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, 1(1): 54-83
2.
3.
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Figure 1.1
The reasons which contribute to poor oral bioavailability includes low aqueous solubility,
inappropriate partition coefficient, degradation of the drug in gastrointestinal tract, first pass
metabolism and P-glycoprotein (PGP) efflux of certain drugs. High first pass hepatic
metabolism is the major contributory factor responsible for inactivation of the drug before it
reaches the systemic circulation. Drugs administered orally are absorbed in the systemic
circulation either via portal circulation or lymphatic transport2, figure 1.2.
Figure 1.4
59
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thermodynamically stable system, so for long time they can remain stable without
any type of aggregation or creaming.
6.
7.
8.
Increases bioavailability.
9.
10.
Provides protection from hydrolysis and oxidation as drug in oil phase in O/W
microemulsion is not exposed to attack by water and air.
11.
12.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Increases in effective lumenal drug solubility: The presence of lipids in the GI tract
stimulates an increase in the secretion of bile salts (BS) and endogenous biliary lipids
including phospholipid (PL) and cholesterol (CH), leading to the formation of
BS/PL/CH intestinal mixed micelles and an increase in the solubilisation capacity of
the GI tract. However, intercalation of administered (exogenous) lipids into these BS
structures either directly (if sufficiently polar), or secondary to digestion, leads to
swelling of the micellar structures and a further increase in solubilization capacity.
c)
Stimulation of intestinal lymphatic transport: For highly lipophilic drugs, lipids may
enhance the extent of lymphatic transport and increase bioavailability directly or
indirectly via a reduction in first-pass metabolism, figure 1.5.
d)
Changes in the biochemical barrier function of the GI tract: It is clear that certain
lipids and surfactants may attenuate the activity of intestinal efflux transporters, as
indicated by the p-glycoprotein efflux pump, and may also reduce the extent of
enterocyte-based metabolism.
e)
Results of study for intestinal lymphatic transport of halofantrine shows the significant effect
that small amounts of lipid present within a single lipid-based dose form can have on the
transport of a lymphatically transported drug administered in the fasted state. The reported
data have implications with regard to (a) the recruitment of the lymphatics as an absorption
pathway after fasted administration of a lipid-based formulation, (b) altered drug delivery
profiles as lymphatically transported drugs access the mesenteric lymphatics and associated
lymph nodes and then empty into the systemic circulation at the junction of the left
subclavian vein and the jugular vein, (c) possible changes in the pharmacokinetics and
systemic clearance of lipophilic drugs, (d) the potential stimulation of lymphatic transport
when a lipophilic drug is ingested in a partial-prandial state (e.g., as a consequence of the
presence of a small amount of dietary lipid from a snack or previously consumed meal), and
(e) safety assessment of lipophilic new drug candidates, which are often administered in
conjunction with lipids and/or lipidic excipients to enhance drug exposure.5
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Figure 1.5
62
64
Thermodynamic theory takes into account entropy of droplets and thermal fluctuations at the
interface as important parameters leading to interfacial bending instability. Originally
workers proposed that in order for a microemulsion to be formed a negative value of was
required, it is now recognized that while value of is positive at all times, it is very small,
and is offset by the entropic component. The dominant favorable entropic contribution is the
very large dispersion entropy arising from the mixing of one phase in the other in the form of
65
2)
Destroy liquid crystalline or gel structure which would prevent the formation of
microemulsion. 3) Adjust HLB value and spontaneous curvature of the interface by
changing surfactant partitioning characteristic.
1.2.8.4 Co-solvents
The production of an optimum microemulsion requires relatively high concentrations
(generally more than 30% w/w) of surfactants. Organic solvents such as, ethanol, propylene
glycol (PG), and polyethylene glycol (PEG) are suitable for oral delivery, and they enable the
dissolution of large quantities of either the hydrophilic surfactant or the drug in the lipid base.
These solvents can even act as co-surfactants in microemulsion systems.1
Table 1.3 Some commonly used components for Microemulsions12
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Figure 1.6
73
Figure 1.8 Ternary Phase Diagram Of Winsor Phase (WI, WII, WIII, WIV)22
L1
L2
Winsor I
The microemulsion composition corresponding to Winsor I is characterized by two phase, the
lower oil/water (O/W) microemulsion phase in equilibrium with excess oil.
Winsor II
The microemulsion composition corresponding to Winsor II is characterized by very low
interfacial tension and maximal solubilization of oil and water for a given quantity of
surfactant. Since, in this phase, microemulsion coexists with both excess phases, no one can
distinguish the dispersed phase from the continuous phase.
Winsor III
This phase comprises of three phases, middle microemulsion phase (O/W plus W/O, called
bicontinuous) in equilibrium with upper excess oil and lower water.
Winsor IV
Microemulsions can be distinguished from the micelles by its inner core swollen with oil.
The microemulsion structure depends on the chemical composition, temperature and
concentration of the constituents. Different surfactants stabilize different microstructures due
to aggregation. This aggregation phenomenon leads to a system with minimum free energy
and thermodynamic stability. Even though the spherical micelles are considered to have
minimal water-hydrocarbon contact area for a given volume, the inter micellar free energy
and the impossibility of the existence of voids in the hydrophobic region leads to other
amphiphillic assemblies like cylinders and planes. They are organized in the form of liquid
74
76
The cryo-TEM analyses in which samples are directly visualized after fast freeze and
freeze fructose in the cold microscope.
2.
The Freeze Fracture TEM technique in which a replica of the specimen is images
under RT conditions.
Stability Studies
The stability of the microemulsion has been assessed by conducting long term stability study
and accelerated stability studies. In long term stability study, the system is kept at room
temperature, refrigeration temperature (4-8 C) and elevated temperature (502 C). Over the
time period, microemulsion systems are evaluated for their size, zeta potential, assay, pH,
viscosity and conductivity. On long term study, the activation energy for the system and shelf
life of the system may be calculated as like other conventional delivery system. Accelerated
stability studies are the essential tools to study the thermodynamic stability of
microemulsions. It can be done by centrifugation, heating/cooling cycle and freeze/thaw
cycles.53
77
Parenteral administration (especially via the intravenous route) of drugs with limited
solubility is a major problem in industry because of the extremely low amount of drug
actually delivered to a targeted site. Microemulsion formulations have distinct advantages
over macroemulsion systems when delivered parenterally because of the fine particle
microemulsion is cleared more slowly than the coarse particle emulsion and, therefore, have a
longer residence time in the body. Both O/W and W/O microemulsion can be used for
parenteral delivery. The literature contains the details of the many microemulsion systems,
few of these can be used for the parenteral delivery because the toxicity of the surfactant and
parenteral use. An alternative approach was taken by Von Corsewant and Thoren in which
C3-C4 alcohols were replaced with parenterally acceptable co-surfactants, polyethylene
glycol (400) / polyethylene glycol (660) 12-hydroxystearate / ethanol, while maintaining a
flexible surfactant film and spontaneous curvature near zero to obtain and almost balanced
middle phase microemulsion. The middle phase structure was preferred in this application,
because it has been able to incorporate large volumes of oil and water with a minimal
concentration of surfactant.32
Oral Delivery
Microemulsion formulations offer the several benefits over conventional oral formulation for
oral administration including increased absorption, improved clinical potency and decreased
drug toxicity. Therefore, microemulsion have been reported to be ideal delivery of drugs such
as steroids, hormones, diuretic and antibiotics. The microemulsion droplets dispersed in the
gastrointestinal tract provide large surface area and promote a rapid release of dissolved form
of the drug substance and/or mixed micelles containing drug substance, and they may be also
responsible for transporting the drug through the unstirred water layer to the gastrointestinal
membrane for absorption. In addition to the enhanced dissolution of drugs, another factor
contributing to the increasing bioavailability is that lymphatic transport is responsible for a
portion of the entire drug uptake as well. The lipid composition of system may be related to
facilitate the extent of lymphatic drug transport by stimulating lipoprotein formation and
intestinal lymphatic liquid flux.
Pharmaceutical drugs of peptides and proteins are highly potent and specific in their
physiological functions. However, most are difficult to administer orally. With on oral
bioavailability in conventional (i.e. non-microemulsion based) formulation of less than 10%,
they are usually not therapeutically active by oral administration. Because of their low oral
bioavailability, most protein drugs are only available as parenteral formulations. However,
peptide drugs have an extremely short biological half life when administered parenterally, so
require multiple dosing.33A microemulsion formulation of cyclosporine, named Neoral has
been introduced to replace Sandimmune, a crude oil-in-water emulsion of cyclosporine
formulation. Neoral is formulated with a finer dispersion, giving it a more rapid and
predictable absorption and less inter and intra patient variability.34
Topical Delivery
78
2.
3.
Many enzymes, including lipases, esterases, dehydrogenases and oxidases often function in
the cells in microenvironments that are hydrophobic in nature. In biological systems many
enzymes operate at the interface between hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains and these
usually interfaces are stabilized by polar lipids and other natural amphiphiles. Enzymatic
catalysis in microemulsions has been used for a variety of reactions, such as synthesis of
esters, peptides and sugar acetals transesterification, various hydrolysis reactions and steroid
transformation. The most widely used class of enzymes in microemulsion-based reactions is
of lipases.38
Intranasal Drug Delivery
The nasal route is one of the most permeable and highly vascularized site for drug
administration ensuring rapid absorption and onset of therapeutic action. Microemulsion has
79
Talegaonkar S, Azeem A, Ahmad FJ, Khar RK, Pathan SA and Khan ZI,
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Khoo HM, Shackleford DM, Porter CJ, Edwards GA and Charman WN, Intestinal
Lymphatic Transport of Halofantrine occurs after Oral Administration of a Unit-Dose
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Kumar P., and Mittal KL. In Handbook of Microemulsion Science and Technology;
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Tang JL, Sun J and He ZG, Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems: Strategy For
Improving Oral Delivery of Poorly Soluble Drugs. Current Drug Therapy, 2007; 2,
85-93.
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Cannon JB, Lipid-based Formulation Approaches for Poorly Soluble drugs, February
2010, www.aapspharmaceutica.com/.../Lipid_Based_Formulation_ Cannon.pdf
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Kyatanwar AU, Jadhav KR and Kadam VJ, Self Micro-Emulsifying Drug Delivery
System (SMEDDS): Review. Journal of Pharmacy Research, 2010; 3, 75-83.
15.
Pouton CW and Porter CJ, Formulation of Lipid-based Delivery Systems for Oral
Administration: Materials, Methods and Strategies. Ad. Drug Delivery Rev., 2008;
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Narang AS, Delmarre D and Gao D, Stable Drug Encapsulation in Micelles and
Microemulsions. Int. J. Pharm., 2007; 345, 925.
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Rao YS, Deepthi KS and Chowdary KP, Microemulsions: A Novel Drug Carrier
System. IJDDT, 2009; 1, 39-41.
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Sinko PJ., and Singh Y. In Martins Physical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences;
5th Edn, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2005, 410.
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Schurtenberger P, Peng Q, Leser ME and Luisi PL, Structure and Phase Behaviour of
Lecithin-based Microemulsions: A Study of Chain Length Dependence. J. Colloid
Interface Sci., 1993; 156, 4351.
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Vyas SP., and Khar RK. In Submicron Emulsions in Targeted and Controlled Drug
Delivery, Novel Carrier Systems; 1st Edn; CBS Publishers and Distributors, New
Delhi, 2002, 282.
29.
Mehta SK, Kavaljit XX and Bala K, Phase Behaviour, Structural Effects, Volumetric
and Transport Properties in Nonaqueous Microemulsions. Phys. Rev., 1999; 59,
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Kumar P., and Mittal KL. In Handbook of Microemulsion Science and Technology;
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Ho HO, Huang MC, Chen LC, Hsia A, Chen KT, Chiang HS, Spur BW, Wong PY
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