Subject : Biology

Session : 2013-14
Submitted To :
Mr. Mohit
Kumar Premi

Submitted
By :
Mohd. Sahil
XIIth

DECLARATION
This is to

for general declaration

purposes only that all relevant work

pertaining

to

presented

miniature

project on :
"Pollution

& its Control"

has been solely completed by me.

Besides unavoidable links to certain
references,

the

overall

work

is

absolutely original in nature.

Mohd. Sahil

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that all relevant work
pertaining

to

presented

miniature

project on :

"Pollution & its Control"

was completed by Mohd. Sahil under
my guidance. He has done hard work to
complete

the

project.

His

work

is

absolutely original in nature.

Mr. Mohit Kumar Premi

BIODATA
Name

Mohd. Sahil

Class / Sec

XIIth

Session

2013-14

Subject

Biology

Roll No.

Topic

"Pollution & its

Control"

Subject Teacher

Mr. Mohit Kumar

Premi

Teacher's Sign

Principal's Sign

Remarks

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
History of all great works is to witness that no
great work was ever done without either the
active

or

passive

support

of

person's

surroundings and one's close quarters. Thus it is

not hard to conclude how active assistance from
seniors could positively impact the execution of a
project. I am highly thankful to our learned
faculty Mr. Mohit Kumar Premi, for his active
guidance throughout the completion of project.
Last but not the least , I would also want to
extend my appreciation to my parents as well as
those who could not be mentioned here but have
well played their role to inspire me behind the
curtain.
Mohd. Sahil

Ancient cultures
Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started
from the prehistoric times when man created the first fires.
According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, "soot found on
ceilings of prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high
levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate ventilation of
open fires." The forging of metals appears to be a key turning point
in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home.
Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution
associated with Greek, Roman and Chinese metal production, but at
that time the pollution was comparatively less and could be handled
by nature.
Official Acknowledgement
King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by
proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a
problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of
names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from
some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be
a problem in England, especially later during the industrial
revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog
of 1952. London also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of
water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858,
which led to construction of the London sewerage system soon
afterward.
It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental
pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and
consumption of immense quantities of coaland other fossil
fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume
of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of
untreated human waste.Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two
American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other
cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century,
when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the
Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced
by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late
1940s, serving as another public reminder.

Modern Awareness
Pollution became a popular issue after
World War II, due to radioactive fallout
from atomic warfare and testing. Then a
non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of
1952 in London, killed at least 4000
people. This prompted some of the first
major modern environmental legislation,
The Clean Air Act of 1956.
Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States
between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed
the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act and
the National Environmental Policy Act.
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the
particular contaminant relevant to each of them:

Air pollution:- the release of chemicals and particulates into

the
atmosphere.Common
gaseous
pollutants
include carbon
monoxide,
sulfurdioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and nitrogen
oxides produced
by industry and
motor
vehicles.
Photochemicalozone and smog are
created
as
nitrogen
oxides
and hydrocarbons react
to
sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by
their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5.

Light pollution:- includes light trespass, over illumination and

astronomical interference.

Littering:- the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-made

objects, unremoved, onto public and private properties.

Noise pollution:- which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft

noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.

Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill

or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil

contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy

metals,
herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

MTBE,

Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century

activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power generation
and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment.
(See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.)

Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water

bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as
coolant in a power plant.

Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of

overhead power
lines,
motorway billboards,
scarred
landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash,
municipal solid waste or space debris.

Water pollution, by the discharge of wastewater from

commercial and industrial waste (intentionally or through spills)
into surface waters; discharges of untreated domestic sewage,
and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated
sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface
runoff flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and
agricultural
runoff,
which
may
contain
chemical fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal and leaching
into ground water; eutrophication and littering.

Sources of air pollution:

The sources of air pollution can be natural or man made.
i)

Natural Sources

Volcanic eruptions emitting poisonous gases

Decay of vegetation

Marsh gases

Pollen grains

Forest fires

ii)

Man made Sources

Increase in pollution

Deforestation

Fossil fuel combustion

Vehicular emissions

Industrialization

Use of pesticides, insecticides in agriculture

Explosives used in wars

Types of Air Pollutants:

The undesirable component in the atmosphere, causing pollution is

referred to as pollutant. Pollutant can be classified on the basis of
origin and physical state. On the basis of origin, pollutants are of
two types:
a)

Primary pollutant: it is the product of natural events (like fires,

volcanic eruptions) and human activities added directly to air.
Examples include, CO, NO2, SO2 and hydrocarbons.

b)

Secondary pollutant: it is formed by the interaction of primary

pollutants with each other or with normal components of the
air. Examples include ozone, photochemical smog etc.

On the basis of physical state, pollutants are of two types:

i)

Gaseous pollutants: these are the gases which mix with the air
without settling down. Gaseous pollutants include CO, SO2,
CO2, SO3, NOx and hydrocarbons.

ii)

Particulate pollutants: it comprises of finely divided solids or

liquids. These include dust, smoke, smog, lead, mercury,
cadmium and asbestos.

Some Common Air Pollutants:

1.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) - It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless

gas that is by far the most abundant of the air pollutants. a
Source- It is produced due to:

Incomplete combustion of fuels

Automobile exhausts

Industrial operation

CO is also produced through natural processes such as volcanic

activity, natural gas and marsh gas emissions.
b.
Sink for CO - Sink is a system which absorbs the pollutant,
thereby, nullifying its harmful effect. A large mass of CO is
generated and also there is continuous increase in CO emissions
within recent years. So it is obvious that the amount of CO in the
atmosphere should also increase. But it has been found that the
amount of CO in the atmosphere remains relatively constant
suggesting that a sink or scavenging process also exists in the
atmosphere. The micro organisms present in the soil act as a major
sink for CO.A significant amount of CO is converted into CO2 by
these microorganisms.
c.
Effects of CO - The levels of CO present in the urban air do not
affect significantly the plants and materials. However, these levels
adversely affect human health. In urban areas, the soil available is
insufficient to act as a sink thereby increasing the level of CO
beyond permissible limits. CO interferes with the bloods ability to
carry oxygen to different parts of the body. The oxygen combines
with hemoglobin, which is also known as oxygen carrier, to form
oxyhemoglobin. This oxyhemoglobin travels to different parts of the
body cells where it gives oxygen to the cell and takes up CO2
through the lungs. If CO is inhaled, it readily binds to hemoglobin to
form carboxyhemoglobin and blood carries less oxygen to various
parts of the body. Fortunately CO is removed from the blood stream
when clear air is cleaned.
d.
Control of CO- Control of pollution caused by CO can be
achieved through the following techniques:

(i)
Modification of engine design: A low fuel-air ratio reduces NOx
emissions but increase CO emissions. So engine design should
design should be modified so that right proportion of oxygen is
maintained for complete oxidation of carbon and hydrogen to CO2
and H20 respectively.
(ii) Fuel modification: The fuels which release lesser amount of CO
are recommended to be used. These fuels include natural gas,
methane and blends of light hydrocarbons.
(iii) Treatment of exhaust gases: Two stag catalytic converters are
used to lower the pollution from exhaust gases. In the first stage
NOx are reduced to N2 and NH3 in the presence of catalyst such as
Pt, Pd and Ruthenium in the presence of reducing gas such as CO. in
second stage, oxidizing catalysts of noble metals supported on
ceramic materials are used, which ensure oxidation of CO and CO2.
2.
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)- A number of oxides of nitrogen such
as NO, N2O, NO2, N2O3 and N2O5 are introduced into the
atmosphere due to natural as well as human activity. Out of these,
the two oxides NO and NO2 are responsible for pollution and are
considered as the pollutants and are represented by NOx. NO2 is
reddish brown in color having pungent smell and is suffocating,
whereas NO is colorless and odorless gas.
a.

Source- The sources of NOx include:

(i)
Natural: during lightening discharge, N2 and O2 in air combine
to form NO
(ii)

Man-made sources:

NO is formed when N2 and O2 at very high temperatures. This

temperature is usually attained during combustion of fossil fuel in
air.

NOx is also produced in chemical industries as by products

such as in coal based power plants, sulphuric acid and nitric acid
manufacturing plants
b.
Sink for NOx - The NO and NO2 undergo various processes in
the atmosphere leading to the formation of HNO3. Thus NO2, NO,

pollutants gets precipitated as nitrates during rainfall. Ozone plays a

significant role in these photochemical reactions. In presence of
volatile organic compounds, NO2 reacts with water in presence of
oxygen resulting in formation of nitric acid. HNO3 comes down from
the atmosphere to the surface of earth in form of acid rain. Here it
reacts with bases such as ammonia, lime etc. to form nitrates.
c.
Effects - Almost all the NOx emissions are in the form of NO,
which has no known adverse health effects at the concentrations
found in atmosphere. However, NO can oxidize to NO2, which in
turn may react with hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to
form photochemical smog. The HNO3 formed by NO2 causes acid
rain which has corroding effect on marble and the metallic
structures. It decreases pH of the soil, affecting its fertility.
d.

Control of NOx - The control measures include:

(i)
Modifying the engine design: Reducing the amount of excess
air for combustion in air helps in controlling NOx emissions. The
burners are so modified that the fuel and the air mix more slowly
reducing the intensity and temperature of combustion.
(ii) Scrubbing the flue gases: The flue gases are scrubbed with
H2SO4 in a scrubber. The reaction product thus obtained is then
decomposed to nitric acid and NO.
(iii) Selective catalytic reduction: The selective catalytic reduction
can be achieved through CH4, NH3 and CO. The NOx is added to the
exhaust gases and the mixture is passed over a fixed bed catalyst
such as copper oxide.
It is interesting to note that the air pollution control methods also
require modification of combustion methods. But the methods that
improve CO emissions tend to make emissions of NOx problem
worse, and vise versa.
*

Environmental Effects of Air Pollution:

The air pollutants have a great impact on our environment. They are
posing a threat to earths general environment. The major effects
are:

1.

Photochemical Smog:

Smog is the combination of two words smoke and fog. Smog is of

two types:
(a)

London Smog:

The smog from SOx particulates and humidity is known as London

Smog. This type of smog caused death of around 4000 people in
London in 1952, hence the name. The mixture of smoke, SOx and
fog is chemically a reducing mixture and hence also termed as
reducing smog.
(b) Los Angeles Fog (Photochemical Smog): it results from the
photochemical reactions of the atmosphere. It is the atmospheric
haze that is formed near many large cities and is due to the action
of sunlight on hydrocarbons and the nitrogen oxides. This type of
smog was first observed in Los Angeles in 1950.
2.

Acid Rain:

Unpolluted rain water is slightly acidic due to the presence of CO2 in

the atmosphere. CO2 combines with the water to form a weak
solution of carbonic acid with a pH of about 5.6. However in polluted
environments, the rain passes through an atmosphere polluted with
oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. The falling rain reacts with these
oxides to form a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitric acid and water.
This is known as acid rain. Acid Rain Formation:
The oxides of sulphur react with moisture to form H2SO4 in steps:
502 + O2 ^ 2SO3
503 + H2O ^ H2SO4
Similarly oxides of nitrogen form HNO3
NO + O3 ^ NO2 + O
NO2 + O3 ^ NO3 + O2
NO2 + NO3 ^ N2O5
N2O5 + H2O ^ 2HNO3

These acids along with HCL gives rise to the acid rain.
3.

Green House Effect:

The green house effect is the rise in temperature that the earth
experiences because certain gases in the atmosphere absorb energy
from the sun. Without these gases, heat would escape back into
space and the earths average temperature would be about 60
colder. The phenomenon has been named green house effect as it is
similar to heat trapping effect of the glass walls in a horticulture
green house.
a.
The Process - The earth receives a tremendous quantity of
radiant energy from the sun, about 30% of which is reflected back
into space by the earths atmosphere. The remaining energy passes
through the atmosphere to the earths surface. Some of the energy
is absorbed by plants to drive photosynthesis and some by the
oceans to evaporate water, but most is absorbed by soil, rock and
water to increase the temperature of the earths surface. This
energy is in turn radiated from the heated surface mainly as infrared
radiation, often called heat radiation. However, only a small portion
of this energy makes it back into the space. The majority of infrared
radiations are absorbed the green house gases present in the
atmosphere. A net amount of thermal energy is retained by the
earth that makes it warmer than it would be without these gases in
the atmosphere.
4.

Ozone Layer and its Depletion:

Ozone is a very small part of our atmosphere but its presence is

nevertheless vital to human wellbeing. Most ozone resides in the
upper part of the atmosphere called stratosphere extending from 16
km to 40 km. the high concentration of ozone in the ozone layer
shields us from the harmful ultraviolet light from sun. a Effect of
Ozone Layer - Ozone protects us from harmful UV rays absorbing
these radiations. In absence of ozone layer these rays would reach
earth and cause:
(a)

Skin caner

(b)

Damage

to the plants

(c)

Sun burns

(d)

Melanoma

(e)

Leukemia

(f)

Cataracts etc.

The absorption of UV radiation by ozone is a source of heat in

stratosphere. As a result ozone plays a key role in maintaining the
temperature structure of earths atmosphere.
b.
Depletion of Ozone - Ozone depletion has been found to occur
through the following types of compounds:

Chloroflouro carbons (Freon)

Nitric oxide

Reactive hydroxyl radicals

Atomic oxygen

c.

Effects of depletion of Ozone:

The existing ozone layer screens out more than 99% of

incoming UV radiations. The small fractions gets through is known
to cause sunburn, skin cancer and various kinds of damage to
animal and plants.

The genetic material DNA has the capacity to absorb UV

radiations which may cause various disruptive defects.

5% depletion in ozone produces 10% increase in radiations

reaching the earth according to an estimate.

Exposure to UV radiation damages the cornea and lens of the

eye causing blindness.
B.

Water Pollution:

When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans and

other water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in water.
This results in the pollution of water where by the quality of water
deteriorates. The word polluted water is defined as the deterioration

of physical, chemical and biological properties of water brought

mainly by human activities and natural resources and which cause
harmful effect on human and aquatic life.
*
Sources of water pollution - Water pollution is caused by
human as well as natural activities.
i)
Natural Sources - These include decomposed vegetable,
animal and weathered products which are brought into main water
resources.
ii)
Human Activities - These include domestic as well as industrial
pollution:
a.
Domestic: The release of huge quantities of municipal and
domestic wastes through the drains into the rivers and canals is the
major cause of pollution. The domestic waste water contains human
faeces, kitchen wastes, organic water that provides nutrition to
fungi and bacteria.
b.
Industrial: These include effluents from factories, refineries
and a number of chemical industries. Water gets polluted by acids,
alkalis, detergents, copper, zinc, lead, mercury etc. which are
constantly added to water by industrial effluents.
c.
Apart from these two, the water is also polluted through
agricultural discharge such as pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers etc.
besides these, bacteria, algae, virus also cause water pollution.
*

Classification of Water Pollutants:

The problem of water pollution due to discharge of domestic and

industrial waste into water has already become a serious problem in
the country. To aid in the systematic discussion of water pollutants,
they have been classified into nine categories:
1.

Oxygen demanding wastes

2.

Pathogens

3.

Synthetic organic compounds

4.

Plant nutrients

5.

Inorganic chemicals and minerals

6.

Sediments

7.

Radioactive substances

8.

Thermal discharges

9.

Oil

1.

Oxygen Demanding Wastes:

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is essential for sustaining the plant and

animal life in any aquatic system. Warm-water fishes require a
minimum DO level of 5 mg/L. if DO level drops below the level
necessary to sustain normal life, then water is classified as polluted.
The amount of DO in water is reduced because of oxygen
demanding wastes. These are substances that oxidize in water,
reducing the amount of DO. These include organic substances
contained in municipal waste water or in effluents from certain
industries. The oxygen demanding wastes are oxidized by bacteria
or micro organisms consuming DO in water to CO2 and water. These
substances produce undesirable odor, tastes and reduce the
acceptability of water as domestic supply.
There are several measures f oxygen demand commonly used:
(a) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): BOD is the amount of
oxygen required by microorganisms to biologically degrade the
wastes. It is the most important measure of the strength of organic
pollution
(b) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): COD is the amount of
oxygen needed to chemically oxidize the wastes.
1.
Pathogens - These are disease causing organisms that grow
and multiply within the host. Water is potential carrier of pathogenic
microorganisms. These pathogens are carried into the water bodies
by sewage and wastes from farm and various industries.
Contaminated water caused by poor sanitation can lead to both
water borne and water contact diseases. Water borne diseases are
those acquired by ingestion of pathogens not only in drinking water,

but also from the water that makes it to persons mouth from
washing food, utensils and hands. Examples are cholera, typhoid
etc. Water Contact diseases do not require that the individual ingest
the water. Just contact with the water causes the disease. For
example bilharzia is the most common water contact disease in the
world.
2.
Synthetic Organic Compounds - These include pesticides,
synthetic organic chemicals and detergents. These compounds are
not biodegradable and persist for longer periods. Most of these are
accumulative toxic poisons and ultimately reach objectionable levels
in water. Pesticides cover a range of chemicals that kill organisms
that human consider undesirable. These enter the water bodies from
run off from agricultural lands, waste discharge by pesticides
manufacturers and by other means. Because of their world wide
usage, nearly all the rivers and oceans of the world contain
pesticides residue. Detergent means cleansing agent. The basic
active ingredient in detergents is surfactant or surface active agent
with contains hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups. Surfactants
decrease the surface tension of water so that they can penetrate the
surface and interstices of the object to be cleaned. Te remainder
comprises of polysulphate salts called builders and other
ingredients. Surfactants concentrations as low as 1ppm produce
foam in rivers and in sewage treatment plants. Although these
concentrations are non-toxic to humans, their presence gives off
taste of drinking water. The detergent builders pose greater problem
today. The polyphosphates builders are released into water and act
as plant nutrients. The extensive growth of algae consumes most of
dissolved oxygen from water.
3.
Plant nutrients - Nutrients are chemicals, such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, carbon, sulphur, calcium, potassium, iron etc. that are
essential to growth of living things. However, in terms of water,
these nutrients are considered as pollutants; when their
concentrations are sufficient allow excessive growth of aquatic
plants, particularly, algae. When these algae die and decompose
they add undesirable odor and objectionable taste of water. Further,
the decaying of organic matter oxidizes and leads to reduced DO
levels. The gradual accumulation of silt and organic matter is known

as eutrophication. High concentration of nutrients poses the problem

of eutrophication but also when found in drinking water it is a
serious health hazard.
4.
Inorganic Chemicals and Minerals - This include inorganic salts
mineral acids and finely divided metal or metal compounds, trace
elements, cyanides, organo-metallic compounds etc. they are added
to the water bodies through municipal and industrial waste water
and mine run off.
a.
Acid Mine Drainage - It is a source of increasing acidity in
natural water, acid rain also adds to it. The mining of sulphur
bearing ores containing lead, zinc and copper lead to acid drainage.
Coal mines discharge is also a cause of acid mine drainage.
b.
Soluble Salts - The salts or solids passing through water on its
way to sea include cations such as sodium, calcium, potassium,
magnesium and anions like chlorides, sulphates and bicarbonates.
The measure of salinity is concentration of total dissolved solids
(TDS).
c.
Heavy Metals - It refers to metals with specific gravity greater
than 4 or 5. Metals may be inhaled or digested and have adverse
effects on the body. Cadmium, lead and mercury are nephrotoxic
metals.
5.
Sediments - They include soil, sand and mineral particles
washed into aquatic environment by storms and flood waters. They
are sources of organic and inorganic matter which reduces the
storage capacity. This decreases evolution of oxygen and hence
cannot support aquatic animals.
6.
Radioactive Substances - They enter aquatic system through
the use of naturally occurring or artificially produced radioactive
materials. These pollutants enter the water system through:
(a)

Mining and processing of ores

(b)

Nuclear power plants

(c)

Leakage from underground nuclear detonations

(d)

Radioisotopes in medicine etc.

7.
These substances can enter human body through food and
water and cause cancer, eye cataract etc.
a.

Thermal Discharges:

The used coolant water in industries id directly discharged into

water bodies which increases their temperature. This is thermal
pollution. Rise in temperature decreases DO content which affects
the aquatic life.
b.

Oil:

It is added to water bodies from industries as effluents oil refineries,

storage tanks and automobile waste oil. Oil being insoluble in water,
floats over it. It may penetrate the feathers of birds such that they
find difficulty in floating and flying. They may ingest it and die.
c.

Volatile Organic Compounds:

They are volatile solvents used in industries. They are toxic and
cause harm when present in drinking water. Some of the VOCs are:
(a)

Vinyl chloride

(b)

(c)

Carbontetrachloride

(d)

Trichloroethylene

etrachloroethylene

Waste Water treatment Process:

treatment processes can be classified as:

Physical

Chemical

Biological

Available

waste

water

The waste water treatment processes are generally grouped

according to water quality they are expected to produce

1.
Primary Treatment - It utilizes physical processes
screening to remove a portion of pollutants that settle or float.

like

(a) Pretreatment: It consists of screening and grit removal.

Screening removes large floating objects which are disposed off.
Then water passes into grit chamber where velocity of water is
reduced.
(b) Sedimentation: From grit chamber sewage passes into
primary settling tank called sedimentation basin. It clarifies
suspended solids and 40% of organic matter.
2.
Secondary Treatment - The purpose here is to remove organic
matter and is based upon biological process similar to natural
biodegradation by aerobic bacteria. They include:
(a)

Coagulation of colloidal matter

(b)

Oxidation of organic matter

(c) Conversion of nitrogeneous matter to ammonia and finally to

nitrites and nitrates
(d)

Anaerobic digestion of sludge

3.
Tertiary Treatment - It improves the quality of effluent further.
It includes removal of:
(a)

Suspendedsolids

(b)

Bacteria

(c)

Dissolved organic solids

(d)

Toxics

(e)

Nutrients

Some of the techniques are:

(a) Micro-staining: It removes the solid wastes that get retained
on fabric of filter media,
(b) Removal of Dissolved Solids: It can be done by adsorption of
soluble organics on activated carbon, solvent extraction, ion-

exchange (To remove hardness of water), reverse osmosis and

chemical precipitation through lime etc.,
(c) Removal of Nutrients: it includes removal of nitrogen
(ammonia stripping) and phosphorous which may be present as
orthophosphates by alum.
(d) Removal of bacteria: By retaining effluents in maturation
pond for specified period of times.
C.

Soil Pollution:

Sources: Soil pollution is degradation of soil mainly through

human misuse. The human influences include:

(a)

Industrial waste: this is disposed into the soil and poses a

detrimental effect.

(b)

Disposal of solid wastes: this is accumulation of lead

particles from automobile exhausts, garbage containing
plastics etc.

(c)

Agricultural
pesticides.

(d)

Biological agents: this is through excreta of humans, birds

and animals.

(e)

Soil erosion: nutrients for supporting vegetation are wiped

off.

Effects: Soil pollution adds a number of chemicals to it and

these are transferred into humans through food chains.
Metallic contaminants destroy the beneficial micro organisms
in soil and hence effect plant growth. Excessive use of
fertilizers makes soil alkaline or acidic. Use of pesticides makes
soil contaminated and is also persistent. The most dangerous
pesticide DDT is now banned as it accumulates in the food
chain.

Control: They include method to reduce and dispose soil

wastes. This can be achieved through following ways-

practices: this is due to fertilizers and use of

(a)

Proper

dumping of soil wastes

(b)

Banning

of highly toxic and persistent chemical pesticides

(c)

Proper awareness of the masses

(d)

Increased crop rotation

(e)

Recycling of the waste

(f)

Plantation of trees to a larger extent.

Human health

Overview of main health effects on humans from some common

types of pollution.
Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans.
Ozone pollution can cause respiratory disease, cardiovascular
disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion. Water
pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due
to
contamination
of drinking
water by
untreated sewage in
developing countries. An estimated 500 million Indians have no
access to a proper toilet, and 580 Indians die of water-related
pollution every day. Nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe
drinking water. A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million people
died prematurely in a year in China because of air pollution. In 2007
it was estimated that in India, air pollution is believed to cause

527,700 fatalities. Studies have estimated that the number of

people killed annually in the US could be over 50,000.
Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution
induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep
disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in
children and neurological symptoms. Older people are majorly
exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or
lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at
serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to
cause neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances
can cause cancerand as well as birth defects.
Perspectives
The earliest precursor of pollution generated by life forms would
have been a natural function of their existence. The attendant
consequences on viability and population levels fell within the
sphere of natural selection. These would have included the demise
of a population locally or ultimately, species extinction. Processes
that were untenable would have resulted in a new balance brought
about by changes and adaptations. At the extremes, for any form of
life, consideration of pollution is superseded by that of survival.
For humankind, the factor of technology is a distinguishing and
critical consideration, both as an enabler and an additional source of
byproducts. Short of survival, human concerns include the range
from quality of life to health hazards. Since science holds
experimental demonstration to be definitive, modern treatment of
toxicity or environmental harm involves defining a level at which an
effect is observable. Common examples of fields where practical
measurement is crucial include automobile emissions control,
industrial exposure .The solution to pollution is dilution", is a dictum
which summarizes a traditional approach to pollution management
whereby sufficiently diluted pollution is not harmful. It is well-suited
to some other modern, locally scoped applications such as
laboratory
safety procedure
and hazardous
material release
emergency management. But it assumes that the dilutant is in

virtually unlimited supply for the application or that resulting

dilutions are acceptable in all cases.
Such simple treatment for environmental pollution on a wider scale
might have had greater merit in earlier centuries when physical
survival was often the highest imperative, human population and
densities were lower, technologies were simpler and their
byproducts more benign. But these are often no longer the case.
Furthermore,
advances
have
enabled
measurement
of
concentrations not possible before. The use of statistical methods in
evaluating outcomes has given currency to the principle of probable
harm in cases where assessment is warranted but resorting to
deterministic models is impractical or infeasible. In addition,
consideration of the environment beyond direct impact on human
beings has gained prominence.
Yet in the absence of a superseding principle, this older approach
predominates practices throughout the world. It is the basis by
which to gauge concentrations of effluent for legal release,
exceeding which penalties are assessed or restrictions applied. One
such superseding principle is contained in modern hazardous waste
laws in developed countries, as the process of diluting hazardous
waste to make it non-hazardous is usually a regulated treatment
process. Migration from pollution dilution to elimination in many
cases can be confronted by challenging economical and
technological barriers.
Greenhouse gases and global warming
Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred
to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere
are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can
also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would
normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air.
Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising
levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but
critical increases in the acidity of ocean waters, and the possible
effects of this on marine ecosystems.
Most polluted places in the developing world

The Blacksmith Institute, an international non-for-profit organization

dedicated to eliminating life-threatening pollution in the developing
world, issues an annual list of some of the world's worst polluted
places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees, already
industrialized
countries
excluded,
are
located
in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia,Ukraine and Zambia.