Mathsc QLD 11 ch04

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 165 Tuesday, October 9, 2001 4:07 PM
An introduction
to groups
syllabus ref
efer
erence
ence
Core topic:
Introduction to groups
In this cha
chapter
pter
4A
4B
4C
4D
Groups
The terminology of groups
Properties of groups
Further examples of groups
transformations
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 166 Wednesday, November 5, 2003 10:30 AM
166
M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d
Groups
Up until now, when you used the term algebra you probably thought of variables and
operations with those variables. However, algebra exists in a wide variety of forms,
from Boolean algebra to group algebra. In its most simple form it can be thought of as
the science of equations.
At this stage in your mathematics studies you would be familiar with the use of
classical algebra to solve equations such as x2 9 = 0, yielding the solutions of x = 3.
However, in the 19th century, mathematicians gradually realised that mathematical
symbols did not necessarily have to stand for numbers, if anything at all! From this
idea, modern or abstract algebra arose.
Modern algebra has two main uses:
1. to describe patterns or symmetries that occur in
nature and mathematics, such as different crystal
formations of certain chemical substances
2. to extend the common number systems to
other systems.
In algebra, symbols that can be manipulated are elements of some set and the manipulation is done by performing certain operations
on elements of that set. The set involved is
referred to as an algebraic structure. The symbols
may represent the symmetries of an object, the position
of a switch, an instruction to a machine or design of a statistical experiment. These
symbols may then be manipulated using the familiar rules used with numbers.
A group is a system of elements with a composition satisfying certain laws.
It is hoped that this brief introduction to groups expands your understanding of the
versatile and all-encompassing concept of algebra. The following section of work fits
into this field of study by virtue of the fact that it deals with symbols and operations.
Algebraic structures
Research the topic of algebraic structures examining early algebraic systems that
developed in ancient civilisations such as the Indian, Arabic, Babylonian, Egyptian
and Greek. Highlight differences and similarities among the various forms.
But first a new tool to help you deal with some notions used in groups.
Modulo arithmetic
Not to be confused with the modulus of a number (see chapter 1 on real numbers, R,
where the modulus of 4, written | 4 | = 4), modulo arithmetic uses a finite number
system with a finite number of elements. This is sometimes referred to as clock
arithmetic because of the similarities with reading the time on an analog clock.
167
Chapter 4 An introduction to groups
Consider reading the time shown on the clock face to the right.
Whether it is 2 am or 2 pm we would say it is 2 oclock,
but in 24-hour time the 2 pm would be 1400 hours. In effect
we have subtracted 12 hours from the 1400 (14 hours) to give
an answer of 2. In this case we say that 2 is the residue, or
what is left over when 12 hours is subtracted from the 14.
11 12
1
2
10
9
4
7
In modulo 12 arithmetic the same principle is used except

that the 12 is replaced by a 0.
5 + 6 = 11
11 0 1
5+7=0
2
10
5 + 8 = 1 and so on.
9
3
In our normal decimal system 5 + 8 = 13, but in modulo 12
8
4
arithmetic the residue of 1 differs from 13 by 12 (or a multiple
7 6 5
of 12) and 1 and 13 are said to be congruent. That is, in
modulo 5 arithmetic, the numbers 3, 8 and 13 are congruent
and in modulo 12 arithmetic, 2, 14, and 26 are congruent numbers.
Using more precise terminology, addition modulo 10 is written
3 + 9 2 mod 10, 5 + 5 0 mod 10, and so on.
(Note the abbreviation of modulo to mod.)
In mod 12, the numbers 0 to 11 are referred to as residues, as with 0 to 5 in mod 6.
This information can be stored in a table, known as a Cayley Table.
WORKED Example 1
Draw up a Cayley Table that shows the residues using addition modulo 4.
THINK
1
WRITE/DRAW
Draw an empty table with 0, 1, 2, 3 in

the first row and column and put a +
sign in the top corner.
Start working across the first row.

0 + 0 = 0 etc. and do likewise with the
first column.
The residues are the numbers left over

when 4 is taken from the answer (if the
answer is 4 or greater). As you
complete the table note that the answers
are less than 4. So, for 2 + 2 the residue
is 0.
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
1
2
3
0
2
3
0
1
3
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
168
remember
remember
1. Modulo arithmetic is like clock arithmetic where 5 + 9 4 in mod 10.

2. The residues of modulo x are all the whole numbers less than x.
3. Congruent numbers in mod x all differ by multiples of x.
4A
1 List 4 numbers congruent to:

a 4 in mod 8
b 4 in mod 6.
4.1
SkillS
HEET
Groups
2 List the residues in:

a mod 3
b mod 9
mod 11.
3 Draw up a Cayley Table that shows the residues for each of the following:
a addition mod 6
1
b multiplication mod 4
c multiplication mod 5.
WORKED
Example

Mathematics is often referred to as a science sometimes as the science of patterns.
You will enjoy your studies of mathematics more if you look for patterns in all the
ideas you explore. One such idea is that of groups.
Group theory is applied to many areas of science such as genetics, quantum theory,
molecular orbits, crystallography and the theory of relativity. In mathematics, group theory
is applied to many mathematical models involving algebra, number theory and geometry.
In chapter 1 you dealt with different sets of numbers within the Real Number
System. Throughout your student life you have used the operations of addition, multiplication, subtraction and division, finding a square root, reciprocals, and so on. These
are examples of operations performed on numbers that are part of a certain set.
Operations (such as addition) that involve 2 input values, for example 2 + 3, are
called binary operations. Those that involve only one input value, such as finding the
square root of a number (for example 8 ) are called unary operations. Others that
involve 3 input values are called ternary; for example, the principal, interest and term
of a loan are the 3 input values involved in calculating the amount of interest due on a
loan. (Strictly speaking the multiplication involved is still carried out on pairs of
values.)
Definition of terms
Groups that we will deal with consist of a system that involves a set of elements (often
numbers) and a binary operation. Lower case letters: a, b, c are used to refer to
elements of the set and the symbol denotes whatever operation is involved.
For a non-empty set of elements S = {a, b, c, } involved in the binary operation
to be a group, G = [S, ], the following properties must hold.
169
1 Closure
An operation is closed if the result of that operation is an element of the same set
as the 2 inputs.
For example 2 + 3 = 5 could be written 2 3 where S = {Real numbers} (or R) and
is
the operation of addition.
This operation is closed because 5 R
But consider 2 3 = 1 where S = {Natural numbers} (or N) and is the operation of
subtraction. Because the result (1) is not a member of the set of natural numbers this
operation is not closed. That is, the answer is not part of the initial set of natural
numbers.
2 Associativity
If an operation is associative, the order in which operations are performed does
not affect the answer.
Often brackets are employed to determine the order of operations.
For example, consider (2 3) 4 and 2 (3 4)
(2 3) 4 = 6 4
2 (3 4) = 2 12
= 24
= 24
In this case, both answers are the same. Note that only the position of the brackets
changes and the order of the numbers remains the same.
But consider the operation of division:
(20 2) 4
and
20 (2 4)
= 10 4
= 20 0.5
= 2.5
= 40
Here the answers are not the same.
Division, like subtraction, is not associative. You would have realised this in your
earlier junior mathematics studies.
3 Identity
For all elements of a set, if a unique element exists in the set such that a u = a
then u is the identity element (IE) for that operation.
That means that there is only one element that leaves every element unchanged when
the operation has been applied.
For example, 3 + 0 = 3 then 0 is the identity element for addition (IE+) for real
numbers.
However, 3 0 = 0 so 0 is not the identity element for real numbers under the operation
of multiplication.
Note: The one identity element must work for all elements of the set so 5 + 0 = 5
and 8 + 0 = 8.
4 Inverse
For each element of a set there is a unique element a1 such that a a1 = u where
u is the identity element for that operation.
Unique means that every element has only one inverse.
2 1--2- = 1 where 1 is the identity element for multiplication (IE)
Therefore 1--2- is the multiplicative inverse of 2.
Now consider 2 + 2 = 0 where 0 is IE+; in this case 2 is the additive inverse of 2.
However, note that the set involved here would have to be integers (that is, both positive and negative) not just whole numbers because 2 {Whole numbers}.
170
We can now restate the definition of a group.

If the following 4 properties hold for a set of elements under a certain operation :
1. closure
2. associativity
3. existence of an identity element
4. existence of an inverse
then the system under investigation [S, ] is a group. If a fifth property,
commutativity, also holds, then the group is an Abelian group.
Commutativity
If the order of the elements involved has no effect on the outcome, then the operation is
commutative.
For example
2 5 = 10
and
5 2 = 10
Hence multiplication with real numbers is commutative. Note the stated condition,
with real numbers because you have already worked with matrices where multiplication in not commutative.
However, consider 10 2 = 5 and 2 10 = 0.2
So division is not commutative. You would be familiar with other operations as well
that are not commutative.
WORKED Example 2
Find a the identity element and b inverse for the operation defined as a b = a + b + 2.
THINK
WRITE
a An identity element is an element that,

when involved in an operation with
another element does not change the
value of that element.
a Let a + b + 2 = a (where b = IE)

therefore
b = 2
IE = 2
b An inverse is an element that, when

involved in an operation with another
element results in the IE for that
operation.
b Therefore a + b + 2 = 2
(where b is the inverse of a and 2 = IE from
part a)
a + b = 4
b = 4
WORKED Example 3
Find the identity element for the operation defined as
a + b = a.
THINK
WRITE
An IE is an element that, when involved in

an operation with another element does not
change the value of that element.
a +b =a
let b = IE
Square both sides:
a2 + b2 = a2
therefore
b2 = 0
and
b = 0 therefore IE = 0
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 171 Monday, October 15, 2001 6:30 AM
171
History of mathematics
NIELS HENRIK ABEL (18021829)
During his life . . .
Lord Byron, the
English poet,
writes Don Juan.
Napoleon
Bonaparte
becomes
emperor of
France.
Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck, the
French biologist,
proposes that
acquired traits are
inherited by individuals in a population.
of Newton, Euler, Gauss and Lagrange. As the

sole supporting male of his family at 18 he
tutored private pupils while continuing his own
mathematical research. By the age of 19 he had
proved that there was no finite formula for the
solution of the general fifth degree polynomial.
He died of tuberculosis on 6 April 1829,
two days before the announcement of his
posting as professor to the Berlin university. His
life in poverty stands in contrast to the regard
with which he is held in his field; the term Abelian group being named in honour of Abel. His
studies on group theory were central to the
development of abstract algebra.
Questions:
1. How did Abel financially support his
family?
2. Which property do groups bearing his
name exhibit?
Niels Abel was one of the most productive

mathematicians of the 19th century. Born in
Norway on 5 August 1802, by the age of 16 he
had started his private study of the mathematics
remember
remember
A set S forms a group under the operation if and only if (iff) all of the
following are true:
1. it is closed under ; that is, the result is an element of S
2. the order in which operations are performed has no effect on the results; that is,
it is associative
3. there is only 1 identity element (IE), u, such that a u = a
4. there is a unique inverse a1 for every element such that a a1 = u, where
u = IE.
5. If the property of commutativity also holds, then it is an Abelian group.
4B
a+b
1 a Show that a b = ------------ is not closed with respect to whole numbers.
2
b State its identity element.
2
2 If an operation a b is defined as a + b determine whether this is closed if a and b

are whole numbers. (Remember you only have to find one example where the operation
is not closed to disprove a statement.)
172
WORKED
Example
3 Find a the identity element and b the inverse for the operation on real numbers
where a b = a + b 1.
4 What is the identity element of the operation a b = a + b ab if a and b are real

numbers?
3
WORKED
Example
5 The operation a b = 4ab2 is defined for positive real numbers a and b. Find the
identity element for this operation.
a+b
6 Develop a proof to show that a b = ------------ has no identity.
ab
7 An operation is defined with respect to an ordered pair of integers as
(a, b) (c, d) = (ad + bc, bd ). Show that (0, 1) is the identity element for the operation.
8 Show that a b = (a + b)2 has no identity for real numbers.
WORKED Example 4
a Verify that the set of integers forms a group under addition.

b Is this group Abelian?
THINK
WRITE
a Let Z = {a, b, c, } be the set of integers;

the operation is addition.
What numbers are involved? All

positive and negative integers and 0
are involved so state the set and
operation. While you can think of
actual values for the integers
(1, 0 4 ) your answer should use
only variables, with constants used
as examples only.
Test each of the 4 properties in the
same order each time to help you
remember the 4 tests.
iii The sum of any 2 integers is an
integer.
iii The order in which the operation
is performed has no effect on the
result.
iii Since 0 Z, IE+ exists.
iv Since Z contains all positive and
negative whole numbers, the
inverse is a
State that the system forms a group
under the conditions stated.
iii The operation is closed:

a + b = c where a, b and c Z
iii The operation is associative:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
iii The identity element exists:
a+0=a
iv The inverse exists:
a + a = 0
Thus the set of integers forms a group under
addition.
THINK
WRITE
b If the group is Abelian we need to show

that this operation is commutative.
b Commutativity
a+b=b+a
Therefore the group is Abelian.
173
Note that the test for commutativity is performed last because the first 4 properties are
necessary to state that it is a group in the first place, before it is shown to be Abelian.
This group, G = [Z, +] is an infinite group, having an unlimited set of elements. You
will also deal with finite groups which have a countable number of elements.
WORKED Example 5
Verify that the set of odd integers does not form a group under addition.
THINK
WRITE
What numbers are involved?

The set of odd integers includes
5, 3, 1, 1, 3, 5
State the set and operation.
S = {a, b, c, } is the set of odd integers.

The operation is addition.
Test the 4 properties as shown in

worked example 4.
Closure: a + b S
Let a = 3 and b = 5
3 + 5 = 8 and 8 S
Therefore G [S, +]
There is no need to proceed any further

with tests to verify the system is a
group as it is not closed.
The set of odd integers does not form a group

under addition.
WORKED Example 6
Construct a Cayley Table for [{1, i, 1, i}, ] and determine whether this constitutes a
group.
THINK
1
Set up the empty table.
WRITE
1
i
1
i
Continued over page
174
THINK
2
WRITE
Complete the table. Remember from

chapter 2 on complex numbers that
i = 1 and i i = 1.
1
i
1
i
1
i
1
i
i
1
i
1
1
i
1
i
i
1
i
1
Test the 4 group properties closed

set, associative, identity element and
multiplicative inverse. The answers can
be obtained from the table.
(Multiplication by 1 leaves all elements
unchanged.)
1. All the results are members of the original

set {1, i , 1, i}. This is a closed set.
2. The set is associative
e.g. (1 i) i = i i = 1
and 1 (i i) = 1 1 = 1
3. The identity element, IE = 1
4. Multiplicative inverse: there is a 1 (IE) in
every row of the table so each element has a
unique inverse.
State your conclusion.
Therefore, the system is a group.
Note that the Cayley Table is symmetrical about

the leading diagonal. The table could be flipped
over on the leading diagonal and remain unchanged.
This means that the order of operations will not affect
the results, that is, that the operation is commutative.
Therefore this group is also Abelian.
Leading diagonal
WORKED Example 7
Construct a Cayley Table for [{mod 5}, +] and determine whether it is an Abelian group.
THINK
1
Decide what numbers are present in

mod 5 and complete a Cayley Table of
residues.
WRITE
+
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
0
2
3
4
0
1
3
4
0
1
2
4
0
1
2
3
THINK
175
WRITE
Test for the 4 group properties.
Test for commutativity.

+
1. All results are members of the original set.

So, the set is closed.
2. Addition with whole numbers is associative.
3. The identity element, IE+ = 0 exists.
4. There is a 0 entry in each row because each
element has a corresponding element that,
when added, results in 0 (IE+). So, there is
an additive inverse.
Therefore the system forms a group.
Addition mod 5 is commutative as shown by
the symmetry about the leading diagonal.
For example: 4 + 0 = 4 and
0+4=4
and
4 + 2 = 1 and
2+4=1
Therefore the group is Abelian.
Note: There are 9 axioms that relate to operations and whole numbers that require no
proof: they are assumed to be true. The associativity statement in the example above
relied on one of these axioms and you can state that these axioms have been used.
They are given here with no explanation.
1. Closure Law of Addition
2. Commutative Law of Addition
3. Associative Law of Addition
4. Identity Law of Addition
5. Closure Law of Multiplication
6. Commutative Law of Multiplication
7. Associative Law of Multiplication
8. Identity Law of Multiplication
9. Distributive Law of Multiplication over addition, where a(b + c) = ab + ac
remember
remember
1. To determine whether a set forms a group under an operation () test each of
the four properties; that is, test whether it is closed and associative, whether
there is an identity element and a unique inverse.
2. To determine whether the group is Abelian, show that the operation is
commutative (e.g. a b = b a).
176
4C
4.1
WORKED
Example
SkillS
HEET
1 a Verify that the set of real numbers, [R, +], forms a group under addition.
b Is this group Abelian?
2 a Consider the set of even numbers (2n) where n Z.
b Does this form a group under addition? (Note: 0 {even numbers})
c Does it form a group under multiplication?
3 Does the set of powers of 1 form a group under:
a addition?
b multiplication?
WORKED
Example
4 Verify that the set of even integers does not form a group under division.
5
WORKED
Example
5 Construct a Cayley Table for [{mod 5 excluding 0}, ] and determine whether this
constitutes a group.
6 a Draw up a Cayley Table for the set of even powers of 2 under addition.
b Does this form a group under addition?
c Does this form a group under multiplication?
WORKED
Example
7 Construct a Cayley Table for [{mod 3}, ] and determine whether it is an Abelian
group.
8 Determine whether each of the tables below forms a group.
a
a
b
c
c
a
b
a
b
c
b
c
a
a
b
c
a
b
c
b
b
b
c
c
a
a
b
c
a
b
c
b
a
d
c
c
a
a
b
c
b
c
a
c
a
b
a
b
c
9 a Construct a Cayley Table for the set

a b = [{5, 10, 20}, lowest common multiple of a, b]
b Does this set form a group?
Work
ET
SHE
4.1
10 The movements of a robot are restricted to no change (N), turn left (L), turn right (R),
turn about (A): { N, L, R, A}. Construct a Cayley Table and show that this set of
movements forms a group.
177
Application of groups
permutations
A symmetry of a square (or any other shape) may be
written as a permutation by changing the positions of
the vertices. For example, referring to the figure at right,
we could write:
P2 = 1 2 3 4 5 , which means that vertex 1 goes

2 3 4 5 1
to the position of vertex 2, and so on.

The only other two permutations allowed here are:
P1 = 1 2 3 4 5 and P3 = 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 5 4 3 2
Determine whether these permutations form a group under the operation meaning
followed by.
Further examples
of groups
transformations
Consider all the transformations that a shape
could undergo. Rotations about its centre and
reflections about its axes of symmetry involve
changes in the vertices only. Carefully examine
the diagram below. Make sure you understand
the symbols and the new positions of the vertices.
Rotations anticlockwise:
R90 90
R180 180
R270 270
Reflections:
RV in the vertical axis of symmetry

RH in the horizontal axis of symmetry
RR in the top right diagonal
RL in the top left diagonal
R0 no change.
178
D
D
R0
RL
RL
R 90
B
A
B
RL
RR
D
RV
A
C
RH
C
R180
RH
RV
RR
C
D
R 270
Therefore the set of all transformations or symmetries is given by the set

{R90, R180, R270, RV, RH, RR, RL, R0} and the binary operation that combines any two of
these transformations is referred to as composition, where one operation follows
another.
All the computerised movements involved in screen animations are based on similar
compositions of transformations.
WORKED Example 8
Find the result of R180 Rv .
THINK
1
Draw the initial square with labelled

vertices.
Transform the square using R180

180 rotation anticlockwise. Locate
vertex A and move it 180 anticlockwise. All other vertices follow in
order around the square.
WRITE/DRAW
D
C
B
B
C
THINK
179
WRITE/DRAW
For RV mark a vertical axis of

symmetry in this figure (from step 2)
and reflect or flip the square about this
axis.
Reposition the vertices one side at a time, C

B C and A D.
This matches with a single

transformation representing RH.
The result is RH.
Functions
1
1
Consider functions f(x) = x, g(x) = x, h(x) = --- and k(x) = --- (where x 0).
x
x
When these functions are involved in composition of functions such as g[h(x)], the
function h(x) is substituted as the inner function into the outer function which is g(x).
1
1
That is g[h(x)] = --- where --- (the inner function) is substituted into g(x) which is (x).
x
x
1
Similarly, k[g(x)] = ---------- where g(x) = x (the inner function) is substituted into
(x)
1
1
1
k(x) = --- (the outer function). That is, k[g(x)] = ---------- = --- = h(x).
x
(x) x
WORKED Example 9
1
1
Show that functions f(x) = x, g(x) = x, h(x) = --- and k(x) = --- form a group under
x
x
composition.
THINK
1
Complete a Cayley Table for these

compositions.
WRITE
f
g
h
k
f
g
h
k
g
f
k
h
h
k
f
g
k
h
g
f
Continued over page
180
THINK
WRITE
Test the 4 group properties.
State your conclusion.
Closure: yes all results are elements of the

original set.
Associative: yes for example
(f g) h = g h = k
f (g h) = f k = k
Identity element is f(x)
Inverse: yes f(x) occurs in every row and
column.
Composition of these functions forms a group.
History of mathematics
A R T H U R C AY L E Y ( 1 8 2 1 1 8 9 5 )
During his life . . .
Thomas Edison
invents the
phonograph.
Slavery is
officially
abolished
throughout the
western world.
Alfred Nobel
invents dynamite.
Arthur Cayley, a famous English mathematician, was born on 16 August 1821. His published mathematical papers are classics and
include discussions on the concept of
n-dimensional geometry. At the age of 25 he
began practising law which he continued to
do until 1863. In his spare time he wrote
more than 300 mathematical papers. In 1863
he accepted a professorship in mathematics at

Cambridge University. One of his most
famous non-mathematical accomplishments
was his role in having women accepted at
Cambridge.
Like Niels Abel (see page 171), many of
his research topics are now used in abstract
algebra and group algebra, as well as in work
with matrices and the theory of determinants.
The Cayley Table is named after him.
He died on 26 January 1895 having
received many academic distinctions. His
total works fill 13 volumes of about 600
pages each a testimony to his prodigious
life and study in mathematics.
Questions
1. What is one of Cayleys most significant
non-mathematical accomplishments?
2. List four fields of mathematics which
feature in Cayleys work.
remember
remember
The binary operation that combines any two transformations (for example,
rotation and reflection) is called composition, when one operation follows another.
181
4D
Further examples of groups

transformations
1 a Draw a Cayley Table for the rotation of an equilateral triangle. Label each vertex.
b Does it form a group? Is it Abelian?
2 a Draw a Cayley Table for the reflections of
an equilateral triangle through each of the
vertices R0, RV, RL, RR.
b Does it form a group?
RL
RR
RV
WORKED
Example
3 Explain what the following diagrams represent about the group shown below.
R240
2 2
31
2
2
2
R240
2 1
33
4 Describe the symmetries of the following figures, using fully annotated diagrams.
a a non-square rectangle
b a non-square rhombus
c an ellipse
5 Consider an infinitely long strip of Hs, printed on transparent paper, as shown below
..H H H H H H .
Describe the axes of symmetry of this group.
6 Locate the axes of symmetry for the following figures.
WORKED
Example
7 a Complete a Cayley Table for the composition of the following functions.

1
1
f1(x) = x
f2(x) = --f3(x) = x 1
f4(x) = ----------x
x1
where f1 f2 = f1[ f2(x)]
b Does this composition form a group?
182
8 a Show that the set of all 2 2 matrices a b forms a group under

c d
addition.
b i Give one example of a 2 2 matrix that does form a group under
multiplication.
ii Give one example of a 2 2 matrix that does not form a group under
addition.
c
i Give the condition for 2 2 matrices to form a group under
multiplication.
ii Show that these matrices form a group under matrix multiplication.
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
9 Show that the set of matrices 1 0 , 1 0 , 1 0 , 1 0 forms a group

0 1
0 1
under matrix multiplication. 0 1 0 1
z1 z2
10 Show that the set of matrices of the form
, where z is a complex number,
z2 z1
forms a group
a under matrix addition
b under matrix multiplication.
Assume z12 + z22 0.
11 S is the set of all 2 2 matrices such that 0 0 , where z is a non-zero complex
z z
number.
a Show that 0 0 is the identity element under matrix multiplication.
1 1
b Does the set form a group under matrix multiplication?
12 C =
i 0 , where i =
0 i
1 . The set T consists of positive powers of C such that
T = C n where n is a positive integer.

a Find all the elements of set T.
b Does the set T form a group under matrix multiplication?
Some applications of group theory

1 Do the residues of {0, 1} mod 2 form a group under addition?
2 A teacher of abstract algebra intended to give a typist a list of 9 integers that
form a group under multiplication modulo 91. Instead, one of the 9 integers
was omitted so that the list read: 1, 9, 16, 22, 53, 74, 79, 81. Which integer
was left out?
3 Show that {1, 2, 3} multiplication mod 4 is not a group but {1, 2, 3, 4}
multiplication mod 5 is a group.
4 Give an example of group elements a and b with the property that a1ba b
5 The integers 5 and 15 are two of 12 integers that form a group under
multiplication mod 56. List all 12 integers.
183
6 If the following table is that of a group, fill in the blank entries.
e
a
b
c
b
c
d
e
a
7 Prove that if G is a group such that the square of every element is the identity,
then G is Abelian.
8 Examine whether
a rotations and
b reflections
as stated earlier in this section, form Abelian groups.
9 Quaternions
The concept of a set of elements called quaternions was first developed by the
Irish mathematician, William Hamilton (see page 118). Quaternions are
ordered sets of four ordinary numbers, satisfying special laws of equality,
addition and multiplication. Quaternions are useful for studying quantities
having magnitude and direction in three-dimensional space and this has
enabled great advances in quantum theory, relativity, number theory and group
theory.
The 4 numbers are 1, i, j and k and have the following properties:
12 = 1
i2 = j2 = k2 = ijk = 1
1i = i1
1j = j1
1k = k1
ij = ji = k
i(jk) = (ij)k = ijk
All real and complex numbers do commute with i, j, and k but they are not
commutative with each other.
Follow this example that shows that jk = i
ijk = 1
from the definitions
i ijk = i 1
multiply both sides by i on the left (or pre-multiply
by i)
2
i jk = i
associativity
1 jk = i
from the definitions
1 1 jk = 1 i pre-multiply both sides by 1
jk = i
Because multiplication between these elements is not commutative it is
essential that all multiplication is done from a particular side of an expression
and to perform this multiplication on both sides of the equal sign. You must
respect the order of placement of terms in this system.
a Show that i jk = kj
ii ki = j
b Show that i1 = i
c If q = s + wi + vj + yk and p = m + ni + oj + jk, find the product of the two
quaternions.
184
10 Pauli Matrices
The ideas introduced in the section on quaternions above can be extended to
represent matrices. One 2 2 set is:
1= 1 0
0 1
i=
j=
0 1
1 0
k=
0 1
1
0
While the matrices for i and k might look a little daunting, they can be
simplified by replacing the 1 elements with complex i.
The last three of these matrices are used in the study of quantum theories to
explain and predict the behaviour of electrons. They are called the Pauli Spin
Matrices and students of chemistry will appreciate the importance of the spin
of electrons in atomic bonding and the strength of different materials.
A variation of these matrices used in the study of nuclear physics is shown
below:
P= 1 0
0 1
Q=
0 1
1 0
R = 0 1
1 0
S = 1 0
0 1
T= 0 i
V = i 0
U= i 0
W = 0 i
i 0
0 i
0 i
i 0
On examination of the first and second rows of the matrices above you will
notice that the second row is a reflection of each matrix in the first row,
multiplied by i.
a Construct a Cayley Table to display the results of matrix multiplication
using these 8 matrices. Arrange them in the order given; that is, from P to
W.
b Determine whether the total set forms a group.
c Mark off the top left-hand 4 4 corner. Examine this section of the table
and show that this subset forms a group. This is an example of a subgroup,
where a subset of a group forms a complete group of its own.
11 Internet search
The real life applications of groups are quite complex. Use the internet to
research this field of study. Include a list of distinct topics and a more detailed
report that highlights the use of group theory.
185
summary
Groups
Modulo arithmetic is like clock arithmetic where 5 + 9 = 4 in mod 10.

The residues of modulo x are all the numbers less than x.
Congruent numbers in mod x all differ by multiples of x.

A set S forms a group under the operation if and only if (iff) all of the following
are true:
it is closed under , that is, the result is an element of S
the order in which operations are performed has no effect on the results, that is, it
is associative
there is only 1 identity element (IE), u, such that a u = a
there is a unique inverse a1 for every element such that a a1 = u, where u = IE.
A set forms a group under an operation if elements of the set are closed and
associative, and there is an identity element and a unique inverse.
The group is an Abelian group if the operation is commutative (e.g. a b = b a).
Transformations
The set of all transformations (for example, rotations and reflections) and the binary
operation that combines any two of these transformations is referred to as a
composition.
186
CHAPTER
review
4B
1 Determine whether the following are groups:

a {1, 1} under multiplication
4C

a the set {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8} under multiplication modulo 9
b the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} under multiplication modulo 5
c the set {2, 4, 6, 8} under multiplication modulo 10
d the set {0, 1, 2} under addition modulo 3.
b {0, 1} under addition.
3 Determine whether each of the following form groups:

a the set of integers where p q = p + 2q
p
b the set of positive rational numbers where p q = --- .
q
c Show that the set of all integers forms an Abelian group under the operation
a b = a + b 3.
4C
4 There are two lights in a room, one on the ceiling and one on the wall with 4 possible states
for the two lights both on, both off, wall light on only, or ceiling light on only. There are
4 possible changes of state: no change, both change, ceiling light change and the wall light
change. These changes are denoted by N, CW, C and W respectively. Show that the set
{N, C, CW, W} forms a group with respect to the operation followed by.
4C
5 What property of a group is displayed in a Cayley Table if:

a the elements are symmetrical about the leading diagonal
b the same element does not appear more than once in any row or column
c the identity element occurs only once in each row or column.
4C

a the set of integers, modulo n under addition
b the set of integers, modulo n under multiplication
c the set of integers, modulo n, excluding 0, under multiplication
d the set of integers, modulo n, excluding 0, under multiplication, if n is prime.
4C
7 Determine whether the set of all moves that can be made by a knight on a chessboard forms
a group or not.
8 a Verify that the set m 0 , where m 0 forms a group under matrix multiplication.
0 m
b Verify that all p q matrices form a group under matrix addition.
4D
4D
9 Show that the following set of matrices forms a group under multiplication.
1 0
0 1
4D
CHAPTER
test
yourself
1 0
0 1
i 0
0 i
i 0
0 i
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 i
i 0
0 i
i 0
10 Determine whether or not the following functions form a group under composition of
functions. Assume that they are associative.
1
1
x
x+1
f3(x) = 1 + x f4(x) = -----------f5(x) = -----------f6(x) = -----------f1(x) = x f2(x) = --x
1+x
x+1
x

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MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 165 Tuesday, October 9, 2001 4:07 PM

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 166 Wednesday, November 5, 2003 10:30 AM

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 167 Wednesday, November 5, 2003 10:31 AM

Chapter 4 An introduction to groups

In modulo 12 arithmetic the same principle is used except

Draw an empty table with 0, 1, 2, 3 in

Start working across the first row.

The residues are the numbers left over

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 168 Wednesday, November 5, 2003 10:31 AM

1. Modulo arithmetic is like clock arithmetic where 5 + 9 4 in mod 10.

1 List 4 numbers congruent to:

2 List the residues in:

The terminology of groups

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 169 Wednesday, November 5, 2003 10:31 AM

Chapter 4 An introduction to groups

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 170 Tuesday, October 9, 2001 4:07 PM

We can now restate the definition of a group.

a An identity element is an element that,

a Let a + b + 2 = a (where b = IE)

b An inverse is an element that, when

An IE is an element that, when involved in

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 171 Monday, October 15, 2001 6:30 AM

Chapter 4 An introduction to groups

of Newton, Euler, Gauss and Lagrange. As the

Niels Abel was one of the most productive

The terminology of groups

2 If an operation a b is defined as a + b determine whether this is closed if a and b

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 172 Wednesday, November 5, 2003 10:31 AM

4 What is the identity element of the operation a b = a + b ab if a and b are real

a Verify that the set of integers forms a group under addition.

a Let Z = {a, b, c, } be the set of integers;

What numbers are involved? All

iii The operation is closed:

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 173 Tuesday, October 9, 2001 4:07 PM

Chapter 4 An introduction to groups

b If the group is Abelian we need to show

What numbers are involved?

S = {a, b, c, } is the set of odd integers.

Test the 4 properties as shown in

There is no need to proceed any further

The set of odd integers does not form a group

Set up the empty table.

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 174 Tuesday, October 9, 2001 4:07 PM

Complete the table. Remember from

Test the 4 group properties closed

1. All the results are members of the original

State your conclusion.

Therefore, the system is a group.

Note that the Cayley Table is symmetrical about

Decide what numbers are present in

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 175 Tuesday, October 9, 2001 4:07 PM

Chapter 4 An introduction to groups

Test for the 4 group properties.

Test for commutativity.

1. All results are members of the original set.

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 176 Wednesday, November 5, 2003 10:31 AM

9 a Construct a Cayley Table for the set

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 04 Page 177 Monday, October 15, 2001 6:30 AM

Chapter 4 An introduction to groups

P2 = 1 2 3 4 5 , which means that vertex 1 goes

to the position of vertex 2, and so on.

RV in the vertical axis of symmetry