A Priestly People: Historical and Biblical Aspects of the Universal Priesthood
by Murray D. Gow
The priesthood of all believers, according to one
definition, is "a doctrine ultimately of biblical origin
but classically formulated by Luther, affirming the
common dignity, calling and privilege of all
Christians before God."1 The ideal expressed in the
biblical teaching on the priesthood of believers was
never wholly lost to view, even in the mediaeval
church, but it was undoubtedly Luther and the
Reformers who sharpened the focus.2 Nonetheless,
despite Luther's rediscovery of the significance of
the universal priesthood, the history of Protestantism
has also illustrated the tendency to submerge the
ideal in the interests of a professional clergy.3 In this
article we shall give a brief survey of Luther's
teaching, then look at some ways in which the ideal
has been viewed in the Brethren, along with some
possible areas of deficiency, before considering
some of the more significant scripture texts and
seeking to interpret their significance.
I. The main elements of Luther's Teaching 4 others and to teach one another divine things. These
The fact that Luther's teaching was developed as a
response to the edifice of clerical power and
privilege in the sixteenth Century Europe, should
not distract us from seeing the immense value of the
ideal he propounded. James Atkinson says that "it
was this principle of the priesthood of all believers
that delivered men from the vague fear of the clergy
and certainly was the greatest threat to the power
and authority of the priest." He goes on to suggest
that it "could be argued that it is the one great
religious principle that lies at the basis of the whole
Reformation movement."5 The heart of Luther's
1
D. F. Wright, "Priesthood of All Believers," New Dictionary of
Theology, ed. S. B. Ferguson, etal, IVP, 1988, p. 531.
2
Two books by Cyril Eastwood, The Royal Priesthood of the
Faithful: An Investigation of the Doctrine from Biblical Times to
the Reformation, Epworth, 1963, and The Priesthood of All
Believers: An Examination of the Doctrine from the Reformation
to the Present Day, Epworth, 1960, provide historical orientation.
3
See, for example, C. Eastwood, The Priesthood of All Believers,
pp. 238-257, esp. 238-240; and W. R. Ward, "Pastoral Office and
the General Priesthood in the Great Awakening," in W. J. Sheils
and D. Wood, ed., The Ministry: Clerical and Lay (Blackwell,
1989, pp. 303-327)
4
For a summary of Luther's teaching see Paul Althaus, The
Theology of Martin Luther, Trans. R. C. Schultz, Fortress Press,
1966, pp. 313-318. For a brief treatment of the views held by the
leading Reformers, see, T. W. Manson, Ministry and Priesthood:
Christ's and Ours, Epworth, 1958, pp. 36-39.
5 6
James Atkinson, Martin Luther: Prophet to the Catholic Church
(Eerdmans/Paternoster, 1983, p. 105. Atkinson mentions the view
of Ernst Käsemann, expressed to him privately that the priesthood
of believers was the central principle of the Reformation.
teaching may be found in his commentary on 1 Peter
2:5, written about 1522:
Christ is the High and Chief Priest anointed by God
Himself. He also sacrificed His own body for us,
which is the highest function of the priestly office.
Then He prayed for us on the cross. In the third
place, He also proclaimed the Gospel and taught all
men to know God and Him Himself. These three
offices He also gave to all of us. Consequently, since
He is the Priest and we are His brothers, all
Christians have the authority, the command, and the
obligation to preach, to come before God, and to
pray for one another, and to offer themselves as a
sacrifice to God.6
Or, again, in The Freedom of a Christian, he says:
"all of us who believe in Christ are priests and
kings in Christ"7. Thus constituted as priests,
we are worthy to appear before God to pray for
are the functions of priests, and they cannot be grant-
ed to any unbeliever. Thus Christ has made it possi-
ble for us, provided we believe in him, to be not only
his brethren, co-heirs, and fellow-kings, but also his
fellow-priests. Therefore we may come boldly into
the presence of God in the spirit of faith [Heb. 10:19,
22] and cry "Abba, Father!" pray for one another,
and do all things which we see done and fore-
shadowed in the outer and visible works of priests.8
In Concerning the Ministry, Luther observes that
"all Christians are priests in equal degree" and
hence all Christians have the following priestly
functions:
to teach, to preach and proclaim the Word of God, to
baptize, to consecrate or administer the Eucharist, to
bind and loose sins, to pray for others, to sacrifice,
and to judge of all doctrine and spirits.9
Luther continues in Concerning the Ministry to
work out the ways in which all Christians are to be
involved in these various functions. Of the highest
importance, in Luther's view, was the teaching of
the Word of God, for all the other priestly
functions hung on this first. Noteworthy is the fact
that while he believed that the Bible restricted
Luther's Works, vol. 30 (Concordia, 1967), pp. 53-54.
7
Luther's Works, vol. 31 (Concordia, 1957), p. 354.
8
Ibid., p. 355.
9
Luther's Works, vol. 40 (Fortress Press, 1958), p. 21.
public ministry by women, he could say the "when
women baptize, they exercise the function of
priesthood legitimately, and do it not as a private
act, but as part of the public ministry of the church
which belongs only to the priesthood".10
Despite his views on the wide-ranging rights
conferred on all Christians by virtue of the
priesthood of believers, we should not think that
Luther was a "Plymouth brother" before his time.
While he believed that all Christians should be
involved in communicating God's word, he held
firmly to a public appointed ministry of the Word.
Writing of the common rights of all Christians he
could say:
no one individual can arise by his own authority and
arrogate to himself what belongs to all. ... But the
community rights demand that one, or as many as
the community chooses, shall be chosen or approved
who, in the name of all with these rights, shall
perform these functions publicly. Otherwise, there
might be shameful confusion among the people of
God, and a kind of Babylon in the church ...11
Any Christian might preach the word, and lead
public worship in a situation of emergency but in
the normal state of affairs, Luther expected that
appointed ministers would fulfil such roles. On the
other hand, such ministers were named, in Biblical
terms, as 'ministers', 'deacons', 'bishops',
'stewards', and 'presbyters'—all being terms
describing those who serve—nowhere was the
term 'priest' applied to an officer of the church, for
the "authority and the dignity of the priesthood
resided in the community of believers".12
If we might summarize the main points of Luther's
teaching, the priesthood of all believers has three
major implications. All Christians are to be
involved in the communication of God's word, all
are to come before God and intercede for one
another, and all are to offer themselves as a
sacrifice to God. As Althaus puts it:
The priesthood means: We stand before God, pray
for others, intercede with and sacrifice ourselves to
God and proclaim the word to one another. Luther
never understands the priesthood of all believers
merely in the "Protestant" sense of the Christian's
freedom to stand in a direct relationship to God
without a human mediator. Rather he constantly
emphasizes the Christian's evangelical authority to
10
Ibid., p. 23.
11
Ibid., p. 34.
12
Ibid., p. 35.
come before God on behalf of the brethren and also
of the world. The universal priesthood expresses not
religious individualism but its exact opposite, the
reality of the congregation as a community.13
II. The Brethren Focus on Worship
When we look at the ways in which the priesthood
of believers has been viewed in the assemblies we
find, rather ironically, an altogether more liturgical
concept than that held by the Reformers. While
there are those who recognize its significance for
the Christian's access to God, intercession, and
evangelism, the normal focus has been particularly
upon worship and especially on its application to
the Lord's Supper. In the popular view, it is here
especially that the priesthood of believers is seen
to be relevant, permitting all (usually males) to
lead worship at the Lord's Table. I would suggest
that this popular view is correct in what it affirms,
for in some respects the Brethren have put into
practice aspects of the universal priesthood in a
way never quite achieved by the major Reformers.
Nonetheless, I would add that it is also deficient in
grasping some of the broader implications of the
ideal developed by Luther.14
When we turn to consider John Nelson Darby, one
of the most influential writers amongst the early
Brethren, and especially amongst Exclusive and
the more closed Brethren (we would be mistaken
indeed to think his views were held by all
Brethren) we find the focus of the priesthood of
believers is on their relationship with God and
their worship of Him. Darby cites Hebrews 13:15
to illustrate this principle:
"By him [Jesus] therefore let us offer the sacrifice of
praise to God continually, that is, the fruit of our
lips, giving praise to his name." ... This calls on all
Christians to exercise their priesthood, and shews
how they are to do it ... A distinct class of priests on
earth among Christians is totally unknown to the
New Testament. Our great High Priest is gone to
heaven. And all Christians are priests in a spiritual
and heavenly way for praises and intercessions under
Him.15
13
Paul Althaus, The Theology of Martin Luther, p. 314.
14
One treatment by an assembly writer which points to the wider
implications of the doctrine is the article by F. A. Tatford,
"Priesthood and Worship", in J. B. Watson, ed., The Church: A
Symposium (Pickering and Inglis, 1949, pp. 93-107).
15
J. N. Darby, "Who is a priest and what is a priest?", The
Collected Writings of J. N. Darby vol. 10, ed., W. Kelly (Stow
Hill Bible and Tract Depot, reprint, 1964) pp. 209-210: emphasis
mine.
Darby elaborates on the significance of the Epistle
to the Hebrews:
... Hebrews carefully assures us that there remains no
more sacrifice for sin, now that Christianity is
established, founded on the one perfect sacrifice of
Christ, whose value and efficacy are eternal. But let
the reader turn his attention to what the system of an
earthly priesthood presupposes—what it means; and
he will readily see that the idea of a priesthood on
earth, acting for men in things pertaining to God, is a
denial of the whole truth of Christianity. I do not say
that every one that believes there are consecrated
priests, desires to do so, but the system he maintains
does so.16
Darby saw the essence of the priestly class as a
public declaration of the distance between God
and man, a principle that was illustrated by the
Levitical priesthood; "The character which God
assumed in such an order of things was distance
from men, shutting Himself up in a hidden
sanctuary, where none could approach freely."17
Darby saw this as the antithesis of Christianity:
The essence of Christianity is to reveal God, and to
bring us to God, to give us holy, happy liberty as
children in His presence, into which we can enter as
cleansed by the precious blood of Christ. The
essence of a distinct human priesthood is to say we
cannot, but must get others to go into God's
presence, to offer our gifts and sacrifices for us. It is
a denial of the whole efficacy of Christianity and the
place in which all Christians are set; who, if
Christianity be true, are all God's priests on the earth,
to offer up spiritual sacrifices—the fruit of their lips,
giving praise to His name.18
There is much of value here and much that is in
accord with the Reformers' insistence on the once-
for-all character of Christ's sacrifice providing an
access to God for all who come to Him through
Christ. And Darby is on solid ground when he
says that a "distinct class of priests on earth among
Christians is totally unknown to the New
Testament".
I would suggest, however, that there is a
narrowing of the focus in Darby's teaching, and
sometimes it is significant to observe what is not
said or what receives little emphasis.
16
Ibid., pp. 210-211.
17
Ibid., p. 211.
18
Ibid., p. 213.
Intercession, for example, receives mention, but
does not, as far as I am aware, receive major
development as a function of the universal
priesthood.19
More significant is the way Darby draws a
distinction between ministry and priesthood:
Christianity has its "kings and priests"—that is to
say, all saints. The worship of God is not ministry; it
is the expression of the heart of the children before
their Father in heaven, and of the priests before their
God; in the intimacy of the presence of Him who, in
His love, has rent the veil ... On the other hand, God
acting in Christianity according to the active energy
of His love towards sinners, Christian ministry
becomes the expression of this activity. It has its
source in the power of this love; whether it be in
calling souls, or in nourishing those who are called
and whom Jesus loves.20
The ministry of the word and gospel, then, is
regarded in the category of a gift.
As the mainsprings and sources then of of all
ministry, there are these two things: the love
produced in the heart by grace, the love which
impels to activity; and the sovereignty of God, who
communicates gifts as seems good to Him, and calls
to this or that service—a call, which renders ministry
a matter of faithfulness and duty, on the part of him
who is called.21
The focus on worship as the major function of the
priesthood of believers is made even more explicit
in Darby's expository writings. Commenting on 1
Peter 2:5, he says: "We are built up 'a spiritual
house, an holy priesthood to offer up spiritual
sacrifices.' Our function is to be constantly
worshipping God."22 On verse 9 "that ye should
shew forth the praise [virtues, excellencies] of
him" he says:
... Worship is the highest display of what God has
done and is, shewn out ...
Shewing forth the praises of Him thus does not mean
preaching the gospel ... Called out of darkness into
His marvellous light, we stand before the world as
witnesses for God ... Of Israel God said, "This
19
For a brief treatment of intercession for fellow Christians, see,
"Our Pilgrimage, Priesthood, and Suffering", Collected Writings,
vol. 28, p. 190.
20
Darby, "On Ministry: Its Nature, Source, Power, and
Responsibility", Collected Writings, vol. 1, pp. 208-209.
21
Ibid., p. 210.
22
Darby, "Our Pilgrimage, Priesthood, and Suffering", Collected
Writings, vol., 28, p. 182.
 people have I formed for myself"—a peculiar people
to Himself; they for earth and we for heaven. This
gives a distinct character to the walk, which should
speak of Him who has set them so to live ... Our
position and ways should speak for Him.23
There is much that is obscure in the passage from
which I have abstracted—in somewhat
abbreviated form—but I think this represents the
drift of Darby's thought. If so, then there is
certainly nothing corresponding to Luther's view
that all Christians, by virtue of their priesthood,
are to be involved in the ministry of the word,
whether the one chosen by the Christian
community to fulfil this function in the pulpit, or
any believer in ordinary conversation, and if
necessary, in the public preaching. The idea of
"gossiping the gospel" certainly does not seem to
have a place here. While not all Brethren follow
Darby on this point, few would seem to have
espoused Luther's view that the ministry of the
word to the world is the responsibility of all
Christians by virtue of the general priesthood.
For the Exclusive Brethren, upon whom Darby's
views have had the greatest influence, there has
been gradual move towards seeing the family as
the place where the priesthood of believers
receives particular exercise. Further, the fact that
Darby separated the ministry of the word from the
priesthood of believers has led to special authority
being given to teachers so that authority is
invested in one or two in a local area, or country,
and this has helped to establish the position of a
world-wide leader. The Open Brethren position
has retained more affinities to Luther's on this
point, so teachers in the Open section have not
been accorded nearly the same status as amongst
the Exclusives.24 One should note, however, that
frequently, even in the Open Brethren, one finds
elements of influence from Darby's writings, so
that for many, the priesthood of believers is seen
as having particular significance for worship.
In concluding this section one might observe that
while the focus on worship as the particular
outcome of the priesthood of believers has led to a
richness in Brethren devotion and worship—
instanced nowhere more than in Darby's own
hymns and writings—there are other aspects of
this doctrine that we need to rediscover.
23
Ibid., pp. 183-184.
24
I am indebted to Mr Brian Pegler for some of the remarks in
this paragraph.
III. Aspects of the New Testament Teaching
1. The Priority and Unique Character of Christ's
Priesthood
Nowhere in the Gospels is Jesus described as a
priest, although we do find sacrificial language
applied to his ministry (cf. Mk 14:22-25 and //s).
However, the Epistle to the Hebrews depicts
Christ as the great High Priest in the order of
Melchizedek whose priesthood supersedes the
Aaronic because it is perfect, eternal, based on
God's oath, and is once-for-all (Heb. 7 – 10).25
As Hans Küng comments, the concept of Jesus as
High Priest is "at once cultic and hostile to cult."26
In Christ there is the total offering of the person who
offers, sacrificing himself totally through giving up
his own blood, his own life. By sacrificing himself
this high priest made the perfect offering which needs
no renewal, but is performed once and for all .... all
human priesthood has been fulfilled and finished by
the unique, final, unrepeatable and hence unlimited
sacrifice of the one continuing and eternal high
priest.27
In consequence of the perfection of Christ's priestly
self-offering, Christians are exhorted in Hebrews to:
have confidence to enter the sanctuary by the blood
of Jesus, by the new and living way that he opened
for us through the curtain (that is through his flesh),
and since we have a great high priest over the house
of God, let us approach with a true heart in full
assurance of faith, with our hearts sprinkled clean
from an evil conscience and our bodies washed with
pure water. (Heb. 10:19-22 cf. Heb. 4:14-16; Rom.
5:1-2)28
The Christian's access to the throne of grace is
founded on Christ's prior sacrificial work. It is in
light of this that the need for an official Christian
priesthood is rendered unnecessary. This is rein-
forced by the statement—in confessional material
—that there is "one God, and there is one mediator
between God and man, Christ Jesus, himself man,
who sacrificed himself to win freedom for all
mankind" (1 Tim. 2:5-6 REB). Hence, the
25
For more extensive treatment of the High Priesthood of Christ
in Hebrews, see the article by Christopher Marshall published in
this issue of the Journal.
26
Hans Küng, The Church (Burns and Oates: London, 1968, p.
365). Many Brethren might be surprised to find that they can
learn much that is helpful from the Swiss Catholic theologian on
the priesthood of believers (Ibid., 363-387), written while he was
still in good standing with his church.
27
Ibid., 366.
28
Scripture references mainly taken from the NRSV.
following quotation from James Denney, although
a little swashbuckling in tone, may be judged true
to the intent of the New Testament:
The NT does not apply the word úi``er‚e,,,ujá
[priest] to any Christian minister, nor indeed to any
Christian at all, except so far as the people of God
are spoken of as a 'royal priesthood.' It is easy to see
why. Christianity is what it is—a perfect and abiding
fellowship with God—because it is realized in the
Eternal Son of God. It cannot be realized or
guaranteed in any other. He is the Mediator of it, to
whom it owes its character. To introduce into it, no
matter how we define their relation to Him, official
mediators, is to relapse from the Melchizedek
priesthood to the Aaronic; it is in principle to
apostatize from Christianity.29
2. The Priestly Character of the Church in 1
Peter 2:4-1030
1 Peter 2:5 reads, "like living stones, let
yourselves be built into a spiritual house, to be a
holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices
acceptable to God through Jesus Christ."
Clearly temple imagery predominates in this verse.
The Christian community is described first in
terms of a temple building and then in terms of a
sacred priesthood performing the temple offerings.
The term úi`era,teuma (priesthood) is found
in the New Testament only here and at verse 9.
The church, collectively is being depicted as a
body of priests in the service of God. The nature
of the "spiritual sacrifices" is not specified here,
but it is not illegitimate to associate them with
other New Testament passages that speak of such
sacrifices: the whole life offered back to God
(Rom. 12:1); the praise and worship of the
community (Heb. 13:15); and practical deeds of
love and kindness (Phil. 4:18; Heb. 13:16).31 Peter
Davids observes that:
This movement away from literal food offerings was
already accepted in Judaism (Pss. 50:14; 51:16-19;
141:2; Isa. 1:11-15; Hos. 6:6; Mic. 6:6-8; 1 QS 9:3-
29
J. Denney, "Priest in NT", in J. Hastings, ed., Dictionary of the
Bible, vol. 4, 1902, p. 100.
30
There has been considerable discussion on this passage over
recent years. See particularly, J. H. Elliott, The Elect and the
Holy (Supplements to Novum Testamentum 12, Brill, 1966); and
the response by E. Best, "1 Peter II 4-10—A Reconsideration,"
Novum Testamentum 11 (1969) 270-293. See too, the
commentaries by E. Best, (NCB, 1971); P. Davids, (NIC, 1990);
J. N. D. Kelly, (Blacks, 1969); and J. R. Michaels, (WBC, 1988).
31
So, for instance, Best, Nov Test 11 (1969) p. 287-288. See, too,
P. Davids, The First Epistle of Peter, (NIC, 1990, p. 88-89).
5, "Prayer rightly offered shall be as an acceptable
fragrance of righteousness, and perfection of way as
a delectable free-will offering"; 1QS 10:6; 4QFlor
1:6-7), but whereas Judaism in the first century
never saw these spiritual offerings as a replacement
for animal offerings ... Christians saw them as the
only necessary offerings, for Christ's once-for-all
sacrifice ended the need for animal sacrifices.32
1 Peter 2:9 reads, "But you are a chosen race, a
royal priesthood, a holy nation, God's own people,
in order that you may proclaim the mighty acts of
him who called you out of darkness into his
marvellous light." Davids comments:
The emphasis throughout is collective: the church as
a corporate unity is the people, priesthood, nation,
etc., rather than each Christian being such. The
emphasis is typical of the NT in contrast to our far
more individualistic concern in the present. The
West tends to focus of individuals relating to God,
while Peter (and the rest of the NT; e.g. Paul's body-
of-Christ language) was more conscious of people's
becoming part of a new corporate entity that is
chosen by and that relates to God.33
The expression "royal priesthood" (basi,¡leion
ú úi`era,teuma) follows exactly the LXX of
Exodus 19:6 which could be translated
traditionally, as above, as an adjective followed by
a noun, so a "royal priesthood" or, as two nouns,
so "a king’s house and a priesthood"34 (the
Hebrew has "a kingdom of priests"). On balance,
we are best, perhaps, to translate, "a royal
priesthood" but in the sense of a priesthood
belonging to God, the King.35 This would also sit
well with the election theme which runs through
the passage.
Scholars differ as to whether to proclaim the
virtues (mighty deeds) of Him who called... refers
to evangelism or to worship in the Christian
community. J. Ramsey Michaels says:
the line of distinction in Jewish worship between
praise and testimony is often difficult to draw. There
is little difference between saying to God, "How
great thou art," and saying to the congregation,
"Great is the Lord"; most of the LXX uses of
‘evxaggei,¡lein [to proclaim] appear broad
enough in their application to apply to either.
Whether directed to God or to the worshipping
32
Davids, ibid., p. 88.
33
Davids, ibid., p. 91.
34
So Elliott, ibid., pp 149-154.
35
So, for example, Davids, ibid., p. 91-92; Michaels, ibid., pp.
108-109.
 community, the "proclamation" involved in the verb
evxaggei,¡lein belongs in the category of
worship, not missionary activity.36
On the other hand, scholars, such as Gordon Fee,
and Peter Davids see mission as the principle
focus here in 1 Peter 2:9.37 Perhaps one could
observe in closing this issue that even worship is a
witness and proclamation, which, if it lacks
altogether a missionary intent, is deficient in its
representation of the mission of its Lord.
It should be noted that this function of the
Christian community should be seen as applying
not to their calling as a priesthood alone, but to all
the collective metaphors used to describe the
church here.
3. Other New Testament passages bearing on
the priesthood of believers
Revelation 1:5-6; 5:8-10; 8:3-4; 20:6
Note the use of the plural úi`erei/j‹á (priests) in
Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20:6. In 1 Peter the priesthood is
corporate—in Revelation 1:6 and 5:10, as Swete
observes, "The members of the Church, a
Kingdom in their corporate life, are individually
priests".38 The fact that "this chord is struck thrice
in the Apoc. seems to imply special familiarity on
the part of both writer and readers with the words
as well as the thought: possibly they entered into a
primitive hymn".39 F. F. Bruce also notes that the
use of these words in doxological material
"without explanation suggests that the royal
priesthood of Christians was already a thoroughly
familiar concept."40
The eschatological (future) element in the
Apocalypse means that while believers are already
priests, they look forward to Christ's ultimate
triumph. A foretaste of this is seen in 5:9-10; as
Beasley-Murray says:
Inasmuch as the exaltation of the Lamb initiates the
new age, the privilege of being kingly priests for
God belongs to the emancipated people even now.
36
See J. R. Michaels, 1 Peter (WBC, 1988), p. 110, for discussion
of Elliott's and Balch's views.
37
See P. Davids, 1 Peter (NIC, 1990), pp. 92-92. Gordon Fee sees
the NT teaching about the priesthood of believers to apply
particularly to the church's witness to the world. See his article in
the Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, vol. 4, p. 852.
38
H. B. Swete, The Apocalypse of John (MacMillan, 1907), p. 6.
39
Ibid., p. 82.
40
The International Bible Commentary ed. F. F. Bruce et al,
(Marshall Morgan & Scott/Zondervan, 1986), p. 1598.
Nevertheless, as the revelation of Christ in his
kingdom takes place at his parousia, so the full
exercise of their royal priesthood belongs to the time
of his triumph.41
Although not explicitly designated "priestly",
cultic, or sacrificial language is used at 5:8 and
8:3-4 when the intercessions of the saints are
spoken of as incense.
Romans 12:1-2
These verses formed the basis for Luther's view
that one of the outcomes of the priesthood of
believers is the offering of one's life to God.
Paul here takes up the language of the cultic
sacrifice but completely transforms it for
Christians. As James Dunn says:
ritual is an important part of group identity ... Israel's
sacrificial system was one of the main ritual
expressions which marked out and maintained
Israel's covenant distinctiveness as the people of
God. But Paul's redefinition of the people of God
had in effect removed that boundary marker. In
reworking the role of the law in reference to the
eschatological people of God what was to be done
with the extensive sections of the law which deal
with sacrifice and the centrality of the Jerusalem
cult? Paul immediately provides the answer: he takes
up cultic terms in order to redefine them too. The
sacrifice God looks for is no longer that of beast or
bird in temple, but the daily commitment of life lived
within the constraints and relationships of this bodily
world.42
Romans 15:16
Paul here speaks of his calling "to be a minister
[leitourg•o.n] of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles in
the priestly service of the gospel of God
[úi`erourgou/ﾁ nta to.• e‘uvagge,‚lion
tou/ﾁ qeou/ﾁ], so that the offering of the
Gentiles may be acceptable, sanctified by the Holy
Spirit."
Not all commentators are convinced that the
language is priestly here43 but the concentration of
cultic terms certainly points in that direction.44
Noteworthy is the fact that the Gentiles, who did
not have access to the Temple altar, are here
41
G. R. Beasley-Murray, Revelation (NCB, pp. 127-128.
42
J. D. G. Dunn, Romans 9-16, WBC, pp. 716-717
43
See, for example, C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans vol. 2, ICC, pp.
754-757, and contra Dunn, ibid., pp. 859-861, 867-868.
44
See Dunn, ibid.
sanctified by the Holy Spirit so as to be an
acceptable sacrifice. As Dunn observes, the whole
of the old cultic language is transformed here; "by
applying it to his own noncultic ministry of
preaching the gospel he confirms that for him the
cultic barrier between sacred and secular has been
broken through".45 And a little later he says,
"Paul's purpose seems to be to underline the eschato-
logically new fact that within God's redefined people
('set apart by the Holy Spirit') all ministry on behalf
of others is priestly ministry (as in Phil 2:25)".46
IV. Summary Comments
In conclusion we shall note some implications of
the priesthood of believers:47
1. Access to God
Through the work of the great High Priest all
believers have access to God. Strictly speaking
this is a function of the priesthood of Christ rather
than the general priesthood of believers. See
Hebrews 2:14-18; 4:14-16; 10:19-23; Rom 5:1-2;
Eph: 2:18; 3:12; 1 Tim 2:5.
2. Spiritual Sacrifices
Because of Christ's unique unrepeatable sacrifice,
there can be no more sacrifices of atonement, but
as a priestly people, Christians are to "offer
spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through
Jesus Christ". These sacrifices include, the
offering of the whole life to God (Rom 12:1; and
cf. Phil 2:17); the praise and worship of the
community (Heb. 13:15); and practical deeds of
love and kindness (Phil. 4:18; Heb. 13:16).
3. The Proclamation of the Word
Peter affirms this to be the purpose of the general
priesthood. As Küng says:
The preaching of the word of God is entrusted to all,
not just a few: "But you are ... a royal priesthood ...
that you may declare the wonderful deeds of Him
who called you out of darkness into his marvellous
light" (1 Pet. 2:9). This preaching is not only
performed in good conduct (2:12) but also in words:
"Always be prepared to make a defense to anyone
who calls you to account for the hope that is in you"
(3:15). ...
45
Ibid., p. 867.
46
Ibid., p. 868.
47
For the material in this section, the comments of Hans Küng,
The Church, pp. 373-382 are especially helpful.
The Christian message spread with such speed from
the very first because it was proclaimed by all,
according to their gifts and opportunities, and not
just by a few with a special commission.48
4. Intercession
Luther stressed this as an aspect of the priesthood
of believers—curiously, it is not explicit in the
New Testament teaching on the priesthood of
believers, but one can hardly doubt that Luther
was right. Certainly, intercession is stated to be
one of the features of Christ's High Priestly
ministry (Heb. 7:25 cf. 4:14 – 5:10). Küng,
observes a two-way mediating relationship
between God and the believer in relation to the
world—proclamation and intercession:
The priesthood of believers is not just a private
relationship between him and his God ... all believers
are absorbed into the mediating work of the one and
only mediator. Their function is to mediate between
God and the world, by revealing the hidden works of
God and making effective his acts of power. Hence
every Christian is a priest of God, by being a witness
to God before the world ... Their function is also that
of mediating between the world and God, by not
only devoting themselves to their fellow men
through spiritual sacrifices, but also by praying for
them. Every Christian is a priest for the world, by
having free access to God in faith and by being able
to appear before God on behalf of others and
intercede for them: "First of all, then, I urge that
supplications, prayers, intercessions, and
thanksgivings be made for all men" (1 Tim. 2:1).49
5. Worship in the Church
Luther argued that both the administration of
baptism and the Lord's Supper was available to all
in virtue of their priesthood. It is not difficult to
see that the Lord's command in Matt. 28:19-20,
though given to the disciples present, is in, in its
context in Matthew to be seen as a commission to
the whole church to go, make disciples, baptise,
and teach.
There is no direct command in New Testament
concerning who should administer at the Lord's
Table—mostly likely because the issue had not yet
arisen. It is noteworthy that "nowhere in the NT is
a particular office associated with the ministry of
the Lord's Supper".50 Luther, in Concerning the
48
Küng, ibid., pp. 375-376.
49
Küng, ibid., pp. 380-381.
50
J. Tiller, "Ministry", in New Dictionary of Theology, ed., S. B.
Ferguson et al, Inter-Varsity Press, 1988, p. 431.
Ministry, saw it as a function of the universal
priesthood
to consecrate or to administer the sacred bread and
wine ... we hold that this function, too, like the
priesthood, belongs to all, and this we assert, not on
our own authority, but that of Christ who at the Last
Supper said, "Do this in remembrance of me" [Luke
22:19; 1 Cor. 11:24]. ... Christ spoke this word to all
those then present and to those who in the future
would be at the table, to eat this bread and drink this
cup. ... If then that which is greatest, namely, Word
and baptism, is conferred on all, then it can rightly
be maintained that the lesser, the power to
consecrate, is also conferred, even if there is no
direct authority of Scripture.51
The Brethren too, have seen, and practised this, as
a function of the priesthood of believers with
considerable enrichment to the life and worship of
their assemblies.
In conclusion, I would suggest that the Brethren
are right in what they have affirmed about the
practice of the Lord's Supper. It would be good,
however, if they were to consider again the
Biblical data, and the work of theologians, such as
Luther and Küng to rediscover some of the wider
implications of the universal priesthood. For the
priesthood of believers is a statement about the
nature of the Christian life, lived in loving
sacrificial service to God; in the fellowship of the
church; and in intercession for, service, and
mission to the world.
Bibliography
P. Althaus, The Theology of Martin Luther (Trans. R. C.
Schultz, Fortress, 1966)
J. Atkinson, Martin Luther: Prophet to the Catholic
Church (Eerdmans/Paternoster, 1983, p. 95-109.
J. Baehr, "Priest, High Priest," in C. Brown ed., New
International Dictionary of New Testament Theology
vol. 3, pp. 32-44
E. Best, "Spiritual Sacrifice: General Priesthood in the New
Testament," Interpretation 14 (1960) 273-99
"1 Peter II 4-10—A Reconsideration," Novum
Testamentum 11 (1969) 270-293
D. G. Bloesch, Essentials of Evangelical Theology, vol. 2
(Harper and Row, 1982)
I. Breward, "Ministerial and/or Royal Priesthood?"
Reformed Theological Review 29 (1970) 1-11
C. Eastwood, The Royal Priesthood of the Faithful: An
Investigation of the Doctrine From Biblical Times to
the Reformation (Epworth, 1963)
51
Luther's Works, vol., 40 (Fortress, 1958), pp. 24-25.
The Priesthood of All Believers: An Examination of the
Doctrine from the Reformation to the Present Day,
Epworth, 1960
J. H. Elliott, The Elect and the Holy (Supplements to
Novum Testamentum, Brill, 1966)
G. D. Fee, Gospel and Spirit: Issues in New Testament
Hermeneutics (Hendrickson, 1991)
R. Y. K. Fung, "Ministry in the New Testament," in D. A.
Carson, ed., The Church in the Bible and the World
(Baker/Paternoster, 1987, pp. 154-212)
H. Küng, The Church (Search Press, 1968)
Why Priests? A Proposal for a New Church Ministry
(Doubleday, 1972)
T. W. Manson, Ministry and Priesthood: Christ's and Ours
(Epworth, 1958)
J. M. Scholer, Proleptic Priests: Priesthood in the Epistle
to the Hebrews (JSNT Supplement Series 49, Sheffield
Academic Press, 1991)
F. A. Tatford, "Priesthood and Worship," in J. B. Watson,
ed., The Church: A Symposium (Pickering and Inglis,
1949, pp. 93-107)
J. B. Torrance, "The vicarious humanity and priesthood of
Christ in the theology of John Calvin," in W. H. Neuser
ed., Calvinus Ecclesiae Doctor,
(Uitgeversmaatschappij: Kok-kampen, N.D.) pp. 69-84)
"The Vicarious Humanity of Christ," in T. F. Torrance,
ed., The Incarnation (Handsel Press, 1981, pp 127-147)
T. F. Torrance, Royal Priesthood (Scottish Journal of
Theology Occasional Papers No. 3, Oliver and Boyd,
1955)
W. R. Ward, "Pastoral Office and the General Priesthood in
the Great Awakening," in W. J. Sheils and D. Wood,
ed., The Ministry: Clerical and Lay (Blackwell, 1989,
pp. 303-327)
Southwestern Journal of Theology 30:2 (1988) is devoted to
"The Priesthood of All Christians" with articles, largely
from Baptist perspectives, by S. J. Mikolaski, T. D. Lea, J.
L. Garrett, W. L. Pitts, and D. L. Young.
For Martin Luther's material, I have referred to the
American edition, in particular, Luther's Works Vol. 13,
Concordia, 1956, pp. 284-334 (on Psalm 110:3-4); Vol. 30,
Concordia, 1967, pp. 52-66 (on 1 Peter 2:5-10); Vol. 40,
Fortress, 1958, pp. 3-44 "Concerning the Ministry".
The following commentaries may be noted:
Romans: C. E. B. Cranfield, (ICC, 2 vols); J. D. G. Dunn,
(WBC, 2 vols)
Ephesians: M. Barth, Ephesians 4Ð6 (Anchor Bible, 1974,
esp. pp. 477-484, Comment VI, "The Church without
Laymen and Priests"); A. T. Lincoln, (WBC, 1990)
Philippians: G. F. Hawthorne, (WBC, 1983); J. B.
Lightfoot, (MacMillan, 1913) note esp. Dissertation I on
"The Christian Ministry"; P. T. O'Brien, (NIGTC, 1991);
M. Silva, (WEC, 1988)
Hebrews: F. F. Bruce, (NIC, 1964); P. E. Hughes,
(Eerdmans, 1977); W. L. Lane, (WBC, 2 vols, 1991)
1 Peter: P. H. Davids, (NIC, 1990); W. A. Grudem,
(Tyndale, 1988); D. E. Hiebert, (Moody, 1984); J. N. D.
Kelly, A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and Jude (A.
and C. Black, 1969); J. R. Michaels, (WBC, 1988); E. G.
Selwyn, (MacMillan, 1947)
Revelation: G. R. Beasley-Murray, (NCB, 1982); R. H.
Charles, (ICC, 2 vols, 1920); R. H. Mounce, (NIC, 1977)