Bourgeoisie

Bourgeois redirects here. For other uses, see Bourgeois In Marxist philosophy the bourgeoisie is the social class
(disambiguation).
who owns the means of production and whose societal
In political economy, political philosophy, sociology, concerns are the value of property and the preservation
of capital, in order to ensure the perpetuation of their
economic supremacy in society.[3] Joseph Schumpeter instead saw the creation of new bourgeoisie as the driving force behind the capitalist engine, particularly entrepreneurs who took risks in order to bring innovation
to industries and the economy through the process of
creative destruction.[4]

1 Etymology
The Modern French word bourgeois derived from the Old
French burgeis (walled city), which derived from bourg
(market town), from the Old Frankish burg (town); in
other European languages, the etymologic derivations are
the Middle English burgeis, the Middle Dutch burgher,
the German Brger, the Modern English burgess, and
the Polish buruazja, which occasionally is synonymous
with the intelligentsia.[5] In English, bourgeoisie (a
French citizen-class) identied a social class oriented to
economic materialism and hedonism, and to upholding
the extreme political and economic interests of the capitalist ruling class.[6] In the 18th century, before the French
Revolution (178999), in the French feudal order, the
masculine and feminine terms bourgeois and bourgeoise
identied the rich men and women who were members of
the urban and rural Third Estate the common people
of the French realm, who violently deposed the absolute
monarchy of the Bourbon King Louis XVI (r. 177491),
his clergy, and his aristocrats. Hence, since the 19th century, the term bourgeoisie usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a
capitalist society.[7]

The prototypical bourgeois: Monsieur Jourdain, the protagonist

of the play Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670), by Molire

social sciences, and history, the bourgeoisie (Eng.:

/brwzi/; French pronunciation: [buwazi]) is the
wealthy stratum of the middle class that originated during
the latter part of the Middle Ages (AD 4761453).[1][2]

Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted

the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the
craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted the bourgeoisie, they were the socio-economic
class between the peasants and the landlords, between the
workers and the owners of the means of production. As
the economic managers of the (raw) materials, the goods,
and the services, and thus the capital (money) produced
by the feudal economy, the term bourgeoisie evolved to
also denote the middle class the businessmen and businesswomen who accumulated, administered, and controlled the capital that made possible the development of
the bourgs into cities.[8]

The bourgeoisie includes a historical range of socioeconomic classes. As such, in the Western world, since
the late 18th century, the bourgeoisie is a social class
characterized by their ownership of capital, and their
related culture"; hence, the personal terms bourgeois
(masculine) and bourgeoise (feminine) culturally identify the man or woman who is a member of the wealthiest social class of a given society, and their materialistic
worldview (Weltanschauung).
1

Contemporarily, the terms bourgeoisie and bourgeois

identify the ruling class in capitalist societies, as a social
stratum; while bourgeois describes the Weltanschauung
(worldview) of men and women whose way of thinking is
socially and culturally determined by their economic materialism and philistinism, a social identity catalogued and
described in drame bourgeois (bourgeois drama), which
satirizes buying the trappings of a noble-birth identity as
the means climbing the social ladder.[9][10] (See: Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, 1670.)

DENOTATIONS

agreed rents. In the event, by the end of the Middle

Ages (ca. AD 1500), under rgimes of the early national monarchies of Western Europe, the bourgeoisie
acted in self-interest, and politically supported the king or
the queen against the legal and nancial disorder caused
by the greed of the feudal lords. In the late-16th and
early 17th centuries, the bourgeoisies of England and the
Netherlands had become the nancial thus political
forces that deposed the feudal order; economic power had
vanquished military power in the realm of politics.[8]
From progress to reaction
During the 17th and 18th centuries, the bourgeoisie were
the politically progressive social class who supported the
principles of constitutional government and of natural
right, against the Law of Privilege and the claims of
rule by divine right that the nobles and prelates had
autonomously exercised during the feudal order. The
motivations for the English Civil War (164251), the
American War of Independence (177583), and French
Revolution (178999) partly derived from the desire of
the bourgeoisie to rid themselves of the feudal trammels and royal encroachments upon their personal liberty,
commercial rights, and the ownership of property. In the
19th century, the bourgeoisie propounded liberalism, and
gained political rights, religious rights, and civil liberties
for themselves and the lower social classes; thus was the
bourgeoisie then a progressive philosophic and political
force in modern Western societies.

The 16th-century German banker Jakob Fugger and his principal

accountant, M. Schwarz, registering an entry to a ledger. The
background shows a le cabinet indicating the European cities
where the Fugger Banker conducts business. (1517)

History

Origins and rise

In the 11th century, the bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon when the bourgs of Central and Western Europe developed into cities dedicated
to commerce. The organised economic concentration
that made possible such urban expansion derived from
the protective self-organisation into guilds, which became necessary when individual businessmen (craftsmen,
artisans, merchants, et alii) conicted with their rentseeking feudal landlords who demanded greater-than-

By the middle of the 19th century, subsequent to the

Industrial Revolution (17501850), the great expansion
of the bourgeoisie social class caused its self-stratication
by business activity and by economic function into
the haute bourgeoisie (bankers and industrialists) and the
petite bourgeoisie (tradesmen and white-collar workers).
Moreover, by the end of the 19th century, the capitalists
(the original bourgeoisie) had ascended to the upper class,
whilst the developments of technology and technical occupations allowed the ascension of working-class men
and women to the lower strata of the bourgeoisie; yet the
social progress was incidental.
In the event, despite its initial philosophic progressivism
from feudalism to liberalism to capitalism the bourgeoisie social class (haute and petite) became reactionary
in their refusal to allow the ascension (economic, social,
political) of people from the proletariat (peasants and
urban workers) in order to maintain hegemony.[8]

3 Denotations
3.1 The Dictatorship of the Bourgeoisie
In the Middle Ages (AD 5001500), the bourgeois usually was a self-employed businessman such as a merchant, banker, or entrepreneur whose economic role in
society was being the nancial intermediary to the feudal

3.3

In France and French-speaking countries

landlord and the peasant who worked the ef, the land
of the lord. Yet, by the 18th century, the time of the
Industrial Revolution (17501850) and of industrial capitalism, the bourgeoisie had become the economic ruling
class who owned the means of production (capital and
land), and who controlled the means of coercion (armed
forces and legal system, police forces and prison system). In such a society, the bourgeoisies ownership of
the means of production enabled their employment and
exploitation of the wage-earning working class (urban
and rural), people whose sole economic means is labour;
and the bourgeois control of the means of coercion suppressed the socio-political challenges of the lower classes,
and so preserved the economic status quo; workers remained workers, and employers remained employers.[11]
In the 19th century, the German economist Karl Marx
distinguished two types of bourgeois capitalist: (i) the
functional capitalist, the business administrator of the
means of production; and (ii) the rentier capitalist whose
livelihood derives either from the rent of property or
from the interest-income produced by nance capital,
or both.[12] In the course of economic relations, the
working class and the bourgeoisie continually engage in
class struggle, wherein the capitalists exploit the workers, whilst the workers resist their economic exploitation,
which occurs because the worker owns no means of production, and, to earn a living, he or she seeks employment
from the bourgeois capitalist; the worker produces goods
and services that are property of the employer, who sells
them for a price. The money generated by the sale of the
goods and services yields three sums (i) the wages of the
worker, (ii) the costs of production, and (iii) prot (surplus value). Thereby, the capitalist prots (makes extra
money) by selling the surplus value of the labour of the
workers; hence is new wealth created through work.

3
system of state capitalism, et cetera.

3.3 In France and French-speaking countries

In English, the term bourgeoisie is often used to denote
the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses
both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding
which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French-speaking countries
consists of four evolving social layers: la petite bourgeoisie, la moyenne bourgeoisie, la grande bourgeoisie,
and la haute bourgeoisie.
La Petite Bourgeoisie
The petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two
generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by
the second and third generation, a family may rise another
level. The petite bourgeois would belong to the British
middle middle class and would be part of the American lower middle class. They are distinguished mainly by
their mentality, and would dierentiate themselves from
the proletariat or working class. This class would include
artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to aord
employees themselves.

La Moyenne Bourgeoisie
People who belong to the moyenne bourgeoisie or middle
bourgeoisie, have solid incomes and assets, but without
the aura those who have become established at a higher
level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations. Some members of
this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds,
or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne
Besides describing the social class who own the means bourgeoisie would be the equivalent of the British and
of production, the Marxist usage of the term bour- American upper-middle classes.
geois also describes the consumerist style of life derived La Grande Bourgeoisie
from the ownership of capital and real property. As an The grande bourgeoisie are families that have been boureconomist Karl Marx acknowledged the bourgeois indus- geois since the 19th century, or for at least four or ve
triousness that created wealth, yet criticised the moral generations. Members of these families tend to marry
hypocrisy of the bourgeoisie when they ignored the true with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marorigins of their wealth the exploitation of the prole- riages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an estabtariat, the urban and rural workers. Further sense deno- lished historical and cultural heritage over the decades.
tations of bourgeois describe ideologic concepts such The names of these families are generally known in the
as bourgeois freedom, which is opposed to substantive city where they reside, and their ancestors have often conforms of freedom; bourgeois independence; bourgeois tributed to the regions history. These families are repersonal individuality; the bourgeois family; et cetera, spected and revered. They belong to the upper class, and
all derived from owning capital and property. (See: The in the British class system would be considered part of the
Communist Manifesto, 1848.)
gentry. In the French-speaking countries they are sometimes referred la petite haute bourgeoisie.

3.2

Nomenklatura

In the 20th century, some communist states, particularly

the Soviet Union, developed a category of people called
a nomenklatura, the bureaucrats who administered the
countrys government, industry, agriculture, education,

La Haute Bourgeoisie
The haute bourgeoisie is a social rank in the bourgeoisie
that can only be acquired through time. In France, it is
composed of bourgeois families that have existed since
the French Revolution. They hold only honorable professions and have experienced many illustrious marriages in

4
their familys history. They have rich cultural and historical heritages, and their nancial means are more than secure. These families exude an aura of nobility, which prevents them from certain marriages or occupations. They
only dier from nobility in that due to circumstances, the
lack of opportunity, and/or political regime, they have
not been ennobled. These people nevertheless live a lavish lifestyle, enjoying the company of the great artists of
the time. In France, the families of the haute bourgeoisie
are also referred to as les 200 familles, a term which was
coined in the rst half of the 20th century. Michel Pinon
and Monique Pinon-Charlot have studied the lifestyle of
the French bourgeoisie, and how they boldly guard their
world from the nouveau riche, or newly rich.

BOURGEOIS CULTURE

power, for mutual benet and prot, the Mussolini Fascist rgime transcended ideology in order to merge the
political and nancial interests of Prime Minister Benito
Mussolini with the political and nancial interests of the
bourgeoisie, the Catholic social circles who constituted
the ruling class of Italy.
Philosophically, as a materialist creature, the bourgeois
man was irreligious; thus, to establish an existential distinction between the supernatural faith of the Roman
Catholic Church and the materialist faith of temporal religion; in The Autarchy of Culture: Intellectuals and Fascism in the 1930s, the priest Giuseppe Marino said that:

Christianity is essentially anti-bourgeois .

In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost des. . A Christian, a true Christian, and thus a
ignates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into
Catholic, is the opposite of a bourgeois.[14]
this socio-economic group is possible. Nevertheless, the
bourgeoisie is dierentiated from la classe moyenne, or
the middle class, which consists mostly of white-collar Culturally, the bourgeois man is unmanly, eeminate,
employees, by holding a profession referred to as a pro- and infantile; describing his philistinism in Bonica antifession librale, which la classe moyenne, in its denition borghese (1939), Roberto Paravese said that the:
does not hold. Yet, in English the denition of a whitecollar job encompasses the profession librale. As the
Middle class, middle man, incapable of
world becomes globalized and society moves towards a
great virtue or great vice: and there would be
corporate one, the term la bourgeoisie in its pure form
nothing wrong with that, if only he would be
has become a somewhat outdated term, which requires a
willing to remain as such; but, when his childmore up-to-date denition.
like or feminine tendency to camouage pushes
him to dream of grandeur, honours, and thus
riches, which he cannot achieve honestly with
his own second-rate powers, then the aver4 Modern history
age man compensates with cunning, schemes,
and mischief; he kicks out ethics, and becomes
a bourgeois.
Fascist Italy
The bourgeois is the average man who does
Because of their ascribed cultural excellence as a sonot accept to remain such, and who, lacking the
cial class, the Italian fascist rgime (192245) of Prime
strength sucient for the conquest of essential
Minister Benito Mussolini regarded the bourgeoisie as
values those of the spirit opts for material
an obstacle to Modernism in aid to transforming Italones, for appearances.[15]
ian society.[13] Nonetheless, despite such intellectual and
social hostility, the Fascist State ideologically exploited
the Italian bourgeoisie and their materialistic, middle- The economic security, nancial freedom, and social moclass spirit, for the more ecient cultural manipulation of bility of the bourgeoisie threatened the philosophic inthe upper (aristocratic) and the lower (working) classes tegrity of Italian Fascism, the ideologic monolith that was
of Italy. In 1938, Prime Minister Mussolini gave a the rgime of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. Any asspeech wherein he established a clear ideological distinc- sumption of legitimate political power (government and
tion between capitalism (the social function of the bour- rule) by the bourgeoisie represented a Fascist loss of
geoisie) and the bourgeoisie (as a social class), whom he totalitarian State power for social control through politdehumanized by reducing them into high-level abstrac- ical unity one people, one nation, one leader. Sociotions: a moral category and a state of mind.[13] Culturally logically, to the fascist man, to become a bourgeois was a
and philosophically, Mussolini isolated the bourgeoisie character aw inherent to the masculine mystique; therefrom Italian society by portraying them as social para- fore, the ideology of Italian Fascism scornfully dened
sites upon the Fascist Italian State and The People; as the bourgeois man as spiritually castrated.[15]
a social class who drained the human potential of Italian society, in general, and of the working class, in particular; as exploiters who victimized the Italian nation
with an approach to life characterised by hedonism and 5 Bourgeois culture
materialism.[13] Nevertheless, despite the slogan The Fascist Man Disdains the Comfortable Life, which epito- Cultural hegemony
mized the anti-bourgeois principle, in its nal years of Karl Marx said that the culture of a society is dominated

Thomas Mann (18751955) portrayed the moral, intellectual,

and physical decadence of the German upper bourgeoisie in the
novel Buddenbrooks (1926)

The Spanish cinast Luis Buuel (190083) depicted the tortuous

mentality and self-destructive hypocrisy of the bourgeoisie

economic results it yields to them. In that sense, contemporary societies are bourgeois to the degree that they
practice the mores of the small-business shop culture of
early modern France; which the writer mile Zola (1840
1902) naturalistically presented, analysed, and ridiculed
in the twenty-two-novel series (18711893) about Les
Rougon-Macquart family; the thematic thrust is the necessity for social progress, by subordinating the economic
sphere to the social sphere of life.[16]

The 17th-century French playwright Molire (162273) catalogued the social-climbing essence of the bourgeoisie in Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670).

by the mores of the ruling-class, wherein their superimposed value system is abided by each social class (the
upper, the middle, the lower) regardless of the socio-

Conspicuous consumption
The critical analyses of the bourgeois mentality by the
German intellectual Walter Benjamin (18921940) indicated that the shop culture of the petite bourgeoisie established the sitting room as the centre of personal and
family life; as such, the English bourgeois culture is a
sitting-room culture of prestige through conspicuous consumption. The material culture of the bourgeoisie concentrated on mass-produced luxury goods of high quality; between generations, the only variance was the materials with which the goods were manufactured. In the
early part of the 19th century, the bourgeois house contained a home that rst was stocked and decorated with
hand-painted porcelain, machine-printed cotton fabrics,
machine-printed wallpaper, and Sheeld steel (crucible
and stainless). The utility of these things was inherent to
their practical functions. By the latter part of the 19th

6
century, the bourgeois house contained a home that had
been remodelled by conspicuous consumption. Here, the
goods were bought to display wealth (discretionary income), rather than for their practical utility. The bourgeoisie had transposed the wares of the shop window to
the sitting room, where the clutter of display signalled
bourgeois success.[17] (See: Culture and Anarchy, 1869.)
Two spatial constructs manifest the bourgeois mentality:
(i) the shop-window display, and (ii) the sitting room. In
English, the term sitting-room culture is synonymous
for bourgeois mentality, a philistine cultural perspective from the Victorian Era (18371901), especially characterised by the repression of emotion and of sexual desire; and by the construction of a regulated social-space
where propriety is the key personality trait desired in
men and women.[17] Nonetheless, from such a psychologically constricted worldview, regarding the rearing of
children, contemporary sociologists claim to have identied progressive middle-class values, such as respect for
non-conformity, self-direction, autonomy, gender equality and the encouragement of innovation; as in the Victorian Era, the transposition to the U.S. of the bourgeois
system of social values has been identied as a requisite
for employment success in the professions.[18][19]

BOURGEOIS CULTURE

in the course of four generations, beginning with the

patriarch Johann Buddenbrook Sr. and his son, Johann
Buddenbrook Jr., who are typically successful German
businessmen; each is a reasonable man of solid character. Yet, in the children of Buddenbrook Jr., the materially comfortable style of life provided by the dedication
to solid, middle-class values elicits decadence: The ckle
daughter, Toni, lacks and does not seek a purpose in life;
son Christian is honestly decadent, and lives the life of
a neer-do-well; and the businessman son, Thomas, who
assumes command of the Buddenbrook family fortune,
occasionally falters from middle-class solidity by being
interested in art and philosophy, the impractical life of
the mind, which, to the bourgeoisie, is the epitome of social, moral, and material decadence.[23][24][25]

Babbitt (1922), by Sinclair Lewis (18851951), satirizes

the American bourgeois George Follansbee Babbitt, a
middle-aged realtor, booster, and joiner in the Midwestern city of Zenith, who despite being unimaginative,
self-important, and hopelessly conformist and middleclass is aware that there must be more to life than
money and the consumption of the best things that money
can buy. Nevertheless, he fears being excluded from the
mainstream of society more than he does living for himself, by being true to himself his heart-felt irtations
Representations
Beyond the intellectual realms of political economy, with independence (dabbling in liberal politics and a love
history, and political science that discuss, describe, and aair with a pretty widow) come to naught because he is
analyse the bourgeoisie as a social class, the colloquial existentially afraid.
usage of the sociological terms bourgeois and bour- Yet, George F. Babbitt sublimates his desire for selfgeoise describe the social stereotypes of the Old Money respect, and encourages his son to rebel against the conand of the Nouveau riche, who is a politically timid con- formity that results from bourgeois prosperity, by recomformist satised with a wealthy, consumerist style of life mending that he be true to himself:
characterised by conspicuous consumption and the continual striving for prestige.[20][21] This being the case,
Dont be scared of the family. No, nor
the cultures of the world describe the philistinism of
all of Zenith. Nor of yourself, the way Ive
the middle-class personality, produced by the excessively
been.[26]
rich life of the bourgeoisie, is examined and analysed
in comedic and dramatic plays, novels, and lms. (See:
Authenticity.)
Films
Theatre
The comedy lms by the Spanish lm director Luis
Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (The Would-be Gentleman, Buuel (190083) examine the mental and moral eects
1670) by Molire (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), is a comedy- of the bourgeois mentality, its culture, and the stylish way
ballet that satirizes Monsieur Jourdain, the prototypical of life it provides for its practitioners.
nouveau riche man who buys his way up the social-class
scale, in order to realise his aspirations of becoming a
Lge dor (The Golden Age, 1930) illustrates the
gentleman, to which end he studies dancing, fencing, and
madness and self-destructive hypocrisy of bourgeois
philosophy, the trappings and accomplishments of a gensociety.
tleman, in order to be able to pose as a man of noble birth,
someone who, in 17th-century France, was a man to the
manor born; Jourdains self-transformation also requires
Le charme discret de la bourgeoisie (The Discreet
managing the private life of his daughter, so that her marCharm of the Bourgeoisie, 1972) explores the timidriage can also assist his social ascent.[10][22]
ity instilled by middle-class values.
Literature
Buddenbrooks (1901), by Thomas Mann (18751955),
chronicles the moral, intellectual, and physical decay of
a rich family through its declines, material and spiritual,

Cet obscur objet du dsir (That Obscure Object of Desire, 1977) illuminates the practical self-deceptions required for buying love as
marriage.[27][28]

See also
Beurgeois (auent French Muslims of NorthAfrican descent)
Bildungsbrgertum
Burgess
Conspicuous consumption

[8] Bourgeoisie, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition.

(1994) p. 0000.
[9] Bents Readers Encyclopedia Third Edition (1987) p.
118, p. 759.
[10] Molire, ed. Warren 1899

Conspicuous leisure

[11] The Class Struggles in France, 1848 to 1850, Works of

Karl Marx, 1850

Cultural hegemony

[12] A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, T.B. Bottomore, p. 272

Economic stratication

[13] Bellassai, Sandro (2005) The Masculine Mystique: AntiModernism and Virility in Fascist Italy, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 3, pp. 314335.

Gemtlichkeit
Grand Burgher (German Grobrger)
Habitus (sociology)
Homo economicus

[14] Marino, Giuseppe Carlo (1983) L'autarchia della cultura.

Intellettuali e fascismo negli anni trenta, Roma: Editori
Riuniti.

Occupational prestige

[15] Paravese, Roberto (1939) Bonica antiborghese, in

Edgardo Sulis (ed.), Processo alla borghesia, Roma: Edizioni Roma, pp. 5170.

Petite bourgeoisie

[16] mile Zola, Le Rougon-Macquart (18711893).

Political class

[17] Walter Benjamin, The Halles Project.

The Proletariat, the opposite of the Bourgeoisie

Rational-legal authority
Social environment
Social structure of the United Kingdom
The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study
of Institutions (1899)
Vecino

[7] Dictionary of Historical Terms Chris Cook, Editor (1983)

p. 267.

References

Notes
[1] Bourgeoisie, burguesa in the Diccionario de la Real
Academia Espaola (1994)
[2] Websters New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English
Language Unabridged (1951) p. 205.
[3] Bourgeois Society
[4] Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and
Democracy',' pages 83-84, 134
[5] The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology C.T. Onions,
Editor (1995) p. 110.
[6] Oxford English Reference Dictionary Second Edition
(1996) p. 196.

[18] Gilbert, Dennis (1998). The American Class Structure.

New York: Wadsworth Publishing. 0-534-50520-1.
[19] Williams, Brian; Stacey C. Sawyer; Carl M. Wahlstrom
(2005). Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships.
Boston, MA: Pearson. 0-205-36674-0.
[20] Howard Zinn. A Peoples History of the United States
(1980)
[21] Sven Beckert Propertied of Dierent Kind: Bourgeoisie
and Lower Middle Class in the Nineteenth-Century
United States in The Middling Sorts: Explorations in the
History of the American Middle Class (2001) Burton J.
Bledstein and Robert D. Johnston, Eds. (2001)
[22] Bents Readers Encyclopedia Third Edition (1987) p.
118, p. 512.
[23] Bents Readers Encyclopedia Third Edition (1987) p.
118, p. 137.
[24] Charles Neider, The Stature of Thomas Mann (1968)
[25] Wolfgang Beutin, A history of German Literature: From
the Beginnings to the Present Day (1993) Routledge, 1993,
ISBN 0-415-06034-6, p. 433.
[26] Bents Readers Encyclopedia Third Edition (1987) p. 65.
[27] see this review by Roger Ebert
[28] Kinder (ed.) 1999

Further reading

8
Bledstein, Burton J. and Johnston, Robert D. (eds.)
The Middling Sorts: Explorations in the History of
the American Middle Class. Routledge. 2001.
Brooks, David, Bobos In Paradise: The New Upper
Class and How They Got There. Simon & Schuster.
2001.
Byrne, Frank J. Becoming Bourgeois: Merchant Culture in the South, 1820-1865. University Press of
Kentucky. 2006.
Hunt, Margaret R. The Middling Sort: Commerce,
Gender, and the Family in England, 16801780.
University of California Press. 1996.
Kinder, Marsha. (ed.) Luis Buuels The Discreet
Charm of the Bourgeoisie. Cambridge University
Press. 1999.
Lockwood, David. Cronies or Capitalists? The
Russian Bourgeoisie and the Bourgeois Revolution
from 1850 to 1917. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2009.
Molire, and Warren, Frederick Morris (ed.)
Molires Le bourgeois gentilhomme. D.C. Heath
& Co. 1899. (full text)
Siegel, Jerrold. Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics,
and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 18301930.
The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1999.
Stern, Robert W. Changing India: Bourgeois Revolution on the Subcontinent. Cambridge University
Press. 2nd edition, 2003.

External links
The Democratic State A Critique of Bourgeois
Sovereignty

EXTERNAL LINKS

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

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Mhazard9, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, Jannex, TigerShark, Tapir2001, SDC, Mimiian, Mandarax, Chris Weimer, WBardwin, Reisio,
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JosephHVilas, YurikBot, Mikeishigaki, RussBot, Lincolnite, Bhny, Wimt, Knyght27, Bvanderveen, Aeusoes1, RattleMan, Grafen, Jaxl,
Ad Nauseam, Kortoso, NWOG, Caroline Sanford, TheSeer, Mamathomas, Zzuuzz, Orbis 3, Clocke, Fram, Anclation, JLaTondre, Benandorsqueaks, Innity0, GrinBot, Mardus, CIreland, Marquez, Eykanal, Intangible, Yakudza, SmackBot, CSZero, Unyoyega, Power piglet,
Thunderboltz, Midway, Eskimbot, WhiskyWhiskers, Edgar181, Xaosux, Anarkisto, Hmains, TimBentley, Rex Germanus, Te24409nsp,
Thumperward, Kemet, BrendelSignature, Bazonka, ADobkin, Lexlex, Dr. Dan, Noeticsage, Metallurgist, Alphathon, Nixeagle, Sommers, Rrburke, Anime2000z, COMPFUNK2, BullRangifer, Kozlovesred, Curly Turkey, Tesseran, Ohconfucius, Synthe, Kuru, Zaphraud,
Ishmaelblues, Michael Bednarek, Joelo, Mr Stephen, Rizome, Hypnosi, Xiaphias, Hu12, Focomoso, Nonexistant User, Pratheesh
prakash, Polymerbringer, Joseph Solis in Australia, Wspencer11, J Milburn, Peter1c, Wolfdog, Neelix, Slazenger, Cydebot, Danrok,
Ningum, R-41, Jayen466, Agne27, Mirrormundo, Twittenham, Kozuch, Omicronpersei8, Maziotis, Gimmetrow, Rjm656s, Epbr123,
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Obento Musubi, Seaphoto, Emeraldcityserendipity, Rabbi-m, Modernist, Wahabijaz, Claire andrade, JAnDbot, Deective, FruitcakeNL,
MER-C, LeedsKing, Avaya1, Matthew Fennell, SeanCollins, Db099221, Hamsterlopithecus, Andonic, Yahel Guhan, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Eni, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Billybass, Tedickey, MikeMullins, Indon, Jutm543, Minimiscience, Ciaccona, Allstarecho, CapnPrep, Pax:Vobiscum, Zeplerfer, When1eight=2zeros, Ungered, Charles Edward, Keith D, Meowmix melvin, R'n'B, Johnpacklambert, Prezen, Edward.og, Latentale, Jerry, Natty4bumpo, Vvitor, Katalaveno, NewEnglandYankee, Trilobitealive, Prhartcom, Chinasociology, Aho101, DH85868993, Treisijs, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, CWii, Iosef, Kjod, AlnoktaBOT, Philip Trueman, Mark
v1.0, Stoli23, Amartin26, Miranda, Asdfghjkl3, Wikidemon, Jason McConnell-Leech, Mark Miller, JhsBot, Jvbishop, Sykosyko, Demigod
Ron, Falcon8765, Gmctague, Burntsauce, Qworty, Sfmammamia, SMC89, SieBot, Mycomp, WereSpielChequers, Jauerback, Sonyack,
Gerakibot, ChrisB600, Snowborder4391, Aarondrake 1, Uwmad, Jimthing, Freedomwarrior, BenoniBot, DeepQuasar, Efe, Denisarona,
WordyGirl90, Twinsday, Smashrance, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, DionysosProteus, Saddhiyama, Pakaal, Canopus1, Gutm, Niceguyedc, Hangtrots, P. S. Burton, Muscovite99, Hangakommy, PhGustaf, Jemmy Button, Mash
rance, Expunge rance, Resoru, End the trot, Cacadores, Sun Creator, Winnets, Ranceretarded, Secret, Aitias, Jimjmc, Damansanj93,
NJGW, Burner0718, Jbh2wiki, Editor2020, NERIC-Security, Joyson Prabhu, Cradel, Arturo57, J-vars, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Seipjere, Guoguo12, Bitemerance71, Bitemerance68, Ayapota, Mootros, Antone.konst, Michaelwuzthere, Bahamut Star, Mdnavman,
TriniMuoz, Tide rolls, Lightbot, , Gail, Sieborg81, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tay Casey, Gavin Lisburn, Gongshow, AlternateU, AnomieBOT, Gtz, Rjanag, Piano non troppo, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Eumolpo, Quebec99, Munin75, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Luca Visentin, Quark1005, What Is Moe?, Delsim9, J04n, Omnipaedista, FixMacs, WhiskerSoulstain, GhalyBot, Smallman12q,
Paine Ellsworth, Adimitri82, HJ Mitchell, , Nightsturm, Krish Dulal, LittleWink, BRUTE, Night Jaguar, Csgproductions, Nora lives, Keri, Jugni, Trappist the monk, Hobgoblein, Haaninjo, Skinnytony1, Hentzde, Weedwhacker128, Brian the Editor, Some
Wiki Editor, Phlegat, Beyond My Ken, Slon02,
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Traxs7, Aplex84, Major Torp, Michael Fleischhacker, Jacobisq, Aidarzver, Rangoon11, Financestudent, Kgldude, Pgarret, Bunnybooboo,
Sven Manguard, Petrb, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, -sche, Benjamin9832, Snotbot, Dreth, O.Koslowski, WikiPuppies, HMSSolent,
TCN7JM, Dan653, Zyxwv99, Dr. Whooves, Atomician, Brad7777, Glacialfox, Carliitaeliza, TheOniPhony, I.eat.yangwei, Panimo, Gohan999222, Pratyya Ghosh, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Jaspermogg, Sarg Pepper, Mogism, Ovtchi, Uli Kunkel 69, JustAMuggle, CsDix,
FrigidNinja, Acatao2210, Hendrick 99, Bwloeb5, Suuuuperboy78123445, Alecc98, Samprice99, Ctshepherd, TomokoKuroki, Alyxr and
Anonymous: 559

9.2

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10

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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9.3

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