Design

vacuum

considerations
and cryogenic

received

form

in revised

Geyari.

Ricer

Ltd..

27 February
En-Harod

in the use of stainless

equipment*

steel

for

1976

thud,

18960.

Israel

The properties
making
austenitic
stainless steel a preferred material for the construction
of high
vacuum equipment
are reviewed. Best results are obtained
if attention
is paid to the improvement
of welding properties,
particularly
with a view to prevent intercrystalline
disintegration.
A review
of mechanical
properties,
the effect of cold working and cryogenic
temperatures
on the strength
and magnetic
characteristics
of stainless steel is given. During material selection for very high
vacuum, attention
must be paid to the porosity problem.
A practical
example shows the application
of these considerations
to the choice of materials for
the CERN-ISR
Intersecting
Storage Rings.

Introduction
Austenitic
stainless
steels of the IS/8 types (18%
chrome,
8%
nickel)
offer a favourable
set of properties
which
make them
particularly
well suited
for the use in the construction
and
manufacture
of high vacuum
equipment.
According
to classical
theory
a film
of extremely
small
thickness
is formed
on the surface
of alloys containing
above
I3 % chrome.
This protective
film. consisting
mainly
of chromium oxides,
is impermeable
to and insoluble
in most corrosive
media.
If damaged-f.i.
during
manufacturing
processes-it
immediately
renews
itself in the presence
of oxidizing
agents.
Nickel
is added
to the alloy
in order
to improve
corrosion
resistance
in neutral
or weakly oxidizing
media,
to maintain
the
austenitic
structure
of the metal at room
to low temperatures
and also to improve
weldability
and ductility.
The surface
of the l8/8 type stainless
steels is inert,
passive
and has a very low rate of outgassing.
Typical
values are:
Stainless

steel,

As above,

* Lecture
September

degreased,
after

given
1973.

at

Table 1. Groups
Alloy

after

4 h-l

bakeout

the

-4

Third

Israeli

pf stainless

lOa

torr

:.: IO-l2

Vacuum

torr

I s-

cm-

I s-

cmmZ

Congress,

Haifa,

In view of the widespread

application
of stainless
steels in
vacuum
apparatus
it is opportune
to spotlight
some of the
questions
that
frequently
arise during
the design
stage and
during
discussions
with customers.
The same points
are often
raised by shop people,
who do not always
have the background
information
to relate the specific
properties
of stainless
steel to
design
features
of vacuum equipment.

The stainless steel family

Any iron/carbon
alloy with a chromium
content
above
13% is
stainless
steel. The principal
groups
of alloys and their general
characteristics
are shown
in Table
I.
Since the austenitic
group
(300 series) is frequently
used in
the manufacture
of vacuum
equipment
this discussion
will be
confined
to these steels. It might
be opportune
to mention
that
in some cases we find uses for the 400 series hardenable
magnetic stainless
steels in vacuum
service;
one typical
application
is the magnetic
plug sealing
pump-out
valves
for the insulating
space of cryogenic
vessels.3
It is easy to find ones way around
the many
alloy designations due to the fact that most countries
are now using the AISI

steels

group
Structure

AISI

(tYP.J

Hardenable
(heat treat.)

Magnetic

Welding

Cr/Fe

Martensitic

403,410

Yes

yes

difficult

Cr/Ni/Fe

Ferritic

430

no

yes

difficult

Cr/Ni/Fe

Austenitic

300 series

no

no

very

Austenitic

200 series

no

very good
select material
and
process carefully

Cr/Mn/Ni/Fe

* Except

free

Vacuum/volume

machining
26/number

types
7.

designation

no

good*

303, 303 Se, 347 FSe.

Pergamon

Press/Printed

in Great

Britain

287

C Geyari:

Design

considerations

in the use of stainless

steel

for vacuum

and cryogenic

equipment

(American Iron and Steel Institute) system and many manufacturers give equivalent AISI specifications in their literature.
In the AISI system the basic 18/8 type austenitic steel with
approx. 0.1% carbon bears the designation 302, and starting
from this, many modified types have been developed. The
purpose of the changes in alloy composition are improvement
of:
Corrosion resistance (CR)
Weldability (W)
Machinability (M)
Mechanical properties-Yield
strength (Y).
The relationship of the various alloys of interest for vacuum
service is shown in Figure I. Arrows point in the direction of
improved properties.
316L

304L+N

I
304

317L

316 L

W
I

I
CR
-

304

CR

316

t
W

303-

302

Figure 1. Stainless steel used

tion.)
CR = Corrosion Resistance.
W = Weldability.
Y = Yield strength.
M = Machinability.

in vacuum

equipment.

(AJSJ designaFigure 2. Intergranular corrosion

grade 832 (AJSJ 302).4

next

Figure 3. Scheme of
boundaries.5 Chromium

carbide
precipitation
areas shown in grey.

to the weld joint

in a sheet of

Improvement of welding properties of stainless steel

A question which arises frequently when stainless steel has to
be selected for welded vacuum equipment is whether Low
Carbon or Stabilized types should be used; or whether
standard types are adequate.
During the first years of widespread use of stainless steels
the manufacturers often met with the problem of corrosion in
the vicinity of, and parallel to the welding seam as illustrated
in Figure 2. This used to be called Weld Decay but the proper
designation of this phenomenon is Intercrystalline Disintegration, Intergranular Corrosion, or Carbide Precipitation.
The factors causing this type of corrosion are now well
understood. Normally all carbon is dissolved in the austenite
after the metal has been annealed at about 1050-1100C.
However, if the material is allowed to cool slowly or is heated to
500-900C the carbon is precipitated in the form of carbides at
the grain boundaries.
The carbides formed are either (FeC&&
or (FeCr)&.
The rate of diffusion of the carbon to the grain boundaries is
higher than that of the chromium, therefore chromium is taken
from the matrix near the grain boundaries and the chromium
content of this region is reduced, eventually falling below the
limit of II-13 %. If this material is then exposed to acid media
intergranular corrosion is likely to occur since the metal is
sensitized. This is shown schematically in Figure 3.
288

chromium
depleted

in the grain

Because of the fact that vacuum equipment is usually used in

non-corrosive surroundings we are more concerned with the
problem of micro-cracks developing in the carbide-enriched
zone than about the possibility of corrosion in the chromium
depleted zone. Particular importance is attached to the occurrence of intercrystalline disintegration in case the equipment is
exposed to very low temperatures, as in cold traps or cryogenic
pumps. The effect of sensitization (carbide precipitation) on the

C Geyari: Design considerations in the use of stainless steel for vacuum and cryogenic equipment
properties of austenitic stainless steels at cryogenic temperatures is illustrated in Figure 4. The rate of sensitization depends
mainly on two factors:

To estimate the degree of danger of carbide precipitation we

need to know how long the metal which has undergone welding
has dwelt in the dangerous temperature range and how far the
heat affected zone (HAZ) extends from the weld bead. A typical
case is shown in Figure 6. The temperatures in this diagram
have been measured during the welding of 5.5 mm thick stainless
steel using 4 mm diameter electrodes. The graph indicates that
the zone where critical temperature conditions were measured
extends 4 to 8 mm from the weld bead and that in this case the
time spent in the dangerous temperature range was approximately 1 min.
Referring to the time/temperature/sensitization
diagram
(Figure 5), it appears that in this case we can safely use stainless
steel with a carbon content up to 0.06%; a higher carbon content
may, under corrosive conditions cause the start of intercrystalline disintegration due to welding.
Two additional factors may cause the stainless steel to pass
through the critical time/temperature range:

(a) Carbon content.

(b) Time spent in the dangerous tcmperaturc range.
Figure 5 shows a typical TTS (Time/Temperature Sensitization) diagram, indicating clearly the relationship of these
factors. The time shown is the minimum time the steel must
spend in the temperature zone for the onset of carbide precipitation to take place under the test condition.
It should be noted that these data were produced by carrying
out laboratory tests under strenuous corrosive conditions, and
that these tests were specially devised to indicate the increase
of sensitivity to intercrystalline disintegration in the increasing
carbon content.
He II,

Nz

269 -253

196

Tsmparrture,
Kc
CM,
co2
-161

CHCIF2

H,O

41

-78

(I) Cooling of thick stainless steel plates after rolling. Any

plate above 20 mm thickness steel has to pass through a
dangerous time/temperature range during the course of
its normal annealing process.

27

Vacuum furnaces which sometimes operate within the

dangerous temperature range for a considerable time.
To prevent carbide precipitation there are three possibilities
open to us.
(a) To select an alloy with a very low carbon content.
(b) To select a stabilized alloy.
(c) To weld with minimum heat input.
(a) Low carbon stainless steels. This is the ideal solution from
the corrosion point of view; however the following disadvantages should be considered:

Tsmperature,
F
Figure 4. Effect of sensitization (1200 F for 2 h) and carbon content on
impact properties of annealed Types 302 (0.140 304 (0.07C) and
304L (0.03 max C) stainless steels.

Lower mechanical strength;

III

.A
/

C = 0.06 1
I
c = 0,05
I

c = 0,03

/I
.
600 I-=#
1

0.5

1,o

10

ln.-Ih ,.

50

100

500 1000
Time in minutes

Figure 5. Time-temperature sensitization diagram for 1818steels with different carbon contents.
289

Geyari:

Design considerations in the use of stainless steel for vacuum and cryogenic equipment
method-low
heat output. The clesigngoal is to
provide a weldedjoint which requiresminimal heat input to
obtain complete fusion of the two components,with sufficient
mechanicalstrength. A typical way to do this is shown in
Figure 7. Obviously the heat required for welding joint A is
lessthan the heat required for welding join B. In both cases
complete fusion can be obtained by conventional welding
methods. The size of the weld and of the relief grooves is
calculatedaccording to permissiblestressin the weldjoint. An
incidental advantageof joint A is that lessstresses
are induced
into the parent parts due to expansion/contractionduring the
welding process.
(c) Welding

800

600

<//lo.0

mm
mm

d/40.0

400

VACUUMSIDE
&
zoo

,-JVJ------t------j
0

Figure 7. Profileof weldjoint.

2

A. Minimal heatinput and residualstress.

B. Conventionalweldjoint.

Figure 6. Heatingeffectsin basematerial(5.5mm 18/8plate)caused

by electricarc weldingwith 4-mmelectrode.Figureson graphindicate distancefrom weld. Figuresin bracketdesignatelimits of the

critical rangefor carbideprecipitation;zone is alsooutlined with
dashes.

The processfor production of low carbon stainlesssteel is

more complex, requiring additional stagesin production.
More nickel in the alloy. One per cent of nickel must be
addedto the alloy for each0.03A of carbon removedfrom
it in order to preservethe austeniticstructure of the steel.
As a result of the last two factors mentioned,the material is
more expensiveand it is usually harder to come by from
stockskept by steeldistributors.
(b) Stabilized grades-Types 321 and 347. Here elementsare
addedto the alloy (Ti and Co) which form carbidesmore easily
than chrome. It must be rememberedthat carbidesare formed
at the critical temperaturesbut in this casewithout depleting
the material of its chrome content. Thesestabilizedgradeshave
higher mechanicalstrength at high temperatures.Again they
are more expensiveand not alwayseasilyavailablefrom stocks.

The welding processshould be planned according to the

following considerations: Low speed welding, using lowest
feasiblecurrent, use of minimal welding gaps, use of strong
welding fixtures. All welding should be carried out under the
protection of inert gason both sidesof thejoint. Frequently the
dissipationof the welding heat from the joint can be assisted
by suitablecopper cooling bars.
Mechanical

properties

The 18/8 type austenitic stainlesssteelsare highly ductile. This

useful property meansthat their ultimate tensile strength is

relatively high, their yield strength is relatively low, and there is
a wide stress/strainrange betweenthesetwo points in which
considerablecold forming of material can take place. This is
shown in Table 2.
It is worth noting that ductile materials, such as the 18/8
stainlesssteelshave a smooth stress/straincurve without a
clearly defined yield point.a It is customary in thesecasesto
state the yield strength as proof yield strength related to a
certain defined deformation, usually 0.2%. The difference in
shape of the strain curve between structural and austentic

Table 2. Strengthof materials,kg mm-, typical values

Material
Stainless
steel
304
304L
304L+N

for comparison
Structuralsteel
St 50 DIN 17100
290

00.2
0.2% Proof strength

GltimatetensileSt.

00.2
0.2% Proof stresscold stretched

20
18
27

50
41
55

38
38
42

36(4

52

C Geyari:

Design

considerations

in the use of stainless

steel

for vacuum

stainless
steel, as well as the definition
of 0.2?:
proof
yield
strength
is shown
in Figure
8.
When comparing
the yield strength
of the base metal and the
filler
metal
in properly
executed
stainless
steel welds we find

Deformotion,

and cryogenic

equipment

ultra-low
temperatures
is the impact
strength,
increase
of notch sensitivity
at low temperatures
negligible.
The retention
of impact
strength
ure 9.

Temperature,

mm

Figure 9. Representative
and 304L

B Deformation,

stainless

Figure 8.

I. Addition
2. Cold

steel (ductile).

strength

in austenitic

stainless

impact

values

of Type

304

steel.

of nitrogen

steels and weld

to the alloy.

stretching.

3. A combination

that the yield strength

of the filler metal is never lower than the
yield strength
of the base metal. In many cases it is considerably
higher-see
Table
I9
Consequently
the weld seam should
not be considered
to be
the weak link in a properly
designed
and correctly
welded
stainless steel structure.
The design
of low temperature
(cryogenic)
equipment
benefits from the favourable
mechanical
properties
of the austenitic
stainless
steels at these temperatures.
There
is no decrease
in
the yield strength
and in the ultimate
tensile strength,
although
there is a slight
loss of ductility.
The most critical
property
at

Table 3. Yield

V-notch

The designer
of vacuum
equipment
is often
interested
in
using stronger
stainless
steel material,
without
forfeiting
any of
the other
favourable
properties
of the steel. Typical
cases are
cryogenic
vacuum
insulated
vessels in which the design goal is a
reduction
of wall
thickness
in order
to minimize
heat flux.
Usually
these vessels have to withstand
an external
pressure
of
1 bar, at very
low temperatures.
The methods
open to us to
increase
the yield strength
are:

mm

A. Strain curve for typical structural

steel.
B. Strain curve for typical austenitic
stainless
og = Ultimate
tensile stress.
o,,.~ = Proof yield stress at 0.2% elongation.
os = Yield stress.

Charpy

fortunately
the
is small
or
is shown
in Fig-

of 1 and

2.

This is illustrated
in Figure
IO. *
The following
Figure
I I I shows
the improvement
of yield
strength
by nitrogen
alloying
or cold-stretching
in more detail.
As an indication
of the savings
obtainable
it can be stated
that an increase of 40% in the 0.2 % proof yield strength
enables
a reduction
of wall thickness
in the order of 25% to be made.

The influence of cold working

in mechanical

Due to the fact that most vacuum

working
processes,
such as
Deep drawing
Necking
Bending
and

vessels
(Dished

properties
are produced

by cold

ends)

Us)
flanging

metal
-

Multiply

Steel type

Filler

304
304L
347
316
316L
318

308
308
347
316
316
318

kg/mm*

c = 0.05%
ELC
Cb-stab.
C = 0.05%
ELC
Cb-stab.
values

metal

by 1.425 to convert

Base metal
Wmm)

annealed

20
18
22
22
20
24

Corresponding
kg/mm2
20C
38
38
46
45
45
50

weld

metal

100C

400C

34
:;

29
29
47
32
32
44

40
40
..

to 1000 x psi (i.e. ksi).

291

C Geyari:

Design

considerations

in the use of stainless

steel

for vacuum

40

alloying

equipment

Figure 12 demonstratesclearly the increasein UTS and

yield strength due to cold working. The yield strength has a
larger rate or increase,consequently the ductility, which is
shown in the diagram by the distancebetweenthe o.~ and UB
lines,decreases.
The considerableincreasein hardness(Vickers)

o- 0.2
kg/mm2
I. Nitrogen

and cryogenic

30
100

20
:
2. Restretching
sheejs

3. Coidstrefching
vessels

OO-

of plates ond

0.20 % N

of welded

250

4
z

200

IO-

150

IO-

go5
Pf i
4. Combinofions
of i-3.

o---1
0

OOU
Cold stretching

IO

20
%

30

40

50

f
.u
>
2
E

100

Coldslrelchmg

Figure10.Methodsfor raisingtheyield strengthof austeniticstainless Figure12. Yield strength,tensilestrength,elongationand hardness

steels.
versusthe degreeof cold stretchingfor gradeAISI 304(Avesta 832
MV).
%C %O
%NI %N
-832MV
---8rn

DO4
0.04

16.0
16.6

95

a5

OD4
0.1 I

should also be noted. However, the best way to realize the

considerablechangesthat take place in the mechanicalproperties is to try and drill a hole into stainlesssteelthat hasundergone a 30% deformation. The shift in the stress/straincurve
due to cold working is shownin Figure 13.
Pressuretest

In this connection it might be opportune to point out that the

usual method of pressuretesting of vesselsby an application
of 1.5 x working pressureshould be usedwith great caution
where stainlesssteelvesselsare concerned.If there are parts of
the vesselwhich are stressedby normal working pressurejust
below the 0.2% proof strength it is quite probable that these
parts will be stressedto more than 0.2% proof strength by an
application of 1.5 x working pressure,and consequentlythey
will be cold-deformed. Thus a changein ductility and other
mechanical properties is introduced just by pressuretesting.
This might be detrimental to the future performance of the
Testing temperature
C
vesselat normal working pressures.We recommendtesting
Figure11.Nitrogenadditionor coldstretchingasmeansof increasing stainlesssteel vesselsfor leak tightness at normal operating
the yield strengthof an austeniticCr-Ni-steel.
pressures.
it is advisableto bear in mind that significant changesin the
mechanicalpropertiesof the metal take place during and after
cold working. Reductionsin crosssectionarea of 20-30% are
frequent, and unlessthe material isannealedafter cold working,
a significant decreaseof ductility and a significant increasein
proof yield strength are introduced.
292

Changesin magneticpropertiesby cold working and low

temperatures
Referring to the lower part of Figure 12 we note that a magnetic
phaseis formed in the austeniticalloy by cold working deformation. This is a clear indication of the transformation of part of

C Geyari:

Design

considerations

in the use of stainless

steel

for vacuum

Kg/mm

and cryogenic

Magnetic

equipment

properties at low temperatures

The austenite-martensite
transition
takes place at low temperatures in annealed
stainless
steel without
any mechanical
stress
or cold work
being
applied.
The temperature
at which
the
austenitic
structure
loses its stability
and spontaneously
begins
to transform
into a martensitic
structure
(M,)
on cooling
is
mainly
dependent
upon
the alloy composition.
The austenite
forrners
Ni, C, N determine
Ms as shown
in Figure
IS.

60

50

0u

40

+2GGc

P-

30

20

Ni content,

Figure 15. Lowering

0.04%

10

20

10

Figure 13. Stress/strain

curvesrz.

30

40

50

832 MV

= Type

60

304 stainless

70" I.
steel.

the austenitic
structure
into martensite.
Since we are concerned
with vacuum
apparatus
which
is often
used in high magnetic
fields,
or for exact
magnetic
measurements
the probability
of
the non-magnetic
stainless
steel being transformed
into magnetic
metal by cold working
operations
without
subsequent
annealing
must be borne
in mind. The degree
of martensite
formation
by
cold working
is influenced
by the alloy
composition
and the
temperature
conditions
Austenite
forming
elements
(Ni, C, N)
are instrumental
in preventing
a significant
increase
in magnetic
permeability,
without
eliminating
the increase
in tensile strength.
The combined
effects of cold working
and low temperature
on martensite
formation
in a type 304 (18/8)
austenitic
steel is
shown
in Figure
14. The broken
room
temperature
line is of a
similar
shape as the bottom
line in Figure
12. The formation
of martensite
(magnetic
phase)
at cryogenic
temperatures
is
evident.

of the Ms point
Ni.

C and 4-12%

by nickel

in steels with

18% Cr,

The addition
of 0.01%
of N or C lowers
the Ms point
by
approximately
I7 K.r3 Obviously
the nominal
composition
of
the alloy does not give a definite
indication
of the Ms point, due
to the fact that the commercial
tolerances
in nominal
composition
will cause the MS point
to vary
by as much
as 200 K.
Since the Ms point for most of the commercial
types of stainless
steel is placed
at about
270 K it is advisable
to select an alloy
with a nominal
composition
indicating
an Ms point
near 0 K
in those
cases where
the non-magnetic
properties
must
be
maintained
at very
low temperatures.
Nitrogen
containing
alloys (approximately
0.2%
N) are one possible
recommendation. Table
4 shows
the ranking
of austenitic
stainless
steels
(AISI
Type Numbers)
for stability
of metallurgical
structure
in
the 4.2 . . . 300 K temperature
range:

Table 4. Structural

stability of austenitic
stainless steels at low temperatures
(4.2 . . . 300 K)

Stable

Doubtful

Stable

316
316 L
304
304 L
321

316 LN
316 LN
304 LN
304N

Unstable

0.20

0.40

Q60

True tensile strain

Figure 14. Martensite

tion of true tensile

c=ln

0.80

00

I/lo

formation
in an 18/8 austenite
steel as a funcstrain at different
temperatures
(in C).

Incidentally
it is worth
noting
that the formation
of martensite during
cooling
is accompanied
by a volume
expansion.13
This is explained
by the difference
in specific
volumes
of the
austenitic
and martensitic
phase:
Specific

volume

at room

temp,

cm

g-

Austenite:

0.1256

Martensite:

0.1286
293

C Geyari:

Design

Porosity

problems

considerations

in the use of stainless

steel for vacuum

and cryogenic

equipment

Where
equipment
is used under
high or ultra-high
vacuum
attention
has to be paid to the appearance
of minute
flaws in
the steel. The microscopic
size of these imperfections
is very
troublesome,
it being highly
probable
that during
production
the flaw will be blocked
by lubricating
media,
polishing
paste,
or even by the solutions
used for cleaning
the metal surface.
Thus no leak is indicated
during
room temperature
leak testing.
However,
at a later stage, such as bake-out
or cooling.
a minute
leak appears.
At that time it is extremely
difficult
to determine
whether
the leak is an acute or a virtual
one, or whether
the
pressure
rise noted is due to outgassing.
The reason
for the occurrence
of these flaws,
or for the
apparent
porosity
of the steel is found
in the process of making
sheets or bars at the steel mill. There the steel is cast at very high
temperature
into
ingots.
During
the cooling
of the ingots
various
impurities,
mainly
sulphides
and oxides,
float on top
of the ingot. Although
the top part of the ingot is cut off before
the steel is rolled
into sheets or bars, there
is a possibility
of
voids and inclusions
remaining
in the centre of the ingot. These
are reduced
in diameter
during
rolling,
but do not disappear
entirely.
This is shown
schematically
in Figure
lb.

B
LEAK

Figure

(b)

Rolling 1

Figure 16. Schematic-inclusions

BARS 8 PLATES
in steel

during

TUBES
casting

and rolling.

These
remaining
voids
and
inclusions
are potential
leak
paths,
which
become
apparent
only
after
machining
of the
metal.
It is therefore
mandatory
to consider
the direction
of
rolling
of the material
when
designing
vacuum
components
made of stainless
steel. l s
These considerations
are illustrated
in Figure
17. A-shows
a typical
flange for high vacuum.
If this is cut out of a plate B
with voids
or inclusions
in the ROLL
direction,
a leak may
appear
as shown
in C both for an O-ring
and a copper
gasket
flange. If, however,
the flange is made out of bar as shown in D,
its direction
of rolling
is at 90 to the direction
of rolling
of the
plate.
The likelihood
of inclusions
or voids
causing
a leak is
much reduced.
The obvious
way
to reduce
the danger
of porosity
is a
rigorous
quality
control
at the steel producers
plant.
Other
possibilities
to improve
the steel quality
are:

294

Hot
forging
homogeneous
leakage
paths.

after
steel,

rolling.
and

This
breaks

procedure
up
any

produces
potential

vacuum

flanges

porosity.

See text

for details.

Using
Electra
Slag Refined
(ESR)
steel. Although
this
material
is more expensive
it is recommended
for use in
critical
applications.
Table
5 compares
conventional
stainless
steel with ESR stainless
steel.

Table 5. Typical

BARS

(a)

17. High

Area of oxides
Area of sulphides
Inclusion
index
Oxygen
content

values

for austenitic

stainless

steels

Electric arc furnace

with oxygen
blowing

Electra slag
remelted
ESR

0.010-0.030%
0.0304050
%
60-140 mm/dm2
0.006-0.100%

0.002-0.008
Traces
0
0.0034001%

Selection of materials for the intersecting

CERN

storage rings at

In order
to illustrate
the practical
applications
of the design
considerations
outlined
in this publication
it is pertinent
to
examine
the material
selection
procedure
employed
in the case
of the Intersecting
Storage
Rings
(ISR)
which
CERN
have
built
for use with
their 28 GeV Proton
Synchrotron,
Figures
18, 19.7*8
ISR consists
of two concentric
rings,
diameter
300 m into
which
the protons
are conducted
in reverse
motion.
The rings
are not exactly
circular
but intersect
each other
at 8 points,
so-called
intersection
regions,
where
the beams can be caused
to collide.
One of the many
big problems
consists
in manufacturing
the

C Geyari:

Design

considerations

in the use of stainless

steel

for vacuum

and cryogenic

equipment

Maintaining
such a vacuum
in a chamber
with a length
of
approximately
2 km and with
thousands
of joints
probably
makes
the ISR one of the most advanced
vacuum
projects
in
the world.
The configuration
of the proton
beam requires
a free space
of approximately
160 :: 52 mm along the entire circumference
of the rings. Where
possible,
tubes with a circular
cross-section
of 169 mm were used. A number
of magnets
for controlling
the
beam have been placed at regular
interspaces
along
the rings.
In the sections
lying within
the poles of the magnets
the effective
gap is only 60 mm. Tubes with elliptical
cross-section
were used
for these regions.
The outside
dimensions
were 166 mm for the
long axis and 60 mm for the short axis.
The following
principal
requirements
were stated as concerns
the material
for the tube components.
I. Very low magnetic
permeability
in the sheet as well as in the welded

(max
joints.

1.005

at

1000

Oe)

2. High
yield strength
to prevent
the elliptical
tubes from
collapsing
due to the outside
pressure
and to make
it possible
to use sufficiently
thin-walled
tubes. A yield strength
value of
min. 42.5 kg/mm
was required
for a wall thickness
of 2.5 mm.

Figure 18. Schematic

Proton

Synchrotron

diagram-relationships
(PS) and the Intersecting

between
Storage

the CERN
Rings (ISR).

two circular
vacuum
chambers
in such a way that the required
vacuum
(IO-
torr) can be continuously
maintained.
A vacuum
of IO- i to IO- 1 i must be maintained
in the intersection
regions.
A few years ago 10m9 torr could
only be obtained
in certain
laboratory
equipment.

Figure 19. General

view

of the ISR installation.

3. Low
outgassing
means freedom
from

rate of
dissolved

Due
to these requirements
SKRN
(equivalent
to AISI 316
composition
was chosen :
C
0.025

Si
0.5

Mn
1.8

the steel under

vacuum
and absorbed
gases.

which

a nitrogen-bearing
steel,
832
+ N), with the following
typical

Cr
17.5

Ni
13.5

MO
2.7

N
0.18

C Geyari:

Design considerations in the use of stainless steel for vacuum and cryogenic equipment

The magnetic permeability of this steel is lower than I .004 even

at cold working up to 10%.
Yield strength values of approximately 37 kg/mm are
obtained for cold strip rolled material. For the purpose of
increasing the yield strength of the tubes, these tubes were
subjected to cold-stretching to a permanent material elongation
of approximately 5%. Cold-stretching was carried out in two
steps. After welding the cylindrical tubes were first coldstretched freely so that the circumference was increased by 3 %.
Thereafter the tubes were flattened and placed in an accurately profiled tool. When held in this tool the tubes were
stretched approximately 2% by hydraulic pressure to the
desired final shape. Approximately 900 atm overpressure was
required for this. Prior to the cold-stretching the tubes had been
provided with welded-on ends, round for step No. 1 and
elliptical for step No. 2. These were removed after the stretching.
In order to safeguard the required low outgassing rate for the
tubes the initial material was subjected to vacuum annealing
at 850C with a holding time of 4 h.
Approximately 1300 m of elliptical tubes, 1600 m of round
tubes and 12 tons of vacuum annealed sheets and plates in
thicknesses between 0.7-10 mm have been delivered to this
plant.
For the jointing of the tubes, forgings for approximately
18000 flanges of the same steel grade, 832 SKRN, have been
manufactured. The requirements for the flange material were
that it shall be non-magnetic also after welding and the hardness
shall be comparatively high, min. 170 DPN, as compared with
approx. 140 for austenitic steel without addition of nitrogen.
The nitrogen content of the material selected for the flanges
wasN=0.160...0.200%.
The quality control procedures applied during the rolling
of the flange material were particularly stringentlg:
(a) The ingots were rough rolled into blooms, 210 >: 180 mm.
The sink head plus 200 mm material below the mark of
the box edge was cut off. Thus 200 mm more material
than normally was removed from the bloom.
(b) After final rolling the measuring of the slag inclusions is
carried out after turning away 2 mm of the surface layer.
The turning could also proceed in further steps but this
is not normal routine.
(c) Depending on the size of the inclusions detected the
material is classified as follows :
Class 1: No inclusions over 0.5 mm in length.
The material could be used for ultra-high vacuum
applications.

296

Class 2: No inclusion over I mm in length.

Shorter inclusion allowed if they appear single and
not in clusters.
Class 3 : Inclusions over I mm in length or shorter inclusions
appearing close together. The material not accepted
for flanges.
The microscopic examination is used as a supplemental quality
test and not as an acceptance lest. The reason for this is that the
frequency of the dangerous bigger inclusions is not so high that
they are likely to be detected in a single micro test piece.

Acknowledgement
I thank Avesta Jernwerks A.B., Avesta, Sweden, for their
cooperation in preparing this review.

References
L Colornbicr and J Hochmann, S/ai~r/ess aud Hen/ Resisting S/eels,
Edward Arnold, London (I 967).
2 William R Wheeler, PhJlsics Todu.12, 25, 1972, 52.
3 C Geyari and N Pundak, Vacrtrrfrl,21, 1971,413.
4 L Morsing, Stainless Steels and /heir Proper:!ies, Avesta Jernverks
A.B., Sweden.
5 C-H Rosendahl, We/di,lg ofAlrsteui/ic
Sfuihss
Sfecls, Sheet Metal
Industries, February 1970. (Published by permission of ESAB,
Sweden.)
GMechanical and physical properties of the austenitic chromiumnickel stainless steels at subzero temperatures, International Nickel
Ltd, London.
Avesta Jernverks AB, Sweden, Information 5919.
8 F H Keating, Chromium
Nickel
Ausrenitic
Steels, Butterworth,
London (1956).
9 A Bernstein, Welditlg Jourtlal, 47, 1968, 286.
lo Engineering Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel Materials for
Cryogenic Service, 1974, International Nickel Co., London.
I Stainless Steels with Increased Strength, LAMZ 6.3.68, Avesta
Jernverks AB, Avesta, Sweden.
** Avesta Jernverks AB, Sweden, Inf. 6238.
I3 D C Labalestier and H W King, Cryogenics,
13, 1973, 160.
I4 S E Lunner, J Iron, Steel Itlsr, March 1972, pg. 168-178.
I5 V A Wright, Jr, Stainless Steel for Ultra-High Vacuum Applications, Publ No VR-39, Varian Associates, Palo Alto, California.
I6 Avesta Jernverks AB, Sweden Communication TAMZ/ga 197308-20.

I7 Publ Information Office CERN, 1211 Geneve 23, Authorized

reproduction No 1767, 365I I.
I* Una Interessante Applicazione di Acciaio Inossidabile all Azoto,
LAcciaio Inossidabile XXXVIII No 2, Publ Avesta Spa, Milano.
I9 Avesta, Jernverks AB, Sweden, Report LAM 87/89E.

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