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INTRODUCTION
The weatherman just like any professional requires certain instruments
to assist him in the conduct of his calling. He uses sophisticated instruments
developed through the years. Little by little, due to advances in the science of
meteorology and the advent of more sophisticated instruments, a forecaster
is approaching the threshold where he can forecasts with confidence the
weather for the following day and optimistically, a year later.
The Philippines is not far behind developed countries in instrumentations,
specially when one speaks of basic weather instruments. They are all the
same the world over with slight differences in construction and gradation
as dictated by geographical requirements.
BASIC WEATHER PARAMETERS AND THE INSTRUMENTS USED
The following weather parameters are the minimum requirements
to effectively forecast weather. A brief description of the instruments that
PAGASA uses accompanies the discussion of these weather parameters.
Simplified illustrations given are practicable.
TEMPERATURE
The temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a certain body.
In the Philippines, it is measured in degrees Celsius (0C).
In weather forecasting, temperature (actual, surface and temperature
ranges) are important as they give indications, to a certain extent, of the
development and changes of weather conditions.
Temperature change is one of the principal causes in changes of other
basic weather elements. Temperature variations over lands and ocean
result to a range of weather conditions from the gentlest breeze to the most
violent storms. Temperature also affects the development and formation of
clouds, the source of our precious water, when these clouds eventually fall
as rain. It is, then, imperative that variations in temperature be considered
in weather forecasting as they play an important part in the improvement
or deterioration of weather conditions.
Through modern instruments, actual temperature in the atmosphere and
surface temperatures are obtained. Surface temperature is the temperature
of free air at a height between 1.25 and 2.00 meters above the ground.

The following instruments that measure temperature are commonly

used:
a.) Thermometer
A thermometer (Fig. 1a) measures the degree of hotness or coldness
of a given substance.
It operates on the principle of thermal expansion of the material used,
e.g. liquids like mercury and alcohol, metallic materials etc. Mercury is one
of the liquids very sensitive to changes of temperature. When the substance
to be measures is warm, mercury expands and rises in the capillary tube.
When it cools, mercury contracts.
b.) Maximum Minimum thermometer
In order to measure the temperature range, a set of maximum and
minimum thermometer (Fig. 1b) are used. A maximum thermometer
has a constriction above the bulb that permits the mercury to rise in the
capillary tube but does not allow it to descend the capillary tube unless the
thermometer is reset. The highest point that the mercury reaches indicates
the maximum temperature for the period. The minimum thermometer,
on the other hand, gives the lowest temperature. It uses colored alcohol
(because of its low freezing point). It is placed at an angle of about 200.
The black float B called index (Fig. 1c) is pulled down slope to the lowest
temperature of the day by two forces; a) the surface tension at the top of
the alcohol column and b) the force of gravity.
c.) Thermograph
A thermograph (Fig 2) is an instrument that records air temperature
continuously on graphing paper. It usually consists of a cylinder made to
revolve once each week by means of clockworks inside. A sheet of graph
paper is fastened on the outside. A pen point that rests on the paper
traces the temperature curve, according to the expansion and contraction

of a sensitive metallic coil or strip corresponding to the reading of a

thermometer.
These instruments are housed in a thermometer shelter (Fig. 3) which
has double-louvered sides and double-top roofing designed to permit air
to circulated freely through the shelter.

TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES

Fig. 1c
Fig
1c. Diagram showing the distinctive characteristics of the maximum-minim
maximum-minimum thermometer

Fig. 1b. Maximum-Minimum thermometer mounted on a Townsend Support which clamps these in the
proper position and allows for their setting

Fig. 1a. Ordinary Thermometer

Fig. 2. Thermograph

Fig. 3. Thermometer Shelter or Screen. In the Northern Hemisphere its door

faces north to prevent the suns rays from directly affecting the intrument
readings whenever it is opened

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Gas molecules exert forces on each other and their environmental they
collide. The magnitude of these forces depends upon the temperature
of the gas and the number of molecules involved. These collision forces
are expressed in terms of quantity called pressure. Pressure difference
is principally related to temperature differences and to the number of
molecules exerting pressure forces. Atmospheric motion results from
pressure variations. The atmospheric pressure on a given surface is the
force exerted by an overlying column of air extending to the outer limit of
the atmosphere per unit area.
To measure atmospheric pressure, a barometer is used, which is
commonly of two types. These are:
a.) Mercurial Barometer Mercurial barometer
A mercury barometer (Fig.4a) is a simple barometer made by filling a
glass tube 32 inches long with mercury and inverting it so that the open
end of the tube is below the surface of mercury in a cistern. The height of
the mercury column is measured by sliding a vernier attached on a scale.
To obtain accurate measurements, corrections are made for temperature
expansion of the instruments, gravity and latitude. Values are read in
millibars, millimeter or inches of mercury.
b.) Aneroid Barometer
An aneroid barometer (Fig. 4b) is made by exhausting the air from a
thin, circular, metallic box, with practically no air on the inside and an air
pressure of 14.6 pounds per square inch on the outside, the box would
collapse except for a strong spring inside. If one side of the box is fixed,
the other side will move due to changes in atmospheric pressure. The
surface of the metallic box is corrugated to increase the area exposed to
the air. The movement of the spring causes a pointer to move over a scale
of figures corresponding to the readings of a mercury barometer. Since air
pressure decreases with increase in altitude, the aneroid is used to make
altimeters (Fig. 5) On the altimeter, the scales is marked off in hundred
and thousands of feet or meters above sea level. The altimeter is a basic
instrument in aeronautical stations and on board an aircraft.
c.) Barograph
A barometer (Fig. 5a), on the other hand, is a recording barometer. The
pen point that traces the pressure curve on the paper is made to move up

or down by means of a series of levers attached to the aneroid cells in

tandem. The aneroid cells in tandem provide a more pronounced response
to changes in atmospheric pressure than would be indicated by a single
aneroid of the same size.
WIND
Wind is measured in terms of its velocity. Wind velocity has a vectorial
notation and (usually) refers to both the speed and direction. Speed is
the distance to which an object travels at a certain instant. Wind speed
is usually expressed in meters per second (mps) and the more popular
kilometers per hour (kph). On the other hand, wind direction refers to the
direction of the compass point from where the wind is coming. Thus, when
we say southwest winds, the wind is coming from the southwest and blowing
towards the northwest.

Fig. 4b. Aneroid Barometer

Fig. 4a. Mercurial Barometer

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

Fig. 5. Altimeter

Fig. 5a. Barograph

SURFACE WIND VELOCITY AND DIRECTION

To accurately measure the wind speed and direction PAGASA uses
several instruments: These are:
a. Wind Vane
A wind vane (Fig.6) is used to indicate wind direction. It consists
basically of an asymmetrically shaped object with its center of gravity about
a vertical axis. The front end of this object (in most cases as arrow) which
officers the greater resistance to the motion of the air points to the direction
from where the winds comes. The direction of the wind is determined by
reference to an attached oriented compass rose.
b. Anemometer
An anemometer (fig. 6a) measures the wind speed and is made of
propeller cups which are rotated by the motion of the wind. The essential
parts of the cup anemometer are the cup wheel, a vertical shaft, the
necessary mechanism for counting the revolution of the shaft or indicating
its instantaneous speed of rotation.
c. Aerovane
An aerovane (Fig. 6b) indicates both the wind direction and wind speed
or simply the wind velocity. It is shaped like an airplane. The nose of the
plane ports to the direction from which the wind comes and the two-bladed
propeller measures the wind speed. The propeller shaft is coupled to a
small dynamo which generates current. The amount of current generated
depends on the rate of rotation of the propeller which depends on the speed
of the wind. The generated current activates a dial which gives the direct
reading of the wind speed.
d. Anemographs
Anemograph gives direct record of the variations of wind velocity.

Fig. 6a. Rotating Cup Anemograph

Fig. 6. Windvane

Fig.6b. An aerovane with its

component, a wind indicator.

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ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY
Humidity is the amount of water vapor or moisture content of the air.
The amount of water vapor in the air affects human comfort. When the air
is very moist or has high humidity, evaporation is very slow so much so that
perspiration remains on the surface of the skin. This makes a person feel
warm and uncomfortable. Humidity measurement is a useful parameter
for weather forecasting in determining whether or not it will rain.
To measure humidity, the following instruments are used:
a. Sling Psychrometer
The sling psychrometer (Fig. 7a) consists of a dry and wet-bulb
thermometer. The term bulb refers to that portion of the glass tube where the
mercury is stored. The dry and wet bulbs are exactly alike in construction.
The only difference is that the wet-bulb has a piece of muslin cloth or wick
wrapped around its bulb and which is dipped in water shortly before the
psychrometer is read.
This is how it is done. The weather observer first wets the cloth cladding
the wet-bulb, whirls the psychrometer a few times, then reads the wet bulb.
He reads the dry-bulb last. Normally, the wet-bulb reading will be lower than
the dry-bulbs. The dry-bulb reading is the air temperature. The difference
between the dry and wet-bulb reading will give, with the aid of psychrometric
table, the dew point temperature and the relative humidity. (Dew point
temperature at which the water will condense while relative humidity is
the ratios of the amount of water vapor actually present in the air to the
maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at a given temperature.
b. Hygrometer
The other instrument used to measure humidity is the hygrometer
(Fig. 7b). The hygrometer is less accurate than the psychrometer. It uses
human air from which the oil has been removed by using ether. The hair
becomes longer as the relative humidity of the air increases. This change
can be made to move an indicator needle which moves over a scale, the
graduations of which reads from 0% to 100%.

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HUMIDITY MEASURING DEVICES

Fig. 7a. Sling Psychometer

Fig. 7b. Hygrometer

Fig. 7b. Hygrothermograph

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c. Hygrothermograph
The hygrothermograph (Fig. 7c) measures and records relative humidity
and temperature on graph paper in the same manner as the thermograph
and barograph do.
PRECIPITATION
When the water vapor in the air aloft cools, it is transformed into water
droplets that form the cloud we see in the sky. When these water droplets
become large and heavy enough that the air could no longer support them,
the water droplets eventually fall as rain, snow, sleet or hail. Rainfall is one
such results of precipitation process.

a.) measuring stick

Fig. 8. An 8-inch raingauge and its

parts. a.) measuring stick; b.) tube; c.)
receiver and d.) overflow can.

PRECIPITATION MEASURING DEVICES

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To measure the amount of rainfall, raingauge is used. There are two types
of raingauge used by PAGASA. The 8-inch raingauge and the tipping
bucket raingauge.
a. 8-inch Raingauge
An 8-inch raingauge (Fig. 8), so called because the inside diameter of
the receiver is exactly 8 inches, is provided with a funnel that conducts rain
into a cylindrical measuring tube. The volume of the receiver is 10 times
the volume of the measuring tube. Therefore the actual depth of rainfall is
increased ten times on being collected in the smaller measuring tube.
To measure the amount of rainfall accumulated in the measuring tube,
a thin measuring stick with the magnified scale printed on its face is used.
The precisely dimensioned measuring tube has a capacity of 2 inches (50.8
millimeters). Rainfall exceeding this amount spills into the overflow but can
be easily measured by pouring it into the measuring tube for total rainfall.
Used this way, the gauge has a total capacity of 20 inches.
b. Tipping Bucket Raingauge
Another type of rainfall recording instrument is the tipping-bucket
raingauge (Fig. 9). It is an upright cylindrical that has a funnel-shaped
receiver. The precipitation collected by the receiver empties into one side of
a tipping bucket, an inverted triangular contraption partitioned transversely
at its center, and is pivoted about a horizontal axis. Once it is filled with rain,
it tips, spilling out water and placing the other half of the bucket under the
funnel. The tipping activates a mercury switch causing an electrical current
to move the pen in the recorder. Each tipping is equal to one millimeter of
rainfall.
CLOUDS
Clouds are either composed of water-droplets or ice-crystals dependent
upon their altitude and temperature conditions.
In observing clouds, an accurate description of both type and size plays
an important part in the analysis and forecasting of weather.

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Parts of an 80-inch raingauge

Fig. 9 Tipping Bucket Raingauge (and parts inside)

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Thus, for this purpose an International Classification of clouds was prepared

and adopted by most countries.
In observing cloudiness (the extent where clouds cover the sky), the
observer uses his eyes to determine the presence of cloud layers and
the lateral extent of cloud coverage. He must also be familiar with the
genus and species of each cloud present. On the basis of knowledge and
experience, he estimates the height of each layer or measure it with the
aid of instruments.
To determine the height of the cloud base, PAGASA uses a ceiling light
projectorr (Fig. 10) and a ceiling balloon.
a.) Ceiling Light Projector
A ceiling light projector is vertically a narrow beam of light into a cloud
base. The height of the cloud base is determined by using a clinometer
located at a known distance from the projector to measure the angle included
by the illuminated spot on the cloud, the observer, and the projector. From
trigonometry, the height of the cloud base is equal to the distance of the
observer from the ceiling light projector multiplied by the tangent of the
elevation angle.

b.) Ceiling Balloon

Another away of determining the height of the cloud base is by using a
ceiling balloon. A ceiling balloon is a meteorological balloon whose rate of
ascent has been predetermined. It is filled with gas lighter than air, usually
hydrogen, and released. The time of release and the time the balloon
disappears into the cloud are recorded. The time difference multiplied by
the rate of ascent will give the height of the base cloud.
SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS
The instruments described earlier are tools for measuring weather
elements prevailing at the surface or near the surface of the earth at a
height not exceeding 10 meters from wherever the observers stands.

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Fig. 10. Ceiling Light Projector

F

Fig. 10a. Ceiling Balloon

The art of weather forecasting however is never completed if the

conditions of the air above us are not known. The weather forecaster
needs to know the humidity, temperature, pressure, and speed direction at
different levels of the atmosphere so that he could obtain a better picture
of what the prevailing weather conditions are from the surface upwards.

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These data are called Upper-Air Data. Most of the marked weather
changes and the resulting effects on our daily lives occur at levels higher
that what we observe or feel near the surface of the earth.
Some of the widely used instruments to obtain upper air data are as
follows:
a. PIBAL/Theodolite = Pilot balloon
Theodolite
b. Radiosonde;
c. Rawinsonde;
d. Rawin;
e. Wind-Finding Radar; and
f. Weather Surveillance Radar
a. Pilot Balloon/Theodolite
A pilot balloon (Fig. 11a) is a meteorological balloon that is filled with
gas lighter than air. When the pilot balloon is used in conjunction with a
theodolite it is used to determine the speed and direction of winds at different
levels of the atmosphere. The theodolite (Fig. 10b) is similar to
The elevation and angles of azimuth of the balloon are recorded and
these data at the end of the flight which may last for more than an hour are
transferred to a plotting board. The wind speed and direction at selected
levels are calculated by trigonometric methods.
Night observation is accomplished by attaching a lit paper lantern to
the balloon.
b.) Radiosonde
An airborne instrument used for measuring pressure, temperature and
relative humidity in the upper air is the radiosonde (Fig. 11). The instrument
is carried aloft by a meteorological balloon inflated with hydrogen. The
radiosonde has a built-in high frequency transmitter that transmits data from
the radiosonde meter and recorded on the ground by a specially designed
radiosonde receiver.

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Fig. 10a. Pilot Balloon

Fig. 10b. Theodolite

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Fig. 12. Radiosonde attached to a Meteorological balloon

c.) Rawinsonde
A more sophisticated version of this instrument is the rawinsonde.
The rawinsonde (Fig. 12) is an electronic device used for measuring wind
velocity, pressure, temperature and humidity aloft. It is also attached to
a balloon and as it rises through the atmosphere, it makes the required
measurements.
The data gathered are then converted to radio signals which are
received by a receiving set on the ground where they are decoded and
evaluated.
d.) Rawin
Another special instrument is the Rawin which is short for Radar and
Wind. It is an electronic device that measures pressure, temperature and
humidity.
e.) Wind Finding Radar
Another instrument is the Wind Finding Radar (Fig. 13). It determines the
speed and direction of winds aloft by means of radar echoes. A radar target
is attached to a balloon and it is this target that is tracked by ground radar.

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Fig. 12. Rawinsonde Antenna

Fig. 13. Wind Finding

Radar Antenna

Fig. 14. Weather Surveillance Radar

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The bearing and time of interval of the echoes is evaluated by a receiver.

f.) Weather Surveillance Radar
A weather surveillance radar (Fig. 14) is of the long range type which
detects and tracks typhoons and clouds masses at distance of 400 kilometers
or less. This radar has a rotating antenna disk preferably mounted on top
of a building free from any physical obstruction. Radio energy emitted by
the transmitter and focused by the antenna shoots outward through the
atmosphere in a narrow beam. The cloud mass, whenever it is part of a
typhoon or not, reflects a small fraction of the energy back to the antenna.
This reflected energy is amplified and displayed visually on a radar scope.
The distance or slant range of the target from the radar is determined
through the elapsed time to signal is transmitted and then received as an
echo. Its direction is determined by the direction at which the focused beam
is pointing at an instant the echo is received.
WEATHER SATELLITE Modern Tool for Weather Analysis
Polar-Orbiting Satellites
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellite
system consists of satellites in polar orbit at 833 and 870 km. above the
earths surface. Each satellite transmits data from a circular area of the
earths surface with diameter of 2,800 kms. Inboth satellites, one of the
sensors is the Advance Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) which
is sensitive to visible near infrared and infrared radiation. This instrument
is used for measuring cloud distribution and for determining temperature
of radiating surface (clouds or surface).
Another sensor is the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS)
system which is used to calculate the temperature profiles from the surface
to 10 mb, water vapor content at three levels of the atmosphere and total
ozone content.
Geo-stationary Meteorological Satellite
The most valuable feature of Geostationary Meteorological Satellites
(GMS) is that they can globally observe atmospheric phenomena uniformly,
including overlying areas in sea, desert and mountain regions where weather
observation is difficult.

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The GMS of Japan is a spin stabilized satellite that is placed in

geosynchronous orbit about the equator and 140 degree longitude.
The GMS provides a real time digital cloud image (Stretched-VISSR)
broadcast to the users, which are the Medium Scale Data Utilization Station
(MSDUS). The S-VISSR data can be processed not only by a high grade
computer system but also by an ordinary personal computer system.
PAGASA has both the GMS AVHRR, the NOAA polar orbiting satellite
ground receiving facility. Both are located in Diliman, Quezon City.
Satellite data coming from both the orbital and geo-stationary satellites
are used for monitoring the development of severe weather systems, locating
tropical cyclones centers, determining the cyclones present intensity and
future movement and weather forecasting.

Fig. 15a. Geostationary Meteorological Satelite Antenna

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MODIS
MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) is a key
instrument aboard the Terra (EOS AM) and Aqua (EOS PM) satellites.
Terras orbit around the Earth is timed so that it passes from north to south
over the equator in the morning, while Aqua passes south to north over
the equator in the afternoon. Terra MODIS and Aqua MODIS are viewing
the entire Earths surface every 1 to 2 days, acquiring data in 36 spectral
bands or groups of wavelengths.
These data will improve our understanding of global dynamics and
processes occurring on the land, in the oceans and in the lower atmosphere.
MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of validated, global,
interactive Earth system models able to predict global change accurately
enough to assist policy makers in making sound decisions concerning the
protection of our environment.
The qualitative and quantitative estimates and display of atmospheric
parameters and a few oceanographic elements from newly acquired NOAA
HRPT Receiving Systems of PAGASA enables the agency to monitor,
forecast and predict weather and climate and issue early warning of
associated hazards.
MODIS also provides finer horizontal-scale atmospheric vapor gradient
estimates which is a valuable input in weather forecasting. Data derived
from the system used to monitor flood inundation areas. Acquisition of this
new technology strengthens PAGASA farm weather forecasting using data
from the multi-spectral band imaging instrument.

Fig. 16. MODIS

Satellite Reciever

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Multi-functional Transport Satellite (MTSAT)

To improve meteorological services over a wide field of activity (such
as weather forecasts, natural-disaster countermeasures and securing safe
transportation), the MTSAT series replaced the GMS series that had been in
operation since 1977. It has taken over the role of the GMS series, covering
East Asia and the Western Pacific region from 140 degrees east above the
equator.
It also provides information to 27 countries and territories in the region,
including imagery for monitoring the distribution/motion of clouds, sea
surface temperatures, and distribution of water vapor.
The MTSAT series carries a new imager with a new infrared channel
(IR4) in addition to the four channels (VIS, IR1, IR2 and IR3) of the GMS-5. Its
imagery is more effective than GMS-5 imagery in detecting low-level cloud/
fog and estimating sea surface temperatures at night and has enhanced
brightness levels, enabling a whole new level of image imagery.
By further computation of cloud imagery, data obtained by MTSATs
observations can be used to calculate wind data for numerical weather
prediction; make nephanalysis charts and analyze the distribution of cloud
amounts according to area.
The Imager scans the earth by moving an internal scan mirror in an
east-west and north-south direction. The light reflected by the mirror is
converted into a beam and channeled through a system of lenses and filters
and is separated into one visible and four infrared channels.
The beam intensities are converted to electric signals by visible and
infrared detectors and these signals are transmitted to the Meteorological
Satellite Centers Command and Data Acquisition Station (CDAS).
PAGASAs weather forecasting has significantly improved with the
availability of high resolution satellite imageries both from the MTSAT and
MODIS installed at the Weather and Flood Forecasting Center (WFFC)
Building in Quezon City. A redundant Meteorological Satellite High
Resolution Imaging (MTSAT-HRIT) was also installed at Cebu PAGASA
Complex Station.

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Fig. 17. MTSAT Satellite Receiver Facility

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tracking the sky... helping the country

Department of Science and Technology

PHILIPPINE ATMOSPHERIC, GEOPHYSICAL AND

ASTRONOMICAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATION
Science Garden, Agham Road, Diliman, Q.C.
www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph
email: piias@pagasa.dost.gov.ph
Telefax: 434-2696 / 927-9308

PAGASA Synoptic Station

Department
ment of Science and Te
Technology

PHILIPPINE ATMOSPHERIC, GEOPHYSICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL

SERVICES ADMINISTRATION (PAGASA)
Public Information and International Affairs Staff
Revised 2007