmody
ideally
keep
as
a
but
with
God
1946:
while
the
9, 29),
(Marx
recognized
gruelingregimen
physically
necessary
one ofunquestionable
value:"whenthey purityof heartwas to be further
achievedby
spiritual
- rigorousasceticism,
singwiththeangels- forangels,too,aresinging
includingsleeplesswatching
'PraisetheLordfromtheheavens'. . . Thinkwhat at night.Monkswerealso persuaded
thatGod was
it was forthemto spendthewholenightin this nearerin thebeautyand unsulliednatureof the
theskyis more
(JohnChrysostom,
quotedin Taft stilldesert"wheretheairis purer,
employment"
1986:81; see also Cassian 1991:210; Bradshaw open,and God is closer"(Binns1991:xiii;Marx
1946:73). Giventheemphasisaccordedto night
1981:97).
it wouldfurther
In addition
focusonprayer prayers,
tothesingle-minded
however,
appearthatnot
and praise,lengthynightdevotionsprovideda onlytheopenskyofthestilldesertbutespecially
focusedand intensiveexpressionof thedesert'sclearand opennight,whendarkness,
particularly
the supernatadmonition
to praywithout obliterating
the New Testament
earthlythings,brought
5.17)thatconstituted
part ural even closer and prayerwas mostintense,
ceasing(1 Thessalonians
forthisoutreach
of the ideal monasticlife ("the wakefulmonk providedtheoptimalconditions
of thebeginning.
. . ." [Abba to theperfection
toilsnightanddayto praycontinually
Consequently,
earlyChristianity
why,though
Hyperichus,
quotedin Chadwick1958:46, no. itis understandable
withthe
17; see also Timko1990:105-107,115, 118f.]). initiallydevelopedthe "preoccupation"
desert
monks
obit
was
also
of
who,
night,
fourth-century
Prayingat night,instead sleeping,
thatthereis a sensein whichdarkness
and recognizing
forcefulness
withparticular
viouslyexpressed
necessityof watching has moreof God thanlighthas,especiallycame
claritythe eschatological
"life" to "specialize"in it (Guiver1988:51 f.; see also
forthecomingof Christand of asserting
in Otto1950:20 f.).
dark
and Robertson
that
the
so
wakefulness
constant
through
did
not
its attendant
ultimately
sleep-cum-death
in Taft1986:15;
(Clementof Alexandria
triumph
thedarkthrough The NightOfficein WesternEurope
1977:93). Combating
Chupungco
was also an essentialpartoftheconwakefulness
to Italyand thence
was introduced
demonsthat, Monasticism
stantvigilanceagainsttheubiquitous
centuries
and
fourth
and
fifth
the
to
Gaul
other
their
during
sleep
urged
temptations,
many
among
of typesof monasticestablishments
dreamson fatiguedmonksor a diversity
withits troubling
concentration
triedto thwart
by forcing quicklyarose(Rousseau1978:79-91).20Although
prayerful
themto yawn or presenting
images the various communityfoundersindividually
tantalizing
of food or women(Valantasis1992:66 f.; Taft adoptedand adapteddirectivesfor community
life as each saw fit(De Vog 1977), for all
1986:67).
itwould the nightcontinuedto offerthe greatestshelter
andofgreatsignificance
Furthermore,
for spirituallife. The general
wastheoptimal
periodoftimefor and nourishment
appear,thenight
trendthatcan be discerned
withthecreator nocturnal
desertmonkstoreachtoward
duringthis
unity
"mixed
monastic
of
Western
Athanasius'
God of Genesis.In his discussionof
European
period
was
an
is
as
it
sometimes
because
God
Marxstatesthat,
"Lifeof Antony,"
called,
rule,"
increasing
of the communal
and ritualization
ofmoral formalization
thecondition
createdsoulstobe virtuous,
thatmonkssoughtwas vocal worshipconductedat night(as well as
renewaland perfection
in thecondi- periodicallyduringthe day) (Dunn 2000:94).
and
to
"equivalent abiding persisting
"Ordo
"Hencethegoalofasceticlifeis As partof thisprocess,the fifth-century
tionofcreation."
stateof
withtheoriginal
identified
insomemanner
20 Theseincludedlaura-likecommunities
(see note1),cenoat holyshrines
communities
bitichouses,urbanmonastic
oftenephemeral
comand basilicas,and small,informal,
19 Livesof theDesertFathers1980:22, 71, 77, 107, 115;
munitiesthat arose among the well-to-doon private
Rousseau1985:78 f. and n.4, 86n.50; Taft1982:521f.,
estates(Dunn2000:82-84,91; Rousseau1978:152-160;
1993:117f.;
524 and 1986:80-82, 87; Burton-Christie
O'Sullivan1965:32-46;Desprez1990:109-112;Percival
Bradshaw1981:95 f.,99, 101-105;Chitty1966:26;Marx
1946:77; Williams1985:86-90.
1997).
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MaryW.Helms

182

and99 in winter
Cassian's "Institutes"
monasterii,"21
(Bradshaw
(1991, espe- eachnightin summer
has notedin general,
Book
As
Taft
also
fifth
and
the
direc1981:
133-134).
II),
cially
century,
tivesoffered
in thesixthcentury
night
by Caesariusof thesepracticesadded up to "a staggering
himself
Ariesandhis successor,
Aurelian22
as wellas the pensum"(1986: 110) and,as Columbanus
Irish-Celtic
(Dunn2000: 154f.),to a generalstate
"Regulamonarchorum"recognized
sixth-century
of moreor less constantfatiguein
for
monks
of Columbanus
also
(Curran1984,esp. chap.22)
a century
summarized
in nightobservances which,as Jerome
describeseasonalvariations
succintly
and
to
bed
exhausted
will
or
so
an
Eastern
to
accomodate
the
differearlier,
(not
tradition)
"you
go
After
insufare
while
will
and
in
summer
and
winter
of
you
sleep
you walking.
inglengths day
night
at ficient
and indicatethefargreater
sleepyouwillhaveto arise. . ." (Quotedin
lengthof nocturns
withthealwaysmuchshorter Desprez 1990:105; see also Kardong1996:170;
anyseasoncompared
Bradshaw1981:134).
offices.
day
formonks,thelengthof thenight
A generalsense of the exceptionalemphasis
Fortunately
in the sixthmoderated
accordednocturns
andof thelengthof thatoffice officewas significantly
a morecompassionof- century
Ruleof St. Benedict,
to seasonandrelativeto theshorter
according
ficescanbe obtained
thenumber ate and humanedirectivedestinedto eventually
bysimplynoting
life
forcenobiticmonastic
thestandard
of psalmsrequiredof each,forpsalmodywas at constitute
theheartofeveryoffice.23
Thus,forexample,the in the earlyMiddleAges and beyond.Because
Ordostipulates
that18 psalmsbe sungeachnight it containsgreaterprogrammatic
completeness,
in winterand 12 in summerbutthatonlythree Benedict'srulealso indicateshow otherareasof
relatedto,orinfluenced
lifeweredirectly
foreachofthe"littlehours"of monastic
psalmsarerequired
theday (terce,sext,none).24UnderCaesariusthe by, the conductof nocturnsand thusprovides
littlehourseach containedsix psalmsand under us witha fullerpictureof the overallimpact
first
Aureliantheirnumberwas raisedto 12, butnoc- of nocturnson monasticlife. Concerning,
that
turnswas longerstill,containing
36 psalmseach of all, lengthof office,Benedictstipulates
was
to
both
and
summer
in
nocturns
in
winter
winter
and
18
in
summer.25
Continuing
night
12
total
of
to elaboratethe nocturnal
modest
include
a
Columbanus
psalmsplus
nightly
process,
threeseparateofficeseach nightwith Psalms3 and 94, alongwitha hymnand several
stipulated
psalmodythatadded up to a grandtotalof 48 readings,the numberof whichvariedslightly
and 60 on betweentheseasons.However,as usual,nocturns
psalmson each summerweeknight
each winterweeknight
lessons
withadditional
while,for Saturdayand was lengthened
year-round
Sundayvigils,the numbersrose to 60 psalms and canticlesfor the weekly SaturdaynightSundaymorningvigil,thougheven thensome
rest
was always granted(Kardong1996:16921 Regulations
fora Monastery;
Lawless 1987:75-77,167in
to reconstruct
183).26Thoughit is difficult
171;Taft1986:94-96;Bradshaw1981:124-126.
22 Taft1986:101,105-109;Bradshaw1981:127-133;Curran detailtheclocktimespentin nocturns,27
Kardong
1984:180f.
suggests(1996: 170, 178) thatBenedict'sown
23 Psalms were apportioned
among the day officesand monks,living not far fromRome, in winter
in variousways.In earlierrulesthepsalmswere
nocturns
withprimeon Sunday. probablywent to bed about 7 pm and arose
simplysungin orderbeginning
(i. e., at the"eighth
Thus,in the courseof the week,primewas to include about2 am to beginnocturns
Psalms1-19; nocturns,
Psalms20-108; vespers,Psalms hour"[solartime]stipulated
in theRule) whilein
109-117and 128-147;thelittlehoursof theday,Psalms midsummer
theperiodof restwouldhave been
118-127
short
(theseareparticularly
psalms).Inthestandard
from
about9 pm(sundown)to 2 or 3 am
Benedictine
Rule (see below) a few specificpsalmsare shorter,
Knowles
1969:213).
forparticular
e. g.,portions
ofPsalm118 (compare
offices,
specified

forthelittlehoursonSunday.Otherwise
mostpsalmsareto
be sunginorderwithintent
thattheentire
Psalter
be recited 26 See also the description
of the officesin the "Regula
each week(Kardong1996:197-201;see also McKinnon
sixth(RuleoftheMaster;Eberle1977),another
Magistri"
1999;Dyer1999).
rule thought
to be closelyassociatedwiththat
century
24 Taft1986:94-96;Bradshaw1981:124-126.WhenCassian
written
by Benedict(Dunn 2000:182f.; Taft1986:122instituted
the serviceof lauds at sunriseto preventhis
125;Bradshaw1981:140).
monksfromgoingback to bed and harmful
sleep after 27 Time is indicatedin textsin verygeneralterms(e. g.,
nocturns
and matinsit,too,contained
"about"midnight,
at sunrise,
onlythreepsalms
etc.) and hourswerenotof
(Stewart1998:74; Taft 1986:96-100). Thoughall the
oftimeaccorded12
equallengthsinceseasonalreckoning
officesfocusedprimarily
on psalms,theyalso included
hourseach to day and to nightregardless
of variations
variousscriptural
andsomehymns.
in lengthof lightand dark.In addition,
each monastery
readings
25 Bradshaw1981:128, 130; Taft1986:101, 106; McCarthy
exercisedsomedegreeof flexibility
in shifting
thetimeof
1960:72.
thehours.
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BeforetheDawn

183

Benedictine
monkssleptin a commonroomin hindrance
to thecarefulobservanceof thenight
whicha candleburnedall night.Theysleptfully officein theearlyMiddleAges,butin at leastone
bothformodesty
andto facilitate
a quick important
theabsenceofsuchmayactually
clothed,
respect
and readyrisingfornocturns,
the beginning
of have helped to heightenthe cosmologicaland
their"day."28
Benedictis explicitabouttheimpor- spiritual
oftheexperience.
significance
Discussing
tanceof prompt
readinessto undertake
thenight howconceptsoftimeandeternity
areconstructed
thatsuchnocturnal in ritual,Rappaport(1986) commentsthatthe
vigilandKardongemphasizes
in risingcan be understood
as consti- detailedmechanicalcalculationand numbering
punctuality
an important
act of monasticfaith.29
(This of time (as in equal hours,minutes,seconds)
tuting
if one thinks overwhelms
andultimately
defeats
thesenseofthe
pointcan be especiallyappreciated
of the rigorsof risingat nightin a dimlylit eternal
theabsenceofsuch
(1986:22). Conversely,
and unheateddormitory
in winter,
withintentto detailedcalculations
wouldimplythat,intheearly
ofhoursin an equallycold,dark, MiddleAges,theveryindeterminancy
oftemporal
spenda number
and dampchurch,in morenortherly
at night,combinedwiththe need for
portionsof reckoning
such
conditions,
Europeand in England.See Crossley'sevocative heavyrelianceon "God-created"
a pointin time,would
[1936:28]). Beforerising,however, as thestars,forcalculating
description
monkswould have to be awakenedat the ap- have explicitly
of the
deepenedan appreciation
hour,notan easy featsincetheylived eternal.
propriate
in a worldlackingconstant
Astronomical
observations
occasionedby noclengthof hours(see
note27) andalarmclocks.Thustheissueofearly turnswouldalso have encouraged
contemplation
theproblemof of the orderliness
of the universeas evidenced
medievaltimekeeping,
specifically
howtoidentify
a particular
of the starry
pointintime,becomes in the "order,peace, and harmony
office.
the
and
the
associatedwiththemonastic
night
nightsky", constellations,
phasesof
about
time
the
moon
little
how
monastic
rules
say
(Spitzer1963:112, 153n.24) and by
Early
of
the
Master
extension
the
Rule
enhancedthesenseof
was determined,
mayhavefurther
though
took
the
of
of
monks
the
otherthatinfusedthe
notes
that
note
turns,
26)
(see
presence
pairs
spiritual
while
the
conduct
of
nocturns
when
to
awake
the
in
in weeklyshifts,
assembled
monks,
trying stay
orderas evidencedin the
otherssleptin orderto awakentheabboton time theirownorganizational
fordeter- strictand unvarying
(Eberle1977:193). Severalpossibilities
positionaccordedto each in
the
the
church
withstructured
are
chantto
that
time
choir,31
however,
including
sought
likely,
mining
in theeverlasting
cosmic
candlesor lampsof oil, whose emulateand participate
use of calibrated
of theangelicheavenlycourt.
rateindicatedpassage of a known orderandharmony
consumption
of a certainnumber In short,monasticnocturnal
far
time-reckoning,
periodof time,therecitation
a dterrant
to propermonastic
ofpsalms,possiblytheuseofa waterclock
(though fromconstituting
weather experiences,
wouldhaveheraldedtheconjunction
itwouldfreezein winter)
and,especially,
of the stars,the method betweentheorderedmonasticworld,theordered
observation
permitting,
andtheordered
cosmiceternity
advocatedby Cassianand evidencedby thecon- physicaluniverse,
in generalandnocturns
most
siderablemonasticattention
liturgy
givento thefeatures thatmonastic
thechangingseasons of all soughtto defineandeffect.
of thenightskythroughout
It mayseemto us thattheabsence
of theyear.30
a
timepieceswouldhaveconstituted
ofdefinitive
28 Kardong1996:224-230;De Vog 1983:181; see also
Eberle1977:147f.,190-194,203,240,246.
29 Kardong1996:228f.;Bauer1987:99;Symons1953:11f.
30 McCluskey1998:100,106,110-112;Constable1975:4 f.;
Bauer 1987:102; Le Goff1988:176; North1975; Stock
is illustrated
most notably
1988. This markedinterest
"De cursustellarum"
of Tours'sixth-century
by Gregory
(McCluskey1998:101, 104-110),whichincludesdiscusand by the
as timeregulators,
sion of theconstellations
stellaremonasthehorologium
startimetable,
11th-century
of
ticum(Constable1975),whichnotestheexactpositions
to variousmonastic
when
constellations
relative
buildings
froma fixedpointon thegrounds
ofa monastery
observed
France.
locatedin north-central
probably

sat in choirin an invariant

31 The brothers
orderaccording
to theirindividual
rankin thecommunity
as determined
butalso byqualityof religious
primarily
bydateof entry
lifeandby theabbot'sdecision(Kardong1996:515-517,
thatorder,in choirjuniormembers
519,523-525).Within
of the community
and novicessat in the frontrows,
in thesecondor backrows.Theserows
seniormembers
constituted
twoparallelrangesof seatsfacingeach other
acrossan open centralarea wherea largelecternstood
to support
booksand wheretheprecentor
or chiefsinger
theconduct
ofthechantthatthebrothers
directed
knewby
For further
detailssee, amongothers,Kardong
memory.
1996:171f., 175, 134f., 415; Guiver1988:96; Eberle
1977:18;Harper1991:36-38;Anson1949:187-189;Cook
1961:81-84;Dickinson1961:17-22.

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MaryW.Helms

184

Isidoreof Seville, in
and eternaltimelessness,
the
characterized
the seventhcentury,
explicitly
movement
of
all
free
as
time
of
a
in deep
The darknessthatthecommunity
encountered
night
in a sense,to an absence
thenocturnal
church
beyondthe andthuscorresponding,
passedeffortlessly
time
of
of
the
wallsto blendintotheprimordial
darkness
(Verdn2002: 1). This unearthly
earthly
and
stillness
More
universe
thatextended
quietalsomadenightitselftheperfect
beyond.
specifically,
of creationto seek contact
to connectthe darknessof the earlymedieval timefortheproducts
in the
As
maker.
with
their
elemental
darkness
church
at
with
the
writing
Hippolytus,
abbey
night
to
it
is
of the universeis to connectthe abbey night thirdcentury,
important pray
explained,
because "at thathour all creation
withGenesis and withabsolute,firstprinciple at midnight
to praisethe Lord; stars,
cosmologicaloriginsas expressedin the nature is stillfora moment,
of darkness.In the openingchapterof Genesis trees,watersstopforan instantand all thehost
to himpraisesGod
this darknessis presentedor impliedin three of angels(which)ministers
in this hour"
of
the
the
souls
with
of
the
as
a
basic
condition
contexts:
righteous
separate
uncreated,amorphous,primordialuniverse;as (quotedin Bradshaw1981:54; see also Joneset
thecalm and the
fromwithinwhichthe cosmic al. 1992:87 f.). In likemanner,
the precondition
"thismostholytimeofday,the
creationwill emerge;and as indicativeof the quietofthenight,
thetime
hourswhenpeace dothall embrace,"34
itself.
of creation
qualitiesofthebeginnings
to us by
As was indicated
earlierin thisessay,primeval when"silenceand quiet are [offered]
conditionof the un- thenightitself (Nicetaof Remesiana1949:65),
darknessas a fundamental
the nocturnalhours as particuin the recommended
referenced
createduniverseis repeatedly
"forwe the
for
Primordial
dark as creational larlysuitable monasticdevotions,
Old Testament.32
of nightto
time
at
leave
all
couch
is suggestedby theJudeo-Christian
quiet
promptly
precondition
darkness
as
the
of such
dwelling pray."35
interpretation
The variousearly medievalmonasticrules,
place of thecreativeGod (Chupungco1977:82)
of
is and especiallyBenedict'sdetaileddescription
andby theimplication
thattheGodlydarkness
Dei
of
the
conduct
the
that
of
creative
(Workof
opus
proper
presciently
anticipatory
power, is,
that
indicate
Primordial
without
darkness
cannot
God),36clearly
duringthe early
light
appear.33
this
ofnocturns
darkas expressive
ofthequalitiesofthebeginning MiddleAgestheoffice
heightened
exercisebyformally
nocturnal
differen-traditional
of creation
itselfinvolvestheformation,
spiritual
betweenthemonksand
therelationship
of "night"and "day" ritualizing
tiation,and identification
the
andtransforming
(Genesis1.4f.) whichsubjectsthegreatdarkness thenight,shaping,
ordering,
withcommudarkness
ofprimordial
itselftothecreational
processandaccordsita de- experiencing
as ritualbecame
In so doing,nocturns
finedandlimited
orcontained
placeinthatcreation nal liturgy.
and
as thenewlynamed"night"(Ladner1995:68, 69; itselfa creationalact that,by deliberately
becomes formally
sacralizingthe timeof night,validated
Chupungco1977:47). Darknessthereby
or "essence"(Cassirer
further
of the a specific"mythic"
associatedwiththe characteristics
identity
it closer,
ofthehexaemeron
whentheearth 1955:89) forthedarknessand brought
verybeginning
was "perfect"
and"ideal"in itsstillness
andin its so to speak,to theassembledchoirwhereitcould
intothepattern
of prayer,
be integrated
readings,
unitywithheaven(Leach 1969).
As attributes
and theverbaland musical
of darkness
as well as of eternityand silentmeditation
and of paradise,perfection,
inthepsalmicchant.37
inherent
and related structure
Nocturns,
stillness,
formalcommunalofficeof the
such
as
timelessness
as
the
and
qualities
lengthiest
immutability
have been expressedin variousways. Regard- monasticopusDei, thereby
wentbeyondindividdarkness
and
Benko
the
ing
perfection,
captures
whenhe characterizes
condithought
indirectly
the
34 Fromthehymn"PrimoDie Quo Trinitas"
byGregory
tionsin theverybeginning,
before
creation
right
Great,in Mulcahy(1938:6).
"when'theSpiritofGodwasmovingovertheface 35 rromthe
toGregory
Unitasattributed
hymnlu, Tnnitatis
of thewaters'"(Genesis1.2), as "theunspoiled
theGreat,in Mulcahy(1938:26, 31).
stateofcreation"
in Kardong
stillness 36 See specificsandinteipretational
(1993: 10f.).Regarding
commentary
Darkness,Genesis,and theHarrowingof Hell

theRuleoftheMaster.
(1996);alsoEberle(1977)regarding
37 Rappaport
(1986)discusseshowritualstructures
spaceand
32 Forexample,
Genesis1.1-4;Job26.10;38.9;see also May
a moredetailed
especiallytime.Limitson lengthprevent
1939;Peters1911:51 f.;Niditch1985:72 f.
oftheapplication
ofhisideastoearlymedieval
discussion
33 Forrester-Brown
monasticofficeshere,buttheexerciseis veryinforma1974:34, 32; May 1939:207; Ladner
1995:66.
tive.
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BeforetheDawn

185

ual privateprayerand eventheidealof ceaseless the sacredcave (Heyden 1987; Weinberg1986),

of thenuminous further
a standard
theexperience
feature
expressedin thecrypt,
prayerto inform
thatwas often(though
thatorganizedcenobiticmonasticism
soughtto ofearlymedievalchurches
not always) constructed
as a semisubterranean
achieve.
was
held
each
vaultin close proximity
to the altarand to the
the
ritual
of
nocturns
Since
themonksregularly
andeverynight,
experienced monks'choir(Crook2000). The cryptenclosed
of thedivinedarknessand,in addi- remainsof saintsor otherholypersonagesand
themystery
thearchetypicalpartof the spiritualservicerendered
tion,just as regularly
by monks
anticipated
in
involved
the
watch
that
choir
the
of
the
first
creation, verybeginning
theykeptover
process
of lightand life,thatwas replayedeach dawn theseearthlyrelics(Jungmann
1959:281; Dunn
1983:61).
withthe adventof the day. Withinthe broader 2000:91; Wallace-Hadrill
contextof Christianliturgyand theology,this
Perhapsthe ultimatemedievalidentification
in accordedthe sacred cave, however,was as a
cosmiceventwas also replayedand celebrated
forminChrist'sdeathandresurrection.powerful
otherworldly
placerelatedto thelandof
theophanic
dead
1984:
events
can
the
Thesesecond-creational
144,224 and 1977:62 n.
(Russell
Christological
monasticsetting 12) and perhapsthemostpopularearlyChristian
to the nocturnal
be transferred
fortherealization andmedievalimageofsalvation
to provideanotherdimension
(alsoincorporated
of themonasticdark. intotheApostle'sCreed)is thelegendknownas
of thepowerand mystery
of Hell"38in which,on HolySatin the"Harrowing
we mustconsidernocturns
To do so, however,
Christ
offices urday,betweenhis deathand resurrection,
withits two shortbracketing
conjunction
of compline(at dusk) and matins(at dawn). A (like the sun crossingthe darkregionbeneath
seriesoftropescan be associatedwiththistrioof theearth;Rees 1992:80) descendsintothevast
to break
suchthatcompline: nocturns darknessof the cavernousunderworld
offices
night-related
with
salvational
flood
it
of
the
sun : thenocturnal
: matins:: thesetting
light
journey open gates hell,
of light:: thedeathof (an obviousparallelwiththeoriginalcreationin
ofthesun: theemergence
the
Christ: Christ'srestin thegraveanddescentinto Genesis;cf. Quenot1997:80) and,defeating
there
souls
the
release
::
resurrection
the
:
dead
(Macof the
devil,
thenetherworld
imprisoned
: EasterSunday(cf. Culloch 1930). Thereis muchin thesethemes
GoodFriday: HolySaturday
forthemonastic
Rahner1963:112-114,117; Chazelle2001:28 f.; to engagemonasticsensibilities,
liminal
kind
of
itself
a
was
vocation
death,closed
Table
see
1).
to secularearthlylife but stillawaitingrelease
intoeternalsalvation;themonasticgoal included
andTropes
Offices
Table1: Night-Related
demonicluresand
oversoul-destroying
prevailing
Matins
Nocturns
and the longesthoursof monastic
Compline
temptations;
whenmonkswere mosttrulymonkish,
liturgy,
of
Nocturnal
sun
journey Emergence
Setting
at nightin a dark,cavernouschurch
served
were
ofsun
light
to a crypt-tomb.39
in close proximity
Resurrection
Christ'srestin
DeathofChrist
the
in
this context,therefore,
Considered
thegraveand
hoursof nocturns
experienced
regularly
descentintohell
lengthy
themselves
be
understood
can
each
on
weeknight
Easter
GoodFriday
Sunday
HolySaturday
rest
Christ's
in a restrained
as recalling,
fashion,
the
descent
and
tomb
the
of
silence
in thedark
of thedead40whilethemore
Withintheserelational
chains,nightand noc- to theunderworld
extended
night- Sunday
turnsare associatedwiththeabsenceof thesun,
weeklyvigilon Saturday
and
more
deand
tomb
intenselythe
fully
Christ'srestin the quiet of the
morningbespoke
that
themes
scentintohell,and Holy Saturday;
to death-like
relatethemonasticdarkness
earthly See the
GospelofNicodemus.
3rd-4th-century
Apocryphal
void or abyss 38
the
and
extinction
pre-salvational
39 It couldbe saidorearlymedievalmonksgarnered
togetner
of life and light.
thatawaitsthe (re)emergence
sacred
in theabbeychurch(as in a kindof otherworldly
forebears
theirvocational
VariouslateAntiqueandearlymedievalmonastic cave),as ofthedesertanchorites,
whooftenutilizedcavesas shelters,
tombs,andoratories,
canbe relatedtothesetropes
themesandpractices
diedwithChristtotheworld;
that"inthecavethehermits
of
the
consideration
also
below),including
(see
heretheyfought
demons,as Christin Hades vanquished
of thedarkenclosedabbey
physicalatmosphere
thedevil. . . heretheywerereborn;heretheytastedthe
churchand choirwithinthecontextand imagery fruits
ofparadise"(Williams1962:38).
of the tomband its close conceptualrelative, 40 McNamara2000:362; Taft1997:263; Clement1993:192.
99.2004
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186

MaryW.Helms

to
of thedarkas sinsoftheflesh.42
It is notsurprising,
therefore,
Christological
powerand mystery
it mirrored
in themonastic
the ultimateliturgical
experienceof finda steadystreamofcomments
theholiestcosmologicalnightof all - thegreat literature
burden
andtheconstant
fatigue
regarding
in
of
insufficient
paschal vigil commemorating Christological enduring
sleep (and food),even
termsthearchetypical
sacrednight"whichdispels though
somerules,mostnotably
Benedict's,
urged
theprimoridal
backto moderation
darkness,
bringseverything
alongtheselines.43
The correlations
thatearly monasticfathers
the chaos
light,formand order,and transforms
of sin ... intothecosmosof divinegrace. . . the positedbetweenlimitedsleep, fasting,and resecondcreation[which]likethefirst,
commenced ducedphysicaldrivesandpassionsmayhavebeen
on thenightbetweenSaturday
and Sunday,when accuratelyobserved(Dunn 2000: 16f.; Stewart
and clinicalstudieshave
God createdtheworldand Christrose fromthe 1998:72). Experimental
tomb"(Gregoryof Nazianzus,quotedin Chu- shownthatsleepdeprivation
(analogoustomonastic vigils)and fastingmayresultin a significant
pungco1977:84; De Puniet1939:175).
Confident
thatthis greatestof all nocturnal degreeof drivereduction
by (possibly)directly
theactivity
ofendogenous
mysterieswould be repeatedin the Parousia, orindirectly
enhancing
monksawaitedin theirownversionof thesacred opioidsin thebody(Bushell1995).44Heightened
and a
dark,sharingtheirnightlyliturgicallives not opioid activityalso enhancestranquility
associatedby moonly with attendingheavenlyangels but also sense of euphoria,properties
withtheentombed
withthedeepestformof prayerin
whosestilland silentspiritual nasticfathers
"presence"enhancedthe stillnessand silenceof whicha senseofGod's immediate
presencemight
thenuminous
theninth be obtained.Researchinto sensorydeprivation
Indeed,during
atmosphere.
andthereafter,
theofficeofnocturns
came (as would have obtainedduringnocturnsin a
century
tobe accompanied
a
office
the
dead darkchurch)and rhythmic
of
auditorystimulation
by liturgical
thatwas conducted
in conjunction
withnocturns (such as sustainedchanting)has also revealed
increasesin
proper,one of the manyactivitiesemphasizing drive reductionsand, presumably,
thecloseassociation
feltbetweenmonksandthose opioidactivity
thatwouldbe conduciveto altered
whohaddied"good"deathsbeforethem(Knowles awareness(especiallywhenaddedto variousself1933; Paxton 1990:134-136; Bloch and Parry mortification
practices).
1982:15f.).
Consideredoverall,Bushellsuggeststhat,by
enhancing
endogenousopioids,thepracticeof a
fullasceticalandmeditational
(suchas he
program
studiedamongcontemporary
Sleep Deprivationand theExperience
EthiopianChristian
of theNuminous
ofdrivesandtheir
ascetics)mayleadtoa reduction
witheuphoric
Within
statesofbliss.45
replacement
Whenthe monasticbrothers
conductednocturns thecontextof earlymedievalmonasticism,
it is
andtherelatedofficeofthedeadthey,likeChrist easy to understand
that,fromthepointof view
on Holy Saturday,
stroveto defeatthe sleep of of asceticism,
in the
regularnightly
participation
deathas theystroveto shapeandcontrolthedark lengthyofficeof nocturns
in the close to total
(Chupungco1977:92 f.). One way to attainthis
goal was to remainawake especiallyat night, 42 De Vog1983:182,231-234;Peifer1966:456f.;Livesof
thepropertimeforphysicalsleep,and
theDesertFathers1980:22 f.; St. MaximustheConfessor
normally
1955:162,176;Valantasis
1992:72, 54, 55.
to abstainfromsleepas muchas possibleat any
othertime.On a broaderplane,sleeplessness
was 43 See also Cassian 1991:chap.17, 316, 406. For example,
"Let[themonk]comewearyandas ifsleep-walking
tohis
of asceticism
partof thegeneralpattern
practiced bed,andlethimbe forcedtorisewhilehissleepis notyet
to an original
by monkswhoalso soughta return
finished"
(Columbanus,
quotedinLawrence1989:45); "our
Adamicstateof ideal innocenceand humanpufoodis scanty,. . . oursleepoftenuponourbook.Under
ourlimbsthereis buta hardmat;whensleepis sweetest,
rity.Fromtheearliestdaysof monasticism
sleeplessnesswas the asceticideal,41sincewatching, we mustriseat a bell's bidding. . ." (Ailredin Knowles
1969:90); see also Jerome,
quotedabove.
withfasting,
was thought
to helppurify 44 Thebody
together
manufactures
variousopiate-like
known
peptides
the heartby encouraging
the will to overcome
as endogenous
opioids.Throughactionsbothwithinthe
eviland,bygenerally
centralnervoussystem
andin peripheral
areasoutsidethe
thebody,taming
weakening
numerous
and
bodilyfunctions
to destroy CNS theopioidsinfluence
concupiscence,
thereby
helpinggreatly
exert
effects
on moodand motivation. for
41 "An hour'ssleepis enoughfora monk:thatis, if he is a
(AbbaArsenius,
fighter"
quotedin Chadwick1958:49).

See,
profound
(1991).
example,papersin AlmeidaandShippenberg
45 Bushell1995:560f.; see also Appenzeller
1987:476-478;
Winkelman
1997:397-402.
99.2004
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BeforetheDawn

187

01 a cave-likechurchwhilecopingwith following
darkness
noctumsandmatins,
as somerulesperlimited
and
chronic
would
or
a
noon
siesta
in
as Benedict
mitted,
summer,
sleep
permanent
fatigue
havebeenregarded
as profoundly
beneconstituted
spiritually
permitted)
mainlyoptionalsleepwhich
ficialif theseopioid-enhanced
not
could
be
avoided
if
the
abbotfeltit appropriate
practices only
facilitated
but
also
the
enhanced
sense
of
for
monks
to
awake
aftermatins.However,
celibacy
stay
calmandpeace attendant
involvement
in
communities
rules,
upondeep
governed
by morerigorous
inprayer
theoverallawareness
andheightened
ofa especiallythose withlongernightoffices,the
forthebrothers chronicfatigueexpressedby monasticcommenimbuedatmosphere
supernaturally
whenthequalities tatorsmayhavereflected
a persistent
duringthosehoursof darkness
insufficiency
ofnight,
whichcouldnotbe literally
seen,instead ofcoresleepas wellas ofoptionalsleep.Judging
in otherways.46
hadto be "envisioned"
fromrecentstudies,sleep loss in generalwould
ratherthanactualcaHowever,Bushellfurther
explainsthat,para- have impactedmotivation
dutiesprovidedsleep
may ulti- pacityto perform
necessary
doxically,continuedsleep deprivation
energy was notreducedbelowa certaincriticalpointand
matelyalso lead to a senseof increasing
wakefulness
did notexceed24 hours
and the gradualreduction
(thoughnot the total if sustained
and
Kribbs
1991:
and
of
118, 119). However,a
elimination) sleepiness fatigue(1995:556). (Dinges
such
as
a
monkin choirduring
well
have
monks
might
ques- sleepyperson,
Althoughearly
would
have
fluctuated
betweenalertness
be
at
hand
tionedthepoint,an explanation
noctums,
may
as motivation
to perform
offeredby Home anddrowsymicrosleeps
if we considerthe contrasts
betweentwomodesof sleep,"core"and "option- competedwithpressurefor sleep (Dinges and
al" (1991: 172-175). Duringa periodof normal Kribbs1991:119).
sleep bothessentialcore sleep,whichrefreshes
and optionalsleep are active.
cerebralfunction,
core
However,
sleep liftsafteraboutsix hours, BeforetheDawn
Compared
leavingonlyoptionalsleeptocontinue.
wakefulness
allowedgradualdefeatof
withcoresleep,optionalsleepseemsto be more Nocturnal
of
attainment
the longed-for
forovertimeit can be sin and facilitated
evendispensible,
flexible,
Adamicnatureas it was beforethe
or eventotally
reduced(or extended)
relinquishedtheinnocent
theimageofdeath
ofsleepdefeated
factors(e. g., sense fall;rejection
on environmental
depending
with
atnightwas correlated
seasonalchangesin lengthof suchthatwatchfulness
of safety,
boredom,
withtheresurrection.
caused triumphant
life,specifically
days,etc.).Homealsonotesthatthefatigue
monasticgoals presentearly
rooted These intertwined
bylossofcoresleepis morephysiologically
ofthenightwho
whilethatcausedbyloss ofoptionalsleepis more medievalmonksbothas creatures
the
or subjectivein nature.This may rituallyexplored
"behavioural"
extraordinary
supernatural
by darknessand as watchers
explainwhy,afteraboutfivedays of prolonged realmmanifested
a turning
pointis reachedwhere forthecomingday forwhomthedarkwas the
sleepdeprivation,
thatanticipated
forliturgy
thebackdrop,
the overallfeelingof sleepinesslevels offand setting,
the
and
its
annihilation
some
by light.Although
conquest
suggesting
improvement,
subjectsevenshow
are by no meansmutually
theneedsof thesetwoorientations
that,whilecore sleepinessremains,
seemsto have outweighed
theoptionalsleepprocesshaveeased.Homethere- exclusive,theformer
ofthedark
foresuggeststhat,whereascore sleepinesscan thelatterto theextentthatexploration
in
the
over
can
be
light liturgical
conquestby
prevailed
only assuagedbysleep,optionalsleepiness
eitherby sleep or by increasing terms,given that the early morningofficeat
be counteracted
in lengththan
to stayawake.
incentive
daybreak(matins)was farshorter
inearly
immense
whose
was
it
can
medieval
to
noctums,
monasticism,
importance
Turning early
In
such medievalmonasticlife cannotbe overstated.
be suggestedthat,in a moderateprogram,
theearlynightsleep otherwords,if thecomingof thelightwerethe
as Benedict'sRuleprovides,
ritualgoal,one mightexpectthearrivalof
beforenoctumsprovidedforessentialcore sleep greater
to
of day ultimately
latersleepmightbe allowed(e. g., thedawnand theflowering
and whatever
be accordedthegreaterpraise,whereas,in fact,
thedepthsof nightseemto haveheldthegreater
46 Cassian explicitly recognized that mystical experience fascination
forthebrothers.
could occurduringrecitationoftheoffice(Kirk 1931: 206 n.
it is quitereasonableto arguethat,
Of
course,
2). Earlydesertmonksregardedpersonalvisionsas normal
and
ritualthattamed,organized,
night
by
lengthy
Benedict
but
emphasized spiritualexperience
experiences
facilitated
the
monks
sanctified night,
in the contextof communalofficesinstead.
("created")
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MaryW.Helms

188

life in the church

the arrivalof the dawn; thatit was theirtask in earth'sshadows,liturgical
to preparethe way for lightby personaland choirat nightbespokebothan opennessto the
liturgicalentranceinto and triumphover the veryfirstcreationalact and to the pre-Adamic
ofthebeginning
thebeginning
darkness
andthattheultimate
(day
goal,thecomingof dawnmarking
infinite
the
with
and
for
the(salvational)
illumination,
one)
primordial
acquaintance
spoke
essentially
intheseterms
theearlymorning and eternaldarknessthatheld the presenceof
itself.Understood
God of theuniverse.
dawnwouldbe theculmination
andclimaxofthe theever-existing
Monks,as
thedawnfor
Adamicmen,heralded
laborsofthenightoffice(Levi 1987:20) as, atthe imperfect
postanditsEdenicpromiseand
of theoriginalcreationin Genesis,the bothitsChristological
beginning
and climaxof wistfully
pursuedAdam's perfectstateof grace,
originaldawnwas theculmination
menwho spent
theprimordial
butalso anticipatory
precreationalbutmonkswerealso pre-Adamic
vocational
extensive
dark.Thatis to say,just as the initialbursting theirmostintenseand
(opus
forthof lightout of darknessgives the story Dei) efforts
seekingwithpsalmicpraiseandprayer
ofthedarkness
theineffable
of the creationin Genesisits mostfundamentaltopenetrate
mysteries
the
dawn.
Adam
and
both
that
so
the
arrival
of
1955:
(Cassirer
96),
preceded
significance
theearlylightof day informed
a verysignificant
partofthemeaningofthenightformonks.47
However,itis equallypossibleto arguethat,in ReferencesCited
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