P91 - The Workhorse of the Power Industry

For the last two decades the power industry standard material for high temperature applications is the
P91 or T91 grade material. What is this material? What are its benefits? What are the precautions to
be taken during construction?

The steam leaving the superheater of a modern large capacity boiler is in the order or 570 C to 600
C and at pressures ranging from 170 bar to 230 bar. This means the last stages of the superheater and
the pipes carrying the steam to the turbine should withstand these extreme conditions. This requires
this material should have very high strength properties, which do not deteriorate with time, and should
be creep resistant.

Advantages of P91
SA 213 T91 or SA 335 P91 is such a ferritic alloy steel that meets this condition. This material has
been in use for the last two decades successfully in power plant service. It is also called 9 Cr 1 Mo
steel based on its composition.
Compared to its predecessor, the T22 or P22 grade, grade 91 exhibits high strength up to temperatures
in the range of 600 C. Also the oxidation temperature limits are higher. This allows the power plant
designers to engineer components, superheater coils, headers and steam piping, with less thickness.
This contributes to a higher thermal fatigue life of almost ten times. This allows them to increase the
operating temperature to a higher level, increasing the efficiency of the power plant.

This makes it ideally suitable for plants that operate on a cyclic basis like combined cycle plants. Also
the reduction in thickness suits HRSG designers since in an HRSG the temperature head is limited
and locating the coils in the heat transfer path is very critical.

Why is P91 different ?

What makes this steel different is the addition of a high amount of Chromium. Grade 91 contains 9 %
Chromium and 1 % Molybdenum compared to 2.5 % Chromium in the next best P22 grade.
Chromium improves high temperature strength and increases oxidation resistance. Molybdenum
increases the creep resistance. Also present are smaller quantities of Nickel and Manganese which
increase the hardenability of the steel.

More important than the alloying elements is the formation of this alloy steel. The steel is formed by
normalizing at 1050 C, air cooling down to 200 C. It is then tempered by heating to 760 C. The
temperatures and the cooling rates are very important. This produces the microstructure that results in
the high creep strength properties.
This steel is not tolerant to variations in its microstructure, unlike P22 grade or other grades.
The steel has to be from manufacturers who strictly and precisely follow the heat treatment
requirements. Many cases have been reported of failures of the base materials in the early stages of
usage.

After the steel is worked, proper and precise heat treatment is required to reinstate the microstructure
back to its original conditions. If this is not done the steel has properties that are much lower than its
predecessor P22. Many failures have resulted because of this. In the case of P22 and other low alloy
steels, the effect of variations in heat treatment on the properties is not as vehement as in P91.

During the fabrication and construction phase, any process that affects the micro structure has to be
reversed by a precise heat treatment. This brings back the microstructure back to original.

Welding P91

Welding is one process that is widely used during the construction. This affects the microstructure.
Preheating, maintaining inter-pass temperatures, and post-weld heat treatment procedures are very
critical for P91 grade. Failure to follow the procedures will result in catastrophic failures.
For thick walled pipes, the use of an induction heating system is the ideal method. This gives better
control, and uniform heating between the inner and outer diameters. In induction heating the coils
themselves do not heat up. This is ideal for maintaining the inter-pass temperatures and carry out the
welding. This is a more worker friendly heating process. This is also ideal for complex shapes likes
weldolets and tees.

The Nickel and Manganese content, even though in smaller percentages, have profound effects on the
critical temperatures, which decides the heat treatment temperatures and the cooling rates. Because of
this, the composition of the welding electrodes used should be in line with the parent material.

Effect of Water
The un-heat treated steel has great affinity to Hydrogen. Hydrogen can cause stress corrosion
cracking. Pre-heating has to be done properly to remove any moisture. The post weld heat treatment
has to be done as quickly as possible to avoid any contact with water likely from moisture
condensation, rainfall, etc. Great care has to be taken to see that all joints are post-weld heat treated
prior to hydro test.

Dissimilar weld joints especially at complicated geometries can result in the heat treatment not having
the desired effect throughout the cross sections. This can also lead to failures. Great care has to be
taken to avoid such design flaws.

As the industry accepts these practices of constructions, the use of 91 grade steel continues to its
successful journey.

Materials and Thermal Efficiency of a Power Plant

What are the limitations imposed by materials on thermal power plants achieving the highest
efficiency and output at the lowest cost? How to get over these limitations? Read on...

Laws of Thermodynamics

You cannot win, you can only break even.

You can only break even at absolute zero.
You cannot reach absolute zero.
The thermodynamic cycle used in a Thermal Power plant utilises steam at high temperatures and
pressures. Increasing the upper temperature and pressure limits of the thermodynamic cycle increases
the efficiency of the cycle. Power Plants operating with steam parameters of 540 C and 170 bar
pressure have an efficiency of 38 % while Ultra super critical power plants with steam parameters of
300 bar and 620 C can have efficiencies of 48 %. This increase in efficiency is a direct emissions
reduction apart from the cost savings.

Why are the older power plants operating at a lower temperature and pressure? Why are power plants
with higher temperatures greater than 615 C not made? This is because of the limitations imposed by
the materials used for making the tubes, drums, and pipes which contain and transport the steam.

Limitations
The limitations in material are due to

Reduction in strength.
The mechanical strength properties of steel drastically reduce with increased temperatures.
This means to withstand the higher pressure, the thickness of the tubes and pipes have to be
increased.

Added to this the continued operation at high pressure and temperatures leads to creep or slow
degradation in the mechanical strength properties.
Increased thickness means higher thermal stresses which imposes severe limitations on the
design engineers. Also increased thickness means higher weight, meaning more structures and
foundations, all leading to design limitations and higher cost.
Oxidation.
At higher temperatures, due to oxidation, scales form on the tube material. This in the
continuous operation effect the life of the plant. Oxidation limit for Carbon steels is around
425 C.As the steam and gas temperatures increase above the this limit, special aloy steels
have to be used to prevent oxidation.
To overcome these limitations newer and newer materials are developed. Two decades ago the tube
material for carrying the Superheated steam was grade T22 or P22 which had an allowable stress
value of 50 N/mm at 570 C. At 600 C it reduces drastically to 34 N /mm. Today we use grade T91
or P91 that has strength of 78 N/mm at 570 C and 60 N/mm at 600 C. This relates to a 40 %
reduction in thickness at 570 C.
The difference is the addition of alloying elements to the basic Carbon Steel. Grade P22 has 2.0 %
Chromium and 1 % Molybdenum whereas Grade P9 has 9 % Chromium and 1 % Molybdenum,
Nickel, and Vanadium.
For the high temperature application these special steels are called creep resistant steels. These are
derived from the normal Carbon steels by adding alloy elements that increase the mechanical strength
and heat resistant properties.

The five criteria that the industry is looking for in developing new materials are:

Mechanical strength of the material should be available at higher temperatures.

Mechanical strength properties should be consistent throughout the life of the plant at these
elevated operating conditions or it should be creep resistant.
The materials should be easily produced and available.
The materials should be easy for fabrication and construction.
All this at a reasonable cost for investment.
But the most important thing is that this allows the power plants to operate at higher temperatures and
pressure which means higher efficiency and lower emissions.

Post Weld Heat Treatment - Why Is It Important?

Post Weld Heat Treatment ( PWHT) reduces the residual stresses formed during welding. It also
restores the macro structure of the steel. Mandatory in high pressure applications, constructors have to
strictly follow PWHT requirements to avoid component failures. Why is it so important?

Why Do We Need PWHT?

Welding is one of the most critical processes in the manufacture of pressure vessels like the boiler of a
thermal power plant.
The temperature of the molten weld pool during the process is in the range of 2000 deg C. The heat
increase is rapid and instantaneous. When this small strip of molten pool cools down the shrinkage
results in thermal stresses that are locked up inside the metal. This also can change the macrostructure
of the steel. This is because:

The rest and bulk of the steel is almost at ambient temperature.

Deposition of layers of weld metal creates a thermal gradient across the cross section of the weld.
Not only the weld area but also the adjacent area is affected (HAZ).
The sudden cooling and the phase change results in a macro structure that is not the same as the
original steel, resulting in property changes that make the steel weaker and brittle.

These residual stresses and macro structure changes, combined with operating stresses, can lead to
catastrophic failure of the pressure vessels.

PWHT eliminates these effects by heating, soaking, and cooling the weld area in a controlled manner
to temperatures below the first transformation point, giving the macro structure sufficient time to
readjust to its original state and removing the residual stress.
Pre-heat, on the other hand, is the warming up to the welding process and is at lower temperatures.

Factors to Consider
The factors that contribute to these stresses and macro structure changes are:

Thickness of the weld. Higher thickness increases thermal gradients and resulting residual
stresses.
Difference in the material. Welding two materials of different combinations results in different
macro structures of the base metals and the weld pool.
Precise control of cooling rates during the steel making is what gives steels like P91 their
increased strength. A sudden operation like welding results in different macro structure. This is
the case with many of the special steels and exotic materials.
Difference in geometry of the weld parts can cause different thermal gradients that can lead to
residual stresses.
The entrainment of Hydrogen during welding can lead to stress corrosion cracking during
operation. The hydrogen has to diffuse out of the weld during the PWHT process.
The weld area and HAZ have higher hardness making the steel more brittle. In Sour gas
applications, this can lead to corrosion cracking. PWHT controls the hardness to acceptable
levels.
PWHT consists of heating the metal after the welding process in a controlled manner to temperature
below the first transformation point, soaking at that temperature for a sufficiently long time, and
cooling at controlled rates .
To what temperature have you to heat up the metal?
This depends on the properties of the metals. For steels, the phase change occurs at the first
transformation temperature or AC 1 on the Iron Carbide diagram. Temperatures have to be below this.
This could vary from 595 C to 775 C depending on the alloying elements.
What is the hold time?
This is more of a function of the thickness of the weld and generally is 15 minutes per 1 thickness
with a minimum of 1 hour.
The rate of heating and cooling also has to allow for macro structural changes.

Considering the importance and safety to pressure vessels, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code
Section VIII-1 sub section UG 40, UCS 56 and UHA 32 details the PWHT parameters for different
weld groups. Except for lower thickness welds, less than 32 mm for carbon steels, it is mandatory as
per codes to carry out PWHT in the prescribed manner.
PWHT parameters are part of the WPS and PQR and one has to follow the specifications.

PWHT Methods
The different methods to carry out PWHT depends more on practical constraints.

By gas firing in a stationary furnace. This is normally done in manufacturers works were it is
economical to have such a permanent furnace and gas supply system. Most of the boiler
manufacturers have such gas fired furnaces.
Boiler drums are stress relived after welding completion by heating the entire drum in a large
furnace.
Steam headers with large number of welded nozzles are also heat treated in a similar manner.
PWHT of welded smaller parts takes place in the furnace at one time or in batches.
By gas firing or electrical heating in temporary furnaces. This avoids cost in transporting the
finished products from fabrication location to facilities that have fixed furnaces.
Localized PWHT. Construction sites and fabrication shops use this method.
The most common method is by electrical resistance heating. Ceramic beaded heating coils
are wound over the weld area. The current controls the temperature gradients.
Induction heating is one method that is gaining popularity even though the cost is high. This
is a more welder friendly process. Unlike resistance heating only the pipe becomes hot. The
temperature gradients are uniform across the thickness.
By internal gas firing. Large vessels, columns, spherical tanks, sour tanks, etc. are heat treated by
firing gas internally. This requires special equipment and skilled contractors and is a much more
elaborate process. Thermal expansion of the vessel has to be considered during the PWHT
process.
Thermocouples on the surface measure and record the temperatures during PWHT. This recording is a
must and is the only record of the heat treatment having been done

Strict adherence to PWHT parameters and procedures will avoid costly failures during
operation.