Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Constructions, Vol.

35, September-October2002, pp 495-503

Optimization of ternary cementitious mortar blends

using factorial experimental plans
M. L. Nehdi andJ. Sumner
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, N6A 5B9

Paper received:March 11, 2002; Paperaccepted:July3, 2002

A B S T R A C T

R I~ S U M I~

Producing cements incorporating high-volume

replacement of ordinary portland cement (OPC) by recycled industrial by-products is perceived as the most
promising venture for the cement and concrete industry
to meet its environmental obligations. However, the twocomponent (binary) cements thus produced are often
associated with shortcomings such as the need for
extended moist-curing, increased use of chemical admixtures, low early age strength, increased cracking tendency
due to drying shrinkage, and de-icing salt scaling problems. There is need for research to investigate whether
high-volume replacement multi-component (ternary and
quaternary) cements could be optimized with synergistic
effects allowing component ingredients to compensate for
any mutual shortcomings. This study uses factorial experimental plans to investigate the performance of OPC-silica
fume (SF)-class F fly ash (FA) and OPC-SF-ground granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) ternary cementitious
blends. Response surfaces for the superplasticizer requirement to achieve a constant flow, setting time, drying
shrinkage up to 112 days, compressive strength at 1, 7, 28
and 56 days, and for the sulfate expansion up to 9-months
were obtained for up to 20%, 60%, and 60% replacement
levels of OPC by SF, FA and GBFS, respectively. A multiparametric optimization is used to establish response surfaces for a desirability function, which is used to rate
ternary cementitious blends. Results indicate that when
rheological, mechanical, durability and cost requirements
are combined; the use of costly mineral admixtures such
as silica fume is not economic in ternary OPC-SF-FA or
OPC-SF-GBFS blends beyond levels of about 3 to 5%.
Moreover, it is shown that the major hurdle for high-volume replacement of OPC with class F fly ash is compromising the early age performance. Results also indicate
that a good quality high-fineness GBFS can be used at
replacement levels of OPC up to 60% without major disadvantages.

La production de ciments incluant de hautes proportions

de d&hets industriels est consid(r(e comme l'entreprise la plus
prometteuse afin que I'industrie du ciment et du bdton reinplisse ses devoirs environnementaux. Cependant, les ciments
binaires (2 composants) ainsi produits sont souvent associ~s
des inconv~nients tels que le besoin de m~rissement humide
plus prolong( et un dosage d'adjuvants ckimiques plus dlevd,
une faible rdsistance en compression au jeune @e, vulndrabilit( accrue ~ la fissuration par retrait de s&hage et une plus
faible r(sistance 21 l'&aillage par les sels de d~glafage. Il est
ne~cessairede savoir si des ciments ~ plusieurs composants (ternaires et quatemaires) ont des effets synergiques de fa(on ~ ce
que leurs ingrddients compensent pour leurs faiblesses
mutuelles. Cette 8tude utilise des plans factoriels pour examiner la pe~rmance de ciments temaires incluant du ciment
Portland, de la fum~e de silice, des cendres volantes de dasse
F ou du laitier de hautfoumeau. Des courbes d'iso-@onses
pour le dosage de superplastifiant requis pour donner un e'coulement constant, le temps de prise, le retrait de s(chage jusqu '~
112 jours, la r(sistance en compression ~ 1, 7, 28 et 56
jours, et pour l' expansion due aux sulfates jusqu'~ 9 mois
ont (td obtenues pour des niveaux de remplacement du ciment
Portland de 20%, 60% et 60% avec, respectivement, de la
fum(e de silice, des cendres volantes et du laitier de haut fourneau. Une optimisation multi-param(trique a dtd utilisde
pour (tablir une (,fonction de d(sirabilit( }}permettant de dassifter des ciments temaires par ordre de pr~firence. Les r(sultats indiquent que lorsque les exigences rh~ologiques, mScaniques, de durabilitd ainsi qu'(conomiques sont prises en
compte, l'utilisation d'ajouts mindraux ~ co~t (let,( comme la
fumde de silice clans les ciments temaires examine's n'est pas
justifi(e au-del~ d'environ 3 ~ 596. De plus, il semble que
l'obstade majeur pour l'utilisation des ciments 27 haut dosage
en cendres volantes de classe F est leur faible pe~rmance au
jeune dge. Les laitiers de haut foumeau de bonne qualit( et
haute finesse par contre, peuvent 8tre utilis(s ~ des dosages
aussi hauts que 60% sans inconv~nients majeurs.

1359-5997/02 9

495

Materials and Structures/Mat6riaux et Constructions,Vol.3S, September-October2002

phates up to 9 months for the OPC-SF-FA and OP-SFGBFS ternary cementitious mortars.

1. INTRODUCTION
While civil infrastructure is already failing to keep up in
many parts of the world, the planet must prepare to
accommodate another 4 billion people within the next 50
years [1]. Moreover, a substantial part of existing civil infrastructure is reaching its design life and requiring repair or
replacement. Therefore, demand for construction materials is expected to continue to increase. Portland cement
concrete is already the most consumed material by humans
after water. The annual global production of portland
cement could reach 2 billion tonnes by year 2010 [2],
which could translate into 2 billion tonnes of CO 2 released
into the atmosphere each year, exacerbating the threat of
global warming and air pollution. If the current trends of
growing catastrophic losses due to extreme weather continue, public resistance to greenhouse gas emissions will
likely grow, and environmental regulations will consequently become much more stringent.
The cement and concrete industry is well advised to
be part of a concerted, internationally supported strategy
to meet sustainable development and environmental goals
[3]. So far this industry responded to this challenge mostly
by the production of two-component (binary) cements
incorporating various dosages of recycled industrial byproducts (some ternary cements are also being experimented and commercialized in some places). These
cements often deliver additional benefits such as lower
heat of hydration, increased resistance to alkali-silica reaction, sulphate attack, and chloride ion penetration.
Indeed, it is inconceivable nowadays to construct a concrete structure in an aggressive environment with only
pure OPC as the cementitious material. Binary cements,
however, are often associated with shortcomings such as
the need for extended moist-curing, increased use of
chemical admixtures, low-early-age strengths, increased
cracking tendency due to plastic shrinkage, and de-icing
salt scaling problems. Although research on multi-component cements had existed for several years, there is currently growing belief that such cements can be optimized
with synergistic effects, allowing component ingredients
to compensate for any mutual shortcomings [3].
Therefore, resource-efficient low-CO 2 emission cements
with tailor made properties can be developed.
It is believed that synergistic action in multi-component cements could be significant if the blend could have
wider particle size distribution and contains simultaneously a highly reactive pozzolan that would consume the
calcium hydroxide (CH) released by the early hydration of
OPC and a latent pozzolan that would consume the CH
rdeased at a later stage. Therefore, this study investigates
the performance of OPC-SF-FA and OPC-SF-GBFS
ternary cementitious blends. Factorial experiments that
provide response surfaces for the parameters under study
were used because they proved efficient as prediction
tools in previous investigations [4-6]. This study provides
a statistical modeling for the superplasticizer requirement
to achieve a constant mortar flow, setting time, drying
shrinkage up to 112 days, compressive strength at 1, 7, 28
and 56 days, and for the expansion due to exposure to sul-

2. MATERIALS
Ordinary ASTM Type I portland cement (OPC), silica fume (SF), class F fly ash (FA), and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) were used in this study.
Their physical and chemical properties are summarized
in Table 1. A naphthalene sulfonate superplasticizer having 42% solid content and tap water were used for the
mixing. The different mortars were made with standard
Ottawa sand (ASTM C778-91 Standard Specification
for Standard Sand).

3. EXPERIMENTAL PLAN AND TEST

METHODS
3.1 Experimental plan
The experiments were designed according to a 32
factorial experimental plan (2 factors at 3 levels) as
shown in Fig. 1. This approach was selected to limit the
total number of cement mortars investigated while firstand second-order models could be used to fit the data.
In addition, this method highlights not only the significance of the experimental variables but also that of their
interactions, and has predictive capability for the
responses of other experimental points located within
the experimental domain. The experimental variables
were (i) the replacement rate of OPC by SF and (ii) the
replacement rate of OPC by either FA or GBFS.
Appropriate commercial software was used for the statistical analysis of the results [7].

FAor GBFS[%]
(0,60)

(10,60)

Q (20,6o)

(10,30)

(0,30) ~

(0,0)

@@

(10,0)

Q (20,3o)

(20,0)

Fig. l - I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e 3 2 factorial experimental plan used for

the ternary cementitious mixtures (13 mortar mixtures for each

ternary system).

3.2 Test methods

Twenty-six ternary-cement mortar mixtures (Fig. 1)
were conducted in a planetary paddle mixer according to
ASTM C305-82 guidelines (Practice for Mechanical
Mixing of Hydraulic Cement Pastes and Mortars of

496

Nehdi, Sumner

Table 1- Physical and chemical properties of materials used

ASTMType I ClassF
Cement
Fly Ash

Physical tests
Specific gravity
Passing 45 p m [%1
Specific surface [cm2/g]
f'cat l d [MPa]
7 d [MPa]
28 d [MPa]
Water requirement [%]
Pozzol. activity index [%]
7d
28d
Initial set, Vicat test [min]
Final set, Vicat test [min]
Air content of mortar [%]
Chemical analysis
Silicon oxide (Si02)
Aluminum oxide (AI203)
Ferric oxide (Fe203)
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Free calcium oxide (CaO)
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Sodium oxide (Na20)
Potassium oxide (K20)
Eq. AIk. (Na20+0.658 K20)
Phosphorous oxide (P205)
Titanium oxide (Ti02)
Sulfur trioxide (S03)
Loss on ignition
(C3S)

(c2s)
(C3A)
(C4AF)

3.17
83.9
3950
17.2
32.1
38.8

GBFS Silica
Fume

2.08
83.6
2800

2.90
93.9
4680

2.06
-22920

99.2

102.4

114

79
87

91
102

96
105

92
242
7.6
19.5
5.2
2.4
61.3
1.1
0.3
1.1
1.0
1.8
4.2
2.0
2.5
51
18
10
7

52.4
23.4
4.7
13.4
1.3
3.6
0.6
4.0
0.2
0.8
0.2
0.3
2.2

34.8
94.0
9.8
0.1
0.6
0.1
38.3
0.4
. . . .
9.6
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.4
0.9
0.7
0.7
-<0.01
0.8
0.3
2.4
1.3
-2.7

Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars). In

addition, six prisms (25x25x285-mm) were cast for each
mortar mixture to test its drying shrinkage according to
ASTM C596-89 (Standard Test Method for Drying
Shrinkage of Mortar Containing Portland Cement).
Drying started after 1 day of curing the bar specimens
under more than 95% relative humidity and 2 days of
submersion in lime saturated water.
For each mortar mixture, 8 bars (25x25x285-mm)
were also made. The test specimens were stored in limesaturated water in a curing room at 23 + 1.7~ until they
reached a compressive strength of 20.0 + 1.0 MPa, as
measured using cubes made from the same mortar. The
bar specimens were then immersed in a sulphate solution
(5% by weight of Na2SO4). The containers in which the
bars were immersed are made of plastic and a means for
supporting the bars was included so that no end or side
of a bar specimen rests against the container. The pH
value of the sulphate solution was maintained in the
range of 6 to 8 by replacing the solution with a fresh one
when needed.
Before placing the specimens in the sulphate solution, their length was measured using a high accuracy
digital length comparator. The length change of the
specimens was then monitored at 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 13, and 15
weeks after they were placed in the sulphate solution. If
slight, gradual, and uniform length change was taking
place, the next measurements were made at 4, 6, and 9
months. When expansion was occurring rapidly at any
stage of the test, the interval between readings was adequately shortened.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Superplasticizer requirement

The superplasticizer dosage (expressed as ratio of the

Plastic Consistency). All mixtures had a constant
weight of liquid superplasticizer to that of cement in
water/binder (w/b) ratio of 0.40. A proportion of sand 2.5
percent) required to achieve a flow table value of 110% _+
times the mass of the binder was used. Flow for each mor5% is illustrated in Fig. 2 for the various OPC-SF-FA
tar mixture was measured using a flow table according to
and OPC-SF-GBFS ternary cement mortars. Increasing
ASTM C230-90 guidelines (Specifications for Flow Table
for Use in Tests of Hydraulic
Cement). The amount of superplasticizer added in each mixture was
designed to achieve a flow value of
110% + 5% (flow results are calculated
as [(d-do)/d o x 100] where d o is the initial
diameter and d is the diameter after
spread). The initial setting time for
each mortar mixture was measured
using ASTM C191-82 (Test Method
for Time of Setting of Hydraulic
C e m e n t Using the Vicat Needle).
Standard 5 0 - m m cubes were cast,
demoulded after 24 hours and cured in
lime-saturated water until testing for
uniaxial compressive strength as per
Fig. 2 - Response surfaces of superplasticizer requirement for (a) OPC-SF-FA and (b),
ASTM C349-82 (Test Method for OPC-SF-GBFS ternary cement mortars.

497

Materials and Structures/Mat~riaux et Constructions,Vol.3S, September-October

2002

the GBFS replacement rate from 0 to 60% seemed to

significantly reduce the required superplasticizer dosage
when high SF dosages are also used, while within a similar range of replacement of OPC by fly ash, the required
dosage of superplasticizer seemed to decrease in a less
significant fashion. Since the fly ash is coarser than the
GBFS, this may be due to the presence of carbon in fly
ash, which could reduce the efficiency of the superplasticizer. However, for both types of ternary cementitious
blends, silica fume seemed to be the major cause of
increasing the superplasticizer dosage, likely due to its
very high surface area.

4.2 Setting time

Response surfaces for the initial setting time are illustrated in Fig. 3 for the OPC-SF-FA and OPC-SF-GBFS
ternary cement mortars. The setting time increased as
the dosage of both GBFS and FA increased because of
their low reactivity. However, this effect was more drastic for ternary blends containing class F fly ash, likely
because GBFS is richer in calcium, has a significantly
higher surface area and would thus react faster than the
class F fly ash. For both OPC-SF-FA and OPC-SFGBFS ternary cement mortars, the initial setting time
also increased as the dosage of silica fume increased. This
is apparently caused by the higher superplasticizer
dosages used in high-SF content mortars (Fig. 2), which
are known to cause set-retarding problems. It was not
possible to use a constant superplasticizer dosage for all
mixtures because their flow would have been drastically
different, which will affect their properties and constitute a hidden parameter in the experimental design. It
was decided to rather adjust the superplasticizer dosage
to obtain a constant flow for all mortar mixtures, keeping in mind the possible effect of varying superplasticizer
dosage in the interpretation of results. It is remarkable
that mortars containing 20%SF combined with 60%FA
or GBFS achieved lower setting time than that of mortars made with either 60%GBFS or 60%FA. Although it
is conceivable that fine silica fume particles constituted
nucleation sites for hydration products, thus enhancing

the hydration process and reducing the setting time, it

would be difficult for this effect alone to compensate for
that of an additional 20% replacement of OPC. The true
mechanisms underlying this behaviour remain to be
explained.

4.3 Drying shrinkage

Drying shrinkage response surfaces at 7, 14, 28 and
112 days for OPC-SF-GBFS and OPC-SF-FA ternary
cement mortars were obtained. For conciseness, only
results at 7 and 112 days are shown in Fig. 4. Results at
14 and 28 days are only transitional stages between these
two extreme states with no noticeable drastic effects. At
7 days, the drying shrinkage of OPC-SF-GBFS slightly
decreased at higher GBFS contents. This behaviour was
partially reversed at 14 days and later stages, as drying
shrinkage seemed to slightly increase when high GBFS
contents are combined with high levels of SF. However,
the major factor that increased the drying shrinkage was
increased dosages of SF. It was observed that the
response surfaces and contour lines for drying shrinkage
had a comparable shape at 14, 28, and 112 days except
that the percentage of shrinkage consistently increased
with time. Nagataki and Wu [8] also observed that a
mortar made of a 60%OPC-10%SF-30%GBFS ternary
blend had increased drying shrinkage compared to a reference OPC mortar. They explained this behaviour by
the fact that the ternary blend had higher surface area
and smaller pore sizes. However, these causes are normally expected to increase autogenous shrinkage but
decrease the drying shrinkage, though these phenomena
interfere and cannot be separated.
For the OPC-SF-FA ternary cement mortars, the
effect of the FA content on drying shrinkage was not
significant at low SF contents, while drying shrinkage
seemed to significantly increase with increased FA contents at high SF levels. Response surfaces and contour
lines for drying shrinkage at 7, 14, 21, 28, and 112 days
had a similar shape but drying shrinkage consistently
increased with time. Again, the most significant parameter in increasing drying shrinkage was the silica fume
dosage and this was more drastic when high SF contents
are combined with high FA contents
in the ternary blend. Generally, the
drying shrinkage strains observed
with the O P C - S F - G B F S mortars
were higher than those measured for
the OPC-SF-FA mortars.

Fig. 3 - Response surfaces of initial setting time for (a) OPC-SF-FA and (b), OPC-SFGBFS ternary cement mortars.

498

Nehdi, Sumner

around 30% for low SF

contents and up to 15%
for high SF contents and
decreased beyond those
levels. The effect of SF on
increasing the strength of
the ternary cement mortars is clearer at this age
but was significant only at
GBFS levels below 30%.
Beyond such dosage, the
effect of SF on the 28-day
compressive strength was
not significant. For OPCSF-FA ternary c e m e n t
mortars, higher levels of
SF also increased the 28day compressive strength
at low FA contents, but
did not have a significant
effect at FA levels beyond
15 to 20%. However, the
28-day strength consistently decreased as the FA
dosage increased regardless of the SF content.
At 56 days, varying the
GBFS content from 0 to
60% did not have a significant
effect on the comFig. 4 - Response surfaces of drying shrinkage for ternary c e m e n t m o r t a r s (a) OPC-SF-FA at 7 days,
pressive strength of the
(b) OPC-SF-GBFS at 7 days, (c) OPC-SF-FA at 112 days, and (d) OPC-SF-GBFS at 112 days.
OPC-SF-GBFS cement
mortars at low SF levels.
4.4 Compressive strength
The higher the SF content in the ternary blend the more
significantly the 56-day compressive strength decreased
Response surfaces for the compressive strength at 1,
with higher GBFS dosage. It should be however under7, 28, and 56 days were obtained for the OPC-SF-GBFS
stood that a 56-day strength that could be achieved with
and OPC-SF-FA ternary cement mortars. For brevity,
95%OPC-5%SF-0%GBFS blend could be achieved
only 1-day and 56-day results are shown in Fig. 5. At one
with 4 0 % O P C - I O % S F - 5 0 % G B F S . Therefore a cost
day the compressive strength of the ternary cement moranalysis is required to determine which ternary blend
tars decreased as the content of GBFS or FA increased. For
would be optimal on a unit cost per MPa basis. For the
both OPC-SF-GBFS and OPC-SF-FA, silica fume did
OPC-SF-FA mortars, the compressive strength response
not seem to drastically enhance the 1-day strength whether
surface at 56 days was similar to the corresponding 28at low or high GBFS/FA contents. This behaviour is in
day response surface, with the strength decreasing with
contrast with some published results. For instance Swamy
increased FA content and increasing with SF only at low
[9] argued that to enhance the early age strength of FA and
FA contents.
GBFS concrete, highly reactive pozzolans such as SF could
be added in a ternary blend.
4.5 Cost analysis
At 7 days, the effect of SF on enhancing the compressive strength of the ternary cement mortars became
more significant and was more pronounced in the
Fig. 6 presents a cost analysis for the OPC-SF-GBFS
and OPC-SF-FA ternary cementitious blends on a dolternary blend containing GBFS than in the blend conlar per MPa basis. Cost analysis was based on prices of
taining class F fly ash. Again the 7-day compressive
$130/tonne for cement, $ 8 0 / t o n n e for fly ash,
strength decreased with increased dosage of GBFS and
FA. However, the 7-day strength values generally were
$100/tonne for slag, $3/liter for the superplasticizer and
$600/tonne for silica fume; all figures in Canadian dollar.
in the 28 to 50 MPa range for the OPC-SF-GBFS
No allocation was considered for sand since it is constant
ternary mortars, while they ranged between 11 and 50
MPa for the OPC-SF-FA blend.
in all 26 mortars used.
At one day, the cost per MPa increased at high replaceAt 28 days, the compressive strength of OPC-SFment levels of OPC by either FA or GBFS (Figs. 6(a) and
GBFS increased with increasing GBFS content up to

499

Materials and Structures/Mat6riaux et Constructions, Vol. 3,5, September-October 2002

4.6 Sulphate
expansion
Response surfaces for
the 9 - m o n t h sulphate
expansion of standard bars
made from O P C - S F - F A
and OPC-SF-GBFS ternary
cement mortars are shown
in Fig. 7. Response surfaces
of sulphate expansion of
OPC-SF-FA cement mortars followed linear models.
After one week of exposure
to sulphates, the expansion
decreased with increasing
levels of SF in the ternary
blend, while the FA dosage
had limited effect on sulphate expansion. After
4 weeks of exposure, SF was
still the dominant factor in
controlling expansion, however, FA also started to have
a noticeable effect. After 13
weeks and up to 9 months,
around 27% of fly ash could
reduce expansion by an
equal a m o u n t to that
achieved by around 6% of
SF, and 45%FA could control expansion in a comparaFig. 5 - Response surfaces of compressive strength at I day and 56 days for OPC-SF-FA and OPCble way to about 12%SF.
SF-GBFS ternary cement mortars.
High SF contents combined
with high FA contents were most efficient in controlling
sulphate expansion.
6(b)). This is due to the low reactivity of these mineral
OPC-SF-GBFS ternary cement mortars generally
admixtures and their delay of the early-age gain of
had
higher expansion values due to exposure to sulphates
strength. This effect was however more severe for the
compared
to OPC-SF-FA ternary mortars probably
class F fly ash mortars. The effect of the SF dosage on
because
GBFS
is richer in calcium than class F fly ash.
the 1-day cost per MPa for the various mortars was less
The
reduced
efficiency
of high CaO mineral admixtures
significant when the ternary blend does not contain high
in
controlling
sulphate
expansion was documented by
levels of FA or GBFS. However, at high FA or GBFS
several
researchers
[10-12]
and is recognized by the reccontents, the higher the SF content in the ternary
ommendations
of
ACI
Committee
232 [13], which state
binder, the higher was the cost per MPa.
that
fly
ash
with
a
CaO
level
lower
than 15% will
For OPC-SF-GBFS ternary mortars at 56 days,
improve
sulphate
resistance
while
fly
ash
with higher
higher SF contents in the ternary blend increased the
calcium contents needs to be tested. After one week of
cost per MPa regardless of the GBFS dosage, while the
exposure, sulphate expansion of OPC-SF-GBFS ternary
GBFS content had little effect on the cost per MPa at all
mortars decreased with higher SF dosages and was not
SF contents. For O P C - S F - F A ternary mortars at
significantly affected by the GBFS level in the blend. It
56 days, the FA content did not have a severe effect on
followed a linear model, while quadratic models better
the cost per MPa at low SF dosages, while the cost per
fitted sulphate expansion data at later stages. At 4 weeks
MPa increased with higher FA contents when a high SF
or longer periods of exposure to sulphates, sulphate
dosage is used simultaneously in the blend. Higher SF
expansion was efficiently controlled by either increasing
contents increased the cost per MPa and this was more
levels of SF or GBFS. Combined high levels of SF and
drastic at high FA contents. Again, the OPC-SF-FA
GBFS did not seem to particularly provide an advantage
mortars had higher cost per MPa at 56 days than that of
in terms of controlling expansion. Actually when the
the OPC-SF-GBFS mortars. This behaviour may howternary blend contained 20%SF and 60%GBFS, its
ever change at later stages when the less reactive class F
expansion seemed to slightly increase compared to
fly ash develops its full potential.

500

Nehdi, Sumner

showed higher sulphate

expansion than a control
mortar. When 3% by mass
of the cementitious material were replaced by silica
fume, the expansion of the
ternary OPC-SF-high calc i u m FA mortars was
decreased significantly.

4.7 Numerical
optimization
Simultaneous optimization of multiple responses
obtained from the factorial
experimental plan can be
performed numerically.
Numerical optimization
could optimize any combination of one or more goals
(experimental factors may
not have a goal of none; the
default goal for a factor is
"keep within the low/high
limits). The first step is to set
goals for the optimization for
each of the measured
Fig. 6 - Response surfaces of cost per MPa for OPC-SF-FA ternary cement mortars at (a) 1 d and
responses. The allowable
(b) 56 d and for OPC-SF-GBFS ternary cement mortars at (c) 1 d and (d) 56 d.
goals are: i) to minimize or
maximize a parameter, ii) to
target a specific level of a
parameter, iii) to keep a
parameter within a specified
range, and iv) none.
Each goal is assigned a
weight (number between 1
and 5 with 5 being most
i m p o r t a n t and I least
important). The goals are
then c o m b i n e d into an
overall desirability function,
which shape is controlled
by the
optimization
weights. T h e numerical
optimization software used
seeks to maximize this
function,
which has a maxiFig. 7 - Response surfaces of 9-month sulphate expansion for (a) OPC-SF-FA and
m u m value of 1 inside the
(b) OPC-SF-GBFS ternary cement mortars.
experimental domain and a
value of zero outside the experimental domain. The goal
ternary blends containing 10%SF and 30% GBFS. This
seeking begins at a random starting point and proceeds
unexpected result remains to be explained. As expected,
up the steepest slope to a maximum. There may be two
for both OPC-SF-FA and OPC-SF-GBFS ternary moror more maximums because of curvature in the response
tars, a pure OPC mortar had the highest value of expansurfaces and their combination into the desirability funcsion at all stages of exposure to sulphates. Results are
somewhat in line with results of Thomas et al. [10] who
tion. Starting from several points in the design space may
observed that mortars made of a combination of 20 to
be necessary to find the "best" local maximum.
To illustrate this concept, goals and weights for mea40% of a high-calcium FA with high C3A cement

501

Materials and Structures/Mat6riaux et Constructions, Vol. 35, September-October2002

high FA contents also tended to decrease the desirability

function but this decrease was drastic at SF levels in excess
of 8 to 10%. Finally, it is recommended that this optimization work be also conducted on concrete mixtures
since results obtained on mortars often cannot be directly
transposed to concrete. In this exercise, the water/binder
ratio should vary between 0.25 to 0.65 to represent the
practical range in the field.

Table 2 - Criteria, goals and weights used in

numerical optimization
Criteria

Goal

Weight

Within range [0,201%

N.A.

Within range [0, 60]%

N.A.

Cost per MPa at 56 days

Minimum
Minimum

5
5

Superplasticizer

Minimum

Setting time
Flow table value

Minimum
Within range [110+51%

3
2

Dryingshrinkage at: 7 days

Minimum

28 days
112 days

Minimum

SF
FA or GBFS
Cost per MPa at I day

5. C O N C L U S I O N S

A rational method based on factorial experimental

design was used in this study to investigate possible synerMinimum
4
gistic effects in ternary OPC-SF-FA and OPC-SF-GBFS
Compressivestrength at:
cementitious blends. Results obtained on mortars indicate
I day
Maximum
5
that the method can be used to design a cementitious
28 days
Maximum
4
blend with a specific superplasticizer demand or a specific
56 days
Maximum
5
setting time. In addition, drying shrinkage contour lines
Sulfate expansionat:
can be obtained at different ages and blends with high
6 months
Minmum
4
shrinkage strains can be avoided. Similarly, contour lines
9 months
Minimum
4
for compressive strength at various ages can be obtained
and the designer can select
cementitious blends with
desired
performance.
Although these results are
obtained at a constant w/b
ratio of 0.40, the effective
method presented can be
easily applied to other materials and experimental conditions. Also, the conclusions drawn here on the
performance of ternary
cements are partial since
transport-related durability
properties and frost durability (of concrete) were not
investigated.
This paper provides a
Fig. 8 - Response surfaces of desirability function based on multi-parametric numerical optimizasimple and cost-effective
tion for (a) OPC-SF'GBFS, and (b) OPC-SF-FA ternary mortar mixtures.
approach for conducting
multi-parametric optimization of ternary cementitious blends. The factorial expersured responses in this study were selected and are sumimental design used provides response surfaces for the
marized in Table 2. Fig. 8 shows the response surfaces of
various parameters investigated based only on 13 mortar
the desirability functions for OPC-SF-FA and OPC-SFmixtures. Such response surfaces offer a simple visual
GBFS ternary blends to achieve the goals set in Table 2. It
tool to compare the performance of ternary cementishould be remembered that these response surfaces of the
tious blends. Multi-parametric optimization can be cardesirability functions will change if the operator selects
ried out using a simple software program, with the user
different goals or different weights for the optimization
controlling the goal of the optimization and the signifiprocess or when other data, such as chloride ion penetracance of each experimental parameter. This provides
tion, is also included. It can be observed that the desirabilflexibility to optimize cementitious blends with tailority function increased with increased GBFS in the OPCmade properties that suit each particular job requireSF-GBFS ternary blend up to around 30%, then tended
ments. It also allows obtaining response surfaces for cost
to decrease at higher dosages. Generally, the &sirability
analysis in order to select cost-effective solutions.
function decreased beyond 3%SF in the ternary blend,
Results of this optimization reveal that when rheowhile SF levels beyond 5% could not be justified based on
logical, mechanical, durability and cost requirements are
this optimization. In the case of OPC-SF-FA ternary
combined; the use of costly mineral admixtures such as
blends, the desirability function also decreased beyond
silica fume is not economic in ternary OPC-SF-FA or
30% fly ash. High SF contents either at very low or very
502

Nehdi, Sumner

OPC-SF-GBFS blends beyond levels of about 3 to 5%.

These results also show that the major hurdle for highvolume replacements of OPC with class F fly ash is
compromising the early age performance. Hence, there
is a fundamental need for developing cost-effective techniques to enhance the early-age reactivity of class F fly
ash. Results also show that a good quality high-fineness
GBFS can be used at replacement levels of OPC up to
60% without major disadvantages.
The proposed approach is especially useful because
there is growing interest in developing environmentally
efficient cement-based products based on multi-component cementitious blends incorporating high-volume
replacements of ordinary portland cement with recycled
by-products. Components in such blends can be optimized with synergistic effects so that they can compensate for any mutual shortcomings. Such optimization
will be multi-parametric accounting for various performance criteria and conflicting requirements. Thus, in
order to reach reliable results, the number of mixtures
that needs to be investigated can be very large and the
procedure can by costly and time consuming. Factorial
experimental plans can provide fairly reliable results
based on a limited number of experimental data points.
More research is needed in this area to assist the industry
in developing the next generation of high-performance
environmentally-effective cement-based materials.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The support of the Natural Science and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (NSERC) to M. Nehdi
was instrumental for this research. M. Nehdi also
acknowledges funding of the Ontario Innovation Trust
and the Canada Foundation for Innovation that allowed
creating a state-of-the-art lab in which this research was
conducted.

REFERENCES
[1] Clough, G. W., 'Civil engineering in the next millennium',
Presented at the MIT CEE New Millennium Colloquium
(March 2000) 13 p.
[2] Mehta, P. K., 'Concrete technology for sustainable development',
Concrete International 21 (11) (1999) 47-53.
[3] Nehdi, M., 'Ternary and quaternary cements for sustainable
development', ConcreteInternational 24 (4) (2001) 35-42.
[4] Nehdi, M., Mindess, S. and Mtcin, P.-C., 'Statistical modeling of
the microfiller effect on the rheology of composite cement
pastes', Advances in Cement Research 9 (33) (1997) 37-46.
[5] Douglas, E. and Pouskouleli, G., 'Prediction of compressive
strengths of mortars made with portland cement-blast furnace
slag-fly ash blends', Cement and Concrete Research 21 (4) (1991)
523-534.
[6] Wang, D. and Chen, Z., 'On predicting compressive strengths of
mortars with ternary blends of cement, GGBFS and fly ash',
Cement and ConcreteResearch 27 (4) (1997) 487-493.
[7] Design Expert, Version 5.0.3, STAT-EASE-Inc., 2021 East
Hennepin Ave., Suite 191, Minneapolis, MN 55413.
[8] Nagataki, S. and Wu, C., 'A study of portland cement incorporating silica fume and blast furnace slag', in CANMET-ACI SP153. Malhotra, V. M., editor. II (1995) 1051-1068.
[9] Swamy, R. N., 'Design for durability and strength through the
use of fly ash and slag in concrete', in 3 rd CANMET-ACI
International Conference on Advances in Concrete Technology,
SP-171, Malhotra, V.M., editor. (1997) 1-72.
[10] Thomas, M. D. A., Shehata, M. H., Shashiprakash, S. G.,
Hopkins, D. S. and Call, K., 'Use of ternary cementitious systems containing silica fume and fly ash in concrete', Cement and
Concrete Research 29 (1999) 1207-1214.
[11] Dunstan, E. R., 'Possible methods of identifying fly ashes that
will improve sulphate resistance', Cement, Concrete and Aggregates
2 (1) (1980) 20-30.
[12] Tikalsky, P. J. and Carrasquillo, R. L., 'Influence of fly ash on
the sulphate resistance of concrete', ACI MaterialsJournal 89 (1)
(1992) 69-75.
[13] ACI Committee 232, 'Use of Fly Ash in Concrete', (American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1996).

503