Introduction to Cement

& the Fundamentals of

Cementing Operations

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This topic covers

Functions of oilwell cement
API classification and properties of dry
cement and neat slurry and the effect of
additives on these properties
Primary and stage cementing procedures
Equipment used e.g. float collars, stage
collars, surface equipment, centralisers
and scratchers
Inner string and liner cementing are
covered
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Functions of cement in wells

Cementing is the process
by which cement slurry is
placed in the annulus,
bonding the casing to the
formation.
The conventional method
of doing this is to pump
cement down the casing
and displace it around the
casing shoe into the
annulus.
A good cement job is
essential to allow further
drilling and production
operations to proceed.

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The most important functions of the

initial or primary cement job are:
To support the casing string;
To prevent the movement of fluids from one formation to
another through the annulus;
To protect the casing from corrosive fluids in the
formations.
The cement slurry is able to meet these requirements by
providing adequate compressive strength and low
permeability when the cement hardens. The critical factor in
obtaining a satisfactory cement job is to place the cement
completely around the casing to prevent channelling.

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A secondary or squeeze cement job...

May have to be done at a later stage to carry out
some remedial work on the well (e.g. sealing off
certain zones, repairing casing leaks). This
involves forcing cement through holes or
perforations in the casing into the annulus and
formation. Like this

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Planning the cement job

Each cement job must be carefully planned to
ensure that the correct cement and additives are
being used, and that a suitable placement
technique is being employed for that particular
application:
The cement can be placed correctly using the
equipment available;
The cement will achieve adequate compressive
strength soon after it is placed;
The cement will thereafter isolate zones and
support the casing throughout the life of the well.
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Classification of Cement

Compounds (a)
API Class
S
CS
CA
C AF
CaSO
Fineness
There
are Cseveral
classes
of cement
approved
Sq cm/Gram
%
%
%
%
%
by the
API.53 The24differences
between
the
A
8
8
3.5
1600-1900
cements
lie44 in the
of2.9the five
basic
B
32 distribution
5
12
1500-1900
compounds,
are
cement:
C
53 which
16
8 used
8 to make
4.1
2000-2400
C3S,
.
D &C
E 2S, C
50
5
13
3.0
1200-1500
3A, C26
4AF, CaSO
4
3

52

27

12

3.2

1400-1600

52

25

12

3.3

1400-1600

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 Classes A and B: These cements are generally cheaper

than other classes of cement and can only be used at
shallow depths where there are no special requirements.
Note: Class B has a higher resistance to sulphate than
Class A.
Class C: This cement has a high C3S content and so
produces a high early strength.
Classes D, E and F: These are known as retarded cements
due to a coarser grind, or the inclusion of organic retarders
(lignosulphonates). Their increased cost must be justified
by their ability to work satisfactorily in deep wells at higher
temperatures and pressures.
Class G and H: These are general purpose cements which
are compatible with most additives and can be used over a
wide range of temperature and pressure. Class G is the
most common type of cement used in most areas. Class H
has a coarser grind than Class G and gives better retarding
properties in deeper wells.

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Other types of cement not covered by the API specification

include:
Pozmix cement - formed by mixing Portland cement with
pozzolan (ground volcanic ash) and 2% bentonite. Very
durable & less expensive than most other types.
Gypsum cement - formed by mixing Portland cement with
gypsum, giving a high early strength and can be used for
remedial work. It expands on setting and deteriorates in
the presence of water.
Diesel oil cement - a mixture of one of the basic cement
classes (A, B, G, H) with diesel oil or kerosene with a
surfactant. It has an unlimited setting time and will only set
in the presence of water. Consequently it is often used to
seal off water producing zones, where it absorbs and sets
to form a dense, hard cement.

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Mixwater Requirements
API Cement Classification

Following tabulated figures are based on:

API Class

Mixing
Slurry
Wt. is
haveWater
a slurry that
Gals/Sk
Lbs/Gal

The need to
A minimum amount of free water
A (Portland)

0-6000

80-170

B (Portland)
5.2 amount15.6
0-6000
Effects
of reducing the
of mixwater:

80-170

C (High Early)

5.2

15.6

Well Depth
Static
easily(a)
pumped; Temp
Ft
deg F

6.3

14.8

0-6000

80-170

D (Retarded)
4.3
16.4
170-230
Slurry
density, compressive
strength, 6-10000
and viscosity
will
all increase; 4.3
E (Retarded)
16.4
6-14000
170-290
Pumpability
will decrease;
F (Retarded)
4.3
16.4
10-16000
230-320
GLess
volume
of
slurry
will
be
obtained
from
each
(Basic Calif)
5.0
15.8
0-8000
80-200
sack of cement

H (Basic Gulf
Coast)

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4.3

16.4

10

0-8000

80-200

Properties Compressive Strength

To support the casing string a compressive strength of 500 psi is
generally thought to be adequate (includes a generous safety factor).
The casing shoe should not be drilled out until this strength has been
attained - referred to as waiting on cement (or WOC).
Development of compressive strength is a function of several
variables:

Temperature
Pressure
Amount of mixwater
Elapsed time since mixing

With proper accelerators added - the WOC time may be reduced to

3-6 hours. Following table shows some typical compressive
strengths for different cements under varying conditions:

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Compressive Strength
Temperature
deg F

Pressure
(psi)

Typical compressive strength (psi) at 24 hours

Class A & B
Portland

High
early
streng
th
class C

API
clas
sG

API
clas
sH

Retarded
class
D,E,F

60

615

780

440

325

80

1,470

1,870

1,185

1,065

95

800

2,085

2,015

2,540

2,110

110

1,600

2,925

2,705

2,915

2,525

140

3,000

5,050

3,560

4,200

3,160

3,045

170

3,000

5,920

3,710

4,830

4,485

4,150

200

3,000

5,110

4,575

4,775

Compressive Strength
Temperature
deg F

Pressure
(psi)

60

2,870

2,535

80

4,130

3,935

95

800

4,670

4,105

110

1,600

5,840

4,780

140

3,000

6,550

4.960

7,125

4,000

170

3,000

6,210

4,460

5,685

7,310

5,425

200

3,000

7,360

9,900

5,920

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Typical compressive strength (psi) at 72 hours

12

Properties of Dry Cement & Neat Slurries

Properties of Dry Cement
Class A
and B
(Portland)

High early
strength
class C

Basic
API class
G

Basic
API class
H

Specific gravity
(average)

3.14

3.14

3.15

Surface area
(range), (sq cm /
gm)

1,5001,900

2,0002.800

1,4001,700

1,4001,700

1,2001,600

Weight per sack

(lb)

94

94

94

94

94

Bulk volume (cu

ft/sack)

Absolute volume
(gal / sk)

3.6

3.6

3.58

3.58

3.57

3.15

Retarded
class
D,E,F
3.16

Properties of Neat Slurries

Water (gal/sack)
(API)

5.19

6.32

4.97

4.29

4.29

Slurry weight
(lb/gal)

15.6

14.8

15.8

16.5

16.5

Slurry volume
(cu ft/sk)

1.18

1.33

1.14

1.05

1.05

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Thickening Times (pumpability)

Thickening Times
Depth
(ft)

Static
Temp
deg F

Circulating
Temp
deg F

High Pressure Thickening Time (hours:min)

Portland

High
early
strength

API
class
G

API
class
H

Retarded
class
D,E,F

2000

110

91

4::00+

4:00+

3:00+

3:57

4000

140

103

3:36

3:10

2:30

3:20

4:00+

6000

170

113

2:25

2:06

2:10

1:57

4:00+

8000

200

125

1:40*

1:37

1:44

1:40

4:00+

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Properties Slurry density

Standard slurry densities (shown in an
earlier table) may have to be altered to meet
specific requirements (e.g. a low strength
formation may not be able to support the
hydrostatic pressure of a cement whose
density is around 15 ppg). The density can
be altered by changing the amount of
mixwater or by using certain additives. Most
slurry densities vary between 11-18.5 ppg.

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Properties Water loss

The setting process is the result of a dehydration reaction. If
water is lost from the cement slurry before it reaches its
intended position its pumpability will decrease and water
sensitive formations may be adversely affected. The amount
of water loss that can be tolerated depends on the type of
cement job, for example:
Squeeze cementing requires a low water loss since the
cement must be squeezed before the filter cake builds up
and blocks the perforations.
Primary cementing is not so critically dependent on fluid
loss. The amount of fluid loss from a particular slurry
should be determined from a pilot test. Under standard
laboratory conditions (1000 psi filter pressure, with 325
mesh) a slurry for a squeeze job should give a fluid loss of
50-200 cc. For a primary cement job 250-400 cc is
adequate.

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Properties Corrosion resistance

Formation water contains certain corrosive
elements, which may cause deterioration of the
cement. Two commonly found compounds are
sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate.
These will react with lime and C3S to form large
crystals of calcium sulphoaluminate. These
crystals expand and cause cracks to develop in
the cement structure. Lowering the C3A content
of the cement increases the sulphate
resistance. For high sulphate resistant cement
the C3A content should be 0-3%.

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Properties - Permeability
After the cement has hardened the
permeability is very low (<0.1 millidarcy).
This is much lower than most producing
formations. However if the cement is
disturbed during setting (e.g. gas intrusion)
higher permeability may occur (5-10
darcies).

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Cement Additives
Most cement slurries will contain some additives to
modify the properties of the slurry to produce a
better cement job to suit particular requirements.
Most additives are known by certain trade names
used by various cement service companies.
Additives used to:

Vary the slurry density;

Change the compressive strength;
Accelerate or retard the setting time;
Control filtration and fluid loss;
Reduce slurry viscosity

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Major Cement Additives

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Accelerators
These are added to shorten the time taken for the cement to
set. WOC time is therefore reduced and less rig time is
wasted. Accelerators are especially important in shallow wells
where temperatures are low. In deeper wells the higher
temperatures promote the setting process, and accelerators
may not be necessary. The WOC time is usually based on the
time taken for the cement to attain a compressive strength of
500 psi.
Common types of accelerator used include:
Calcium chloride (CaCI2) 1.5 - 2.0%;
Sodium chloride (NaCl) 2.0 - 2.5%;
Seawater

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Retarders
In deep wells the higher temperatures will reduce the
thickening time of the cement slurry and the cement becomes
less pumpable. Retarders are used to prolong the thickening
time and avoid the risk of the cement setting in the casing
prematurely. The bottom hole temperature is the critical factor
for the use of retarders. Above a static temperature of 260 275F the effect of retarders should be measured in pilot
tests.
Common types of retarders used include:
Calcium lignosulphanate (sometimes with organic acids)
0.1 - 1.5%;
Saturated Salt Solutions (e.g. seawater)

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Lightweight Additives (extenders)

These are used to reduce slurry density for jobs where the
hydrostatic head of the cement may exceed the fracture strength of
certain formations. In reducing the slurry density the compressive
strength is also reduced and the thickening time increases. The use
of these additives allows more mixwater to be added, and hence
increases the yield of the slurry. Such additives are therefore
sometimes called extenders.
Common types of lightweight additives used include:

Bentonite (2% -16%) This is by far the commonest type of additive used
to lower slurry density. Bentonite absorbs water, and therefore allows
more mixwater to be added. It will also however reduce compressive
strength and sulphate resistance. The increased yield due to the bentonite
added may be seen in cement tables.
Pozzolan This may be used in a 50% / 50% mix with the Portland
cements. The result is a slight decrease in compressive strength, and
increased sulphate resistance.
Diatomaceous earth (10% - 40%) - The large surface area allows more
water absorption, and produces low density slurries (down to 11 ppg).

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Heavy Additives
These are used when cementing through over-pressured
zones.
Common types of additive used include:
Barite (barium sulphate) This can be used to attain slurry
densities of up to 18 ppg. It also causes a reduction in
strength and pumpability.
Hematite (Fe2O3) - The high specific gravity of hematite can
be used to raise slurry densities to 22 ppg (friction reducing
additives may be required).
Sand Graded sand (40-60 mesh) gives a 2 ppg increase
in slurry density.

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Fluid Loss Additives

Used to prevent dehydration of the cement slurry and
premature setting.
Common additives used include:

Organic polymers (cellulose) 0.5% - 1.5%;

Carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose (CMHEC) 0.3% 1.0% (CMHEC will also act as a retarder)

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Friction Reducing Additives (dispersants)

These are added to improve the flow properties of the slurry.
In particular they will lower the viscosity so that turbulence
will occur at a lower circulating pressure, thereby reducing the
risk of breaking down formations.

Commonly used additives include:

Polymers 0.3-0.5 lb/sx of cement;
Salt 1-16 lb/sx;
Calcium lignosulphanate 0.5-1.5 lb/sx

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Mud Contaminants
As well as the compounds deliberately added to the slurry on
surface to improve the slurry properties, there will also be the
effect of the mud downhole which comes into contact with the
cement in the casing or in the annulus. The chemicals in the
mud may react with the cement to give undesirable side
effects. Some of these are listed below:
Mud additive

Effect on cement

Barite

increases density
reduces compressive strength

caustic calcium compounds

acts as an accelerator

diesel oil

decreases density

Thinners

act as retarders

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Primary Cementing
For a primary cement job the object is to place the cement
slurry behind the casing in the annulus. In some cases this
can be done in a single operation by pumping cement down
the casing, displacing it around the casing shoe and up into
the annulus.

For conductor and surface casing the whole annulus is

cemented back to surface.
In longer casing strings (e.g. production casing) the cement
job may be carried out in two stages:
The first stage is completed in the conventional manner as
described above, with the exception that the cement slurry does
not fill the entire annulus, but reaches only a pre-determined
height above the shoe.
The second stage involves opening a special tool in the casing
string which allows cement to be displaced from the casing
directly into the annulus. This is known as stage cementing and
will be discussed in more detail later.

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Downhole Cementing Equipment

Float collar: This is positioned
one or two joints above the guide
shoe. It acts as a seat for the cement
plugs used in the pumping and
displacement of the cement slurry. At
the end of the cement job there will be
Guide
Thisinisthe
runcasing
on the
some shoe:
cement left
bottom
of the
joint.
It has
rounded
between
thefirst
float
collar
andathe
guide
nose to
guide
the casing
anyout
ledges
shoe
which
must bepast
drilled
or other irregularities in the hole

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Centralizers
These are hinged metal ribs,
which are installed on the casing
string as it is run. Their function
is to keep the casing away from
the borehole so that there is
some annular clearance on all
sides. The proper use of
centralisers will help to:
Improve displacement
efficiency (i.e. place
cement all the way around
the casing)
Prevent differential sticking
Keep casing out of keyseats

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Surface Cementing Equipment

Mixing and Pumping Facilities
On most rigs cement materials are handled in bulk, which
makes blending and mixing much easier. For large volume
cement jobs several bulk storage bins may be required on
the rig. On offshore rigs the cement is transferred
pneumatically from supply boats to the storage bins.

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Pumping Units
Various types of cement pumping units are
available. For land jobs they can be mounted
on a truck, while skid mounted units are used
offshore. The unit normally has twin pumps
(triplex, positive displacement) which may be
diesel powered or driven by electric motors.
These units can operate at high pressures
(up to 20,000 psi) and at variable flow rates.
Most units are capable of mixing and
displacing 50-70 cubic feet of slurry per
minute.

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Cementing Heads
The cement head provides the connection
between the discharge line from the
cement unit and the top of the casing designed to hold the cement plugs used
in the conventional primary cement job.
The cement head makes it possible to
release the bottom plug, mix and pump
down the cement slurry, release the top
plug and displace the cement without
making or breaking a connection. For
ease of operation the cement head
should be installed as close to rig floor
level as possible. Cement jobs are often
unsuccessful because the cement plugs
are installed incorrectly or not released
properly.

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