Table of Contents:

SyllabusPage 2-3
Rules and Guidelines.. Page 4
Magna CartaPP. 5 and 6
Historical JournalPP 7 and 8
Social DynamicsPP 9-12
War history Eng/France .............PP 13
British Royal LinePP 13 and 14
PiracyPP 15-21
King Philips WarPP 21-23
Pre-Revolution Brit/Amer..PP 23-29
Middle Passage/Slavery..PP 30-38
Causes to the Amer. Rev.PP 38-55
American Revolution..PP 55-127
Articles, Const., bill of rights..PP 127-154
A New Republic..PP 155-168
Jeffersonian Democracy PP 168-202
Jacksonian Democracy..PP 202-229
Causes to the Civil War.PP 229-232
Civil WarPP 232-250

Mr. Henrich 8th grade Syllabus 2009-10

August 26th-28th Orientation, Assign 14 page historical journal. Prepare for
British/Colonial Debate
Aug 31st-4th Work on 14 page historical journal, Prepare for British/Colonial debate.
Sept. 8th-11th (4) Debate British vs. Colonists the year is 1776. Assign video
assignment/groups.
Sept. 14th-18th Historical Journals due Sept. 18th.
Show portions of Libertys Kids.

Prepare for Boston Massacre Trial,

Sept. 21st-25th Perform Trial, Prepare for test over Pre-Revolutionary War Era.
Sept. 28th-Oct 2nd Lecture/Review/Test over Pre-Revolutionary War Era.
Oct. 5th-9th Prepare for video production of Revolutionary War. Libertys Kids.
Oct. 12th-16th Present home videos that re-enacted Revolutionary War era. Libertys
Kids.
Oct. 19th-23rd (End of 1st Quarter) Lecture over Revolutionary War.
Oct. 26th-30th. Review Revolutionary War/Test.
Nov. 2nd-6th (4) Prepare for Constitutional Convention. Re-Enact out Constitutional
Convention.
Nov. 9th-13th Continue Constitutional Convention. Lecture over Articles of
Confederation, Constitution and Bill of Rights.
Nov. 16th-20th-(2) Continue Lecture over A of C, Constitution, and Bill of Rights.
Nov. 23rd-24th Review A of C, Constitution and Bill of Rights, Amendment assignment.
Test.
Nov. 30th- 4th (2nd 9 weeks interims due) Make Political Cartoons over Washington and
Adams Administration. Present Political Cartoons.
Dec. 7th-11th Lecture over Washington and Adams Administration video on Washingtons
life.
Dec. 14th-18th Review over Washington and Adams Administration (morality chart) Test

Jan. 4th-8th Create a song, art, or poem over Jefferson/Madison/Monroe/Quincy Adams

Administrations. Present to class. Morality chart.
Jan. 11th-14th (4)(End of 2nd quarter) Lecture over Jefferson/Madison/Monroe/Quincy
Adams Administrations.
Jan. 19th-22nd (4) Lecture continued, review and examination.
Jan. 25th-29th Create Board Games over the years 1828-1848.
Feb. 1st -5th

Play board games over the years 1828-1848.

Feb. 8th-12th Morality chart Jackson, Van Buren, Harrison, Tyler, Polk. Lecture over
1828-1848.
Feb. 17th-19th (3) Lecture continued 1828-1848. Review and exam.
Feb. 22nd-26th Prepare for Fugitive Slave Law Trial , Begin Fugitive Slave Law Trial
March 1st-5th Complete Fugitive Slave Law Trial. Morality chart, Taylor, Fillmore,
Pierce and Buchanan. Lecture 1848-1860.
March 8th-12th Lecture 1848-1860 Review and Test.
March 15th-19th (4) End of 3rd quarter) Morality Chart Lincoln, Johnson, Grant, Hayes.
Finish all Presidents and turn in Morality chart before Spring Break.
March 22nd-March 26th End of 3rd quarter Prepare for Andersonville Trial. Begin
Andersonville Trial.
March 29th-31st (3) Complete Andersonville Trial. Assign Civil War Museum Project.
Begin Lecture over 1860-1880
April 12th-16th Continue Lecture over 1860-1880 Review and Exam.
April 19th-23rd Prepare for Ohio Graduation Test
April 26th-30th Continue preparation for Ohio Graduation Test and Final Examination
May 3rd-7th Assign Inanimate Object report on the 3rd. Due on the 16th.
May 10th-14th Inanimate Object report due on the 16th. Watch movie Andersonville.
May 17th-21st Civil War Museum Project Due.
May 24th-28th Post-Test, complete chess tourney.
June 1st-4th (4) (2 1 hour early release days on 3rd and 4th end of school year) End of the
year activities.

Rules and Guidelines for Mr. Henrich

1. Be a good citizen
a. Be respectful of others and yourself
b. Be a responsible individual.
c. Be a reliable student.
2. Be a positive influence in and outside the classroom
a. pick peers up when they are feeling down-be a good listener
b. pick up trash in the hallway when you see it. Its your school be
proud of it.
c. Contribute to the class with positive participation.
d. Listen to others when it is their turn to talk.
e. Be a supportive group member. Help be a leader, cheerleader,
Rodney King like (cant we all just get along?) and/or agenda setter.
f. pick up after yourself. When you are finished with something you
have used, clean up the area.
Study Materials priority
Mr. Henrichs lecture
Material that you study for group presentations/individual work
Mr. Henrichs notes
Supplemental resources
Textbook

Magna Carta 1215

4

1. First,

that we have granted to God, and by this present charter have

confirmed for us and our heirs in perpetuity, that the English Church shall be
free, and shall have its rights undiminished, and its liberties unimpaired. That
we wish this so to be observed, appears from the fact that of our own free will, before the outbreak of the present
dispute between us and our barons, we granted and confirmed by charter the freedom of the Church's elections - a right
reckoned to be of the greatest necessity and importance to it - and caused this to be confirmed by Pope Innocent III.
This freedom we shall observe ourselves, and desire to be observed in good faith by our heirs in perpetuity. We have
also granted to all free men of our realm, for us and our heirs for ever, all the liberties written out below, to have and to
keep for them and their heirs, of us and our heirs:
2. If any earl, baron, or other person that holds lands directly of the Crown, for military service, shall die, and at his
death his heir shall be of full age and owe a `relief', the heir shall have his inheritance on payment of the ancient scale
of `relief'. That is to say, the

heir or heirs of an earl shall pay for the entire earl's

barony, the heir or heirs of a knight l00s. at most for the entire knight's `fee', and any man that owes less shall pay
less, in accordance with the ancient usage of `fees'.
6. Heirs

may be given in marriage, but not to someone of lower social

standing. Before a marriage takes place, it shall be' made known to the heir's next-of-kin.
7. At

her husband's death, a widow may have her marriage portion and
inheritance at once and without trouble. She shall pay nothing for her dower, marriage portion, or
any inheritance that she and her husband held jointly on the day of his death. She may remain in her husband's house
for forty days after his death, and within this period her dower shall be assigned to her.
8. No

widow shall be compelled to marry, so long as she wishes to remain

without a husband. But she must give security that she will not marry without royal consent, if she holds her
lands of the Crown, or without the consent of whatever other lord she may hold them of.
9.

Neither we nor our officials will seize any land or rent in payment of a
debt, so long as the debtor has movable goods sufficient to discharge the
debt. A debtor's sureties shall not be distrained upon so long as the debtor himself can discharge his debt. If, for lack
of means, the debtor is unable to discharge his debt, his sureties shall be answerable for it. If they so desire, they may
have the debtor's lands and rents until they have received satisfaction for the debt that they paid for him, unless the
debtor can show that he has settled his obligations to them.
28. No

constable or other bailiff of ours shall take the corn or other chattels of
any one except he straightway give money for them, or can be allowed a
respite in that regard by the will of the seller.
30. No

sheriff nor bailiff of ours, nor any one else, shall take the horses or
carts of any freeman for transport, unless by the will of that freeman.

32. We shall

not hold the lands of those convicted of felony longer than a year
and a day; and then the lands shall be restored to the lords of the fiefs.
36. Henceforth nothing

shall be given or taken for a writ of inquest in a matter

concerning life or limb; but it shall be conceded gratis, and shall not be denied.
38. No bailiff, on his own simple assertion, shall henceforth any one to his law, without

producing

faithful witnesses in evidence.

39. No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseized, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way harmed--nor will we
go upon or send upon him--save by

the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the

land
63. Wherefore we will and firmly decree that the

English church shall be free, and that the subjects of

our realm shall have and hold all the aforesaid liberties, rights and concessions, duly
and in peace, freely and quietly, fully and entirely, for themselves and their
heirs from us and our heirs, in all matters and in all places, forever, as has
been said. Moreover it has been sworn, on our part as well as on the part of
the barons, that all these above mentioned provisions shall observed with
good faith and without evil intent. The witnesses being the above mentioned
and many others. Given through our hand, in the plain called Runnymede between Windsor and Stanes, on the
fifteenth day of June, in the seventeenth year of our reign.

Historical Journal

In this fun assignment, you will be transporting your mind back to a time
where people experienced a different way of life than we do today. They
used different transportation, medicines, technology, clothing, food
preparation, and ways to have fun. They had mainly a rural community as
opposed to the urban one that we grow up with today. They also
experienced things politically that pitted neighbor versus neighbor in the
Revolutionary War! How did this occur? What did they feel? Benjamin
Franklin became an ardent patriot while his son remained a Loyalist
Governor. In the meantime, everyone was still trying to make a living. How
did these people live their lives socially, professionally and politically? This
diary should be 14 pages handwritten, and made to look authentic It should
address the years 1763-1783.
Only one person from each class can be chosen from the list below. If you
have a desire to pick someone that is not on this list you are not limited by it,
but you need to run it by me first. This is worth 140 points, and you must
address each area socially, politically and professionally for the person that
is chosen. It should be written in 1st person as though you were that
character. It should be made to look old or authentic in someway as though
it were a lost journal only now to resurface. You may sign your name as the
person you have chosen and say that you found it. The cover may say the
journal of Nathan Hale found by ???? (your name).
1. Benjamin Franklin
2. Thomas Jefferson
3. George Washington
4. John Adams
5. John Paul Jones
6. Samuel Adams
7. Abigail Adams
8. Mercy Otis Warren
9. James Otis
10.Alexander Hamilton
11.James Madison
12.James Monroe
13.Benedict Arnold
14.Horatio Gates
15.Charles Lee

37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.

William Pitt (Elder)

Banastre Tarleton
Thomas Paine
George Grenville
Mary Ludwig Hayes
Betsy Ross
Nathan Hale
Deborah Sampson
Eliza Pinckney
John Dickinson
John Burgoyne

16.King George III

17.Paul Revere
18.John Hancock
19.Patrick Henry
20.Dr. Joseph Warren
21.Thomas Gage
22.Thomas Hutchinson
23.Marquis de Lafayette
24.Jean Jacques Rousseau
25.Baron Von Steuben
26.Nathanael Greene
27.Daniel Morgan
28.Dr. Benjamin Church
29.General Phillip Schuyler
30.Lord Cornwallis
31.Sir William Howe
32.Sir Henry Clinton
33.Francis Marion
34.Major John Andre
35.Charles Townshend
36.George Germain

Population breakdown by region through the decades

and by race:
White

African American

New England
Middle
Southern
1720

166,937
92,259
138,110
397,306

3,956
10,825
54,098
68879

White
African American
New England
211,233
6,118
Middle
135,298
11,683
Southern
191,893
73,220
1730
538,424
91,021

New England
Middle
Southern
1740

White
African American
281,163
8,541
204,093
16.452
270,283
125,031
755,539
133,588

New England
Middle
Southern
1750

White
African American
349,029
10,982
275,723
20,736
309,588
204,702
934,340
236,420

New England
Middle
Southern
1760

White
African American
436,917
12,717
398,855
29,049
432,047
284,040
1,267,819
325,806

Further notes on society

Farm Life

1.

9 out of 10 colonist lived on a farm

2.

Most families took care of everything they needed

3.

Homes were simple

4.

Farm life involved many chores

5.

Families had to clear land of trees

Life in Cities
1.

1 in 20 lived in the city

2. The waterfront was the heart of the city

3.

City featured markets, taverns, and shops

4.

Cities were noisy and smelly

5.

Fire was a constant danger

Rights of Colonists
1.

Colonists saw themselves as English citizens and expected to be treated the

same

2.

Used town meetings to discuss concerns and make laws

3.

Many began using a representative government

Crime and Punishment

1.

Each colony set their own laws

2.

Murder, treason, and piracy were punished by death

3.

Theft & forgery were punished with jail, whipping, or branding

4.

Lesser crimes were punished with fine, short jail time, or time in the stocks

5. Puritans of New England were the strictest

Social Classes
1.

In England a persons social class was determined by family background, title,

and wealth

2.

In the colonies, wealth and success mattered more than family background
10

3.

Peoples clothes showed their social class

4.

Middle class farmers and skilled workers owned their own land or business
and many could vote

5.

Lower classes depended on others for work and pay and could not vote

6.

Indentured servants and slaves were at the bottom of society

Life for African Americans

1.

Slavery was biggest in the Southern colonies

2.

Triangular Trade
a. Europe West Africa America
b. The Middle Passage was a horrible journey

3.

Slaves worked in many different jobs

4.

Slaves had very little hope of achieving a better position in society

Religion
1.

Religion was a huge part of colonial life

2. All Puritans were required to attend church

3.

Sometimes church lasted for 5 hours

Education
1.

Most children did not receive any education

2. Boys received more teaching than girls

3. New England parents wanted their kids to be able to read the Bible, so they
started public schools.
Religion continued
4. The families in the south were too far apart to have schools. The wealthy
taught their kids at home
5.

In the middle colonies, religious differences slowed public education

6.

New England parents supplied the schools with what ever they had

11

Families
1.

Most people married in their 20s

2.

There were more men than women

3.

Families tried to have lots of kids

4. Kids were expected to work

5. Many kids died before becoming adults

Leisure Time
1.

Bees, frolics and house and barn raisings were fun, social ways to share
work

2. Kids had simple toys and played games

3.

In the South people also went fox hunting, played cards, did horse racing and
bull baiting

4. Adults played versions of lawn-bowling, billiards, and backgammon

Colonial Food
1.

Corn was a major food

2.

Meat was obtained from hunting or raising animals and had to be treated to
keep it from spoiling

3. Apples, berries, and grapes were common fruits

4.

Vegetables included squash, beans, peas, sweet potatoes, parsnips, carrots,

turnips, and onions

5.

Stew was the main meal. It cooked all day to keep it from spoiling

A history of violent engagements between England

and France.
England and France
12

100 years War

1337-1453
Thirty Years War
1618-1648
King Williams War
1689-1698
Queen Annes War
1701-1714
King Georges War
1740-1748
Seven Years War
1756-1763
War for American Independence
1775-1783
Nobility/Napoleonic Wars
1793-1815

England
War of the Roses
English Civil War
King Philips War (colonial)

1455-1487
1642-1649
1675-1676

France
French Revolution

1789-1793

British Kings and Queens

House of Normandy
William I, the Conquerer
William II
Henry I

1066-1087
1087-1100
1100-1135

House of Blois
Stephen

1135-1154

House of Plantagenets
Henry II Henry son co-regent 1170-1183
Richard
John
Henry III
Edward I
Edward II
Edward III
Richard II

1154-1189
1189-1199
1199-1216
1216-1272
1272-1307
1307-1327
1327-1377
1377-1399

House of Lancaster
Henry IV
Henry V
Henry VI

1399-1413
1413-1422
1422-1461
1470-1471

13

House of York
Edward IV

1461-1470
1471-1483
1483
1483-1485

Edward V
Richard III
House of Tudor
Henry VII
Henry VIII
Edward VI

1485-1509
1509-1547
1547-1553
House of Suffolk

Jane

1553
House of Tudor continued

Mary I
Elizabeth I

1553-1558
1558-1603
House of Stuart

James I
Charles I

1603-1625
1625-1649
Commonwealth/Protectorate

Commonwealth
Oliver Cromwell
Richard Cromwell
Commonwealth

1649-1653
1653-1658
1658-59
1659-60

House of Stuart
Charles II
James II

1660-1685
1685-1688
House of Orange

William III
Mary II
Anne

1689-1702
1689-1695
1702-1714
House of Hanover

George I
George II

1714-1727
1727-1760

14

George III
George IV
William IV
Victoria

1760-1820
1820-1830
1830-1837
1837-1901
House of Windsor

Edward VII
George V
Edward VIII
George VI
Elizabeth II

1901-1910
1910-1936
1936
1936-1952
1952-present

Piracy of all sorts 17th-18th centuries

Buccaneers were hired by their governments to fight in the War of the
Spanish Succession (1701-1714). Buccaneer title was applied to English,
Dutch, and French seafaring adventurers of the 17th century. Buccaneers and
they were usually distinguished from privateers, who had official
government commissions; buccaneers rarely had valid commissions. They
are also distinguished from pirates, who attacked ships of all nations.
The buccaneers were pirates who, during the 16th and 17th centuries, preyed
mainly on Spanish commerce with the Spanish American colonies. Piracy
decreased with the development of the steam engine and the growth of the
British and American navies in the late 18th century and early 19th. At first
the headquarters of the buccaneers was on the island of Tortuga, off the
northwestern coast of Hispaniola (now Haiti). The buccaneers later used
Jamaica as a base of operations. They captured Panama in 1671.
The term buccaneer comes from the French boucan, a grill for the smoking
of viande boucane, or dried meat, for use in ships at sea. The early
buccaneers were usually escaped servants, former soldiers, and wood cutters
mainly from Mexico. The historical importance of the buccaneers lies
chiefly in the influence that they had on the founding of the abortive Scottish
15

colony at Darin, on the Isthmus of Panama (1698). Their stories also

influenced such important authors as Jonathan Swift, Daniel Defoe, and
Robert Louis Stevenson.
The buccaneers were largely inspired by the example of 16th-century
seamen, such as Sir Francis Drake, but they are to be distinguished from
genuine privateers because the commissions that they held were seldom
valid. They are also to be distinguished from the outlawed pirates of the
18th century, although many of the buccaneers' actions can be called
piratical.
The earliest buccaneers went under assumed names, such as L'Olonnais
(Jean-David Nau) or Rock Brasiliano, a Dutchman who had lived in Brazil.
With the appearance of Henry Morgan, an outstanding leader, they began to
organize themselves into powerful bands that captured Portobelo in 1668
and Panama in 1671. As the Treaty of Madrid (1670) had only recently been
signed to compose Anglo-Spanish differences in those parts, the news of his
success at Panama was not officially welcome. Morgan was brought back to
England under arrest, but, on the renewal of trouble with Spain, he was
knighted and sent out as deputy governor of Jamaica. He and his superiors
attempted to suppress buccaneering, a task impossible without adequate
naval patrols. The last great buccaneering enterprise was the unsuccessful
attack on Panama in about 1685 by a force of about 3,000 men led by
Edward Davis, John Eaton, Charles Swan, and others. On the outbreak of the
War of the Grand Alliance in 1689, these freebooters became legitimate
privateers in the service of their respective nations, and buccaneering came
to an end.
Quite a few pirates were operating during the Elizabethan years when
England and Spain fought over world domination. One of the famous pirates
was Sir Francis Drake who circumnavigated the Earth, during which Spanish
shipping was looted, Spanish California was plundered even though England
was not officially at war with Spain. When Drake and another pirate John
Hawkins were almost captured during the Battle of San Juan de Ula in
September the English cried foul treachery but the Spanish dismissed the
action as sensible tactics when dealing with pirates.
However, piracy never disappeared completely. In recent years, cargo
vessels have been targets of modern-day pirates, who have developed an
arsenal of techniques for preying on these ships and usually come heavily

16

armed. Today, the waters off Indonesia and Somalia are among the worlds
most dangerous

http://www.piratesinfo.com/detail/detail.php?article_id=44

Anne Bonny, Calico Jack and Mary Read

by: David Stapleton

Anne was born in Ireland, an illegitimate child of prominent lawyer, William

Cormac, and the family maid, Peg Brennan (my best guess at the year of
birth is around 1700-1705, marrying age was around 13-14, if the marriage
to Bonny lasted 1-3 years and time with Rackham at about the same that
would have made her somewhere between 15-20 at the time of the trial).
Her father fled the scandal surrounding the birth taking mother and child
with him to Charleston, South Carolina. Although the father prospered as a
merchant in the colonies, he and the mother appear to have been somewhat
less successful as parents. Anne was troublesome, headstrong and illtempered.
Anne eventually married the unsuccessful James Bonny. The marriage
faired poorly as James, taking his wife to the pirate haven of New
Providence, had a hard time supporting his wife. He eventually turned
informer for the new governor, Woodes Rogers, further alienating his
headstrong wife. Disillusioned with her husband, Anne transferred her
affections to the peacock like figure of Calico Jack Rackham. Rackham
returned Anne's affections by lavishing her with gifts. When James Bonny
refused Rackham's offer to buy Anne, the couple snuck aboard a merchant
sloop with a handful of Rackham's old pirate buddies and took over the
ship. Thus began Anne's pirate career.
While Calico Jack looked the part of the dashing pirate, his career was
somewhat lackluster, at least after taking up with Anne. The prizes taken
seem to have been mostly coastal traders and fishing boats. Mary Read
seems to have joined the pirates when a Dutch trader she was serving on was
taken by the pirates. At some point during Anne's sojourn with Calico Jack

17

she is said to have gotten pregnant and have been set ashore in Cuba to
deliver the baby. She was later picked up and carried on with Rackham as
before.
In late October, 1720, off the coast of Jamaica, a British Navy sloop,
commanded by a Captain Barnet, came across Rackham's anchored ship.
With most of the crew drunk the only resistance the pirates put up was
offered by Anne and Mary. Realizing that the fight was lost the women
turned on their less than courageous crewmates, killing one and wounding
others, screaming at them to 'fight like men'. Anne and the others of the
pirate crew were captured and put on trial for piracy. All were sentenced to
death, but Anne and Mary escaped the noose by pleading their bellies (no
English court would kill an unborn child).
Anne seems to have disappeared from the world's stage at this point, there is
some conjecture that her wealthy father bought her release after the birth of
the child.
[What follows was submitted by a visitor to Stapletons site. It may be fact,
but not sure of verification.]
Anne's child, born five months after the trial, on April 21, 1721, was named
John Cormac Bonny. John Rackham seems to have been listed as the
illegitimate child's father. After the child's birth the mother and child return
to Virginia via South Carolina. There are some records that imply that she
married a Joseph Burleigh at this time, 1721. It is guessed that this marriage
was arranged by Anne's father to get her started upon a clean slate when she
returned (one can only imagine the dowry required to get a man to marry a
woman reputed to be such a wildcat). Anne thus recorded gave birth to eight
more children with her husband, three of whom died young. This Anne is
said to have died on April 25, 1782 (which would have put her age at
somewhere around 70-80) and was buried in a place called Sweethaven
(possibly in York County, Virginia).

Pirates continued:
While piracy was seen as a lethal business, meaning if you were
caught in the act, you would be sentenced to death, there was a bit
of a double standard. Sometimes countries, like England would
employ pirates in order to raid Spanish ships, or gain control of the
18

shipping lanes. It was only when the Spanish and the British
began to get along for a short time in the early 18th century that the
crackdown on piracy began in earnest. Most of the pirates were
former swashbucklers, privateers, that worked under the protection
of the British crown. Once trained in this area, this was their
livelihood. As it became illegal, the targets then included Spanish
as well as British ships. This is when the British Navy started
enforcing the laws against pirates. By 1720, piracy in the
Caribbean had died out and its most famous pirate Captain
Morgan had become a famous lieutenant governor of Jamaica and
enforcer against his pirates and former buddies.

A lasting legacy of piracy includes of course buried treasure, a

parrot, and one legged men with eye patches. What one doesnt
readily understand that this is the first modern true democracy to
be formed. A captain was voted upon by the crew, and all
decisions were up for vote and anyone on the boat performing
duties got a vote. This included slaves, former slaves, whites,
blacks, indentured servants and women.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, England, France and the Netherlands
endorsed the use of privately owned ships, known as privateers, to fight
battles, conduct raids, disrupt trade and harass the Spaniards, in order to gain
a foothold in the area, known as the Spanish Main, without having to fund a
real navy there. Privateers would often split the booty they seized with the
countries who commissioned them. One of the most famous figures of this
era was Welshman Henry Morgan, who was commissioned by the British
government of Jamaica to carry out attacks against the Spanish. Morgan and
the buccaneers in his command captured and plundered settlements in Cuba,
Panama and Venezuela. He earned a reputation as a skilled but brutal
military strategist who would hang men to make them give up their
possessions. Morgan was later knighted and appointed lieutenant governor
of Jamaica

19

The lure of Spanish treasure was strong and the line between privateering
and piracy, in which sailors actions arent sanctioned by any nation, was
easily blurred.
During the Golden Age of Piracy in the Caribbean, in the late 17th century
and early 18th century, a number of legendary pirates emerged, including
Edward Teach, a former English privateer, who became known and feared as
Blackbeard. Other notables in the pirate world included Bartholomew
Black Bart Roberts, who captured hundreds of ships in his short career,
and Captain Calico Jack Rackham, nicknamed for his colorful attire and
remembered for a crew that included two female pirates, Anne Bonny and
Mary Read. Calico Jack was hung for his crimes in 1720 in Jamaica; the
women in his crew avoided the same punishment by claiming to be
pregnant.
Another notorious name is Captain William Kidd, who was born in Scotland
and executed for piracy in London in 1701. Despite his conviction,
historians have debated whether Kidd was really a pirate or strictly a
privateer. Some of Kidds buried treasure was found on Gardiners Island, at
the eastern end of Long Island, New York, and legend has persisted that
more loot was hidden in other nearby locations.
Pirates were lawbreakers by nature of their work, but they were not without
their own code of conduct. Pirate crews elected their own captains, based on
leadership and naval skills. Captured loot was distributed equally among
crew members and stealing from a crewmate could result in the guilty party
being marooned. Pirate ships flew red or black flags, known as Jolly Rogers,
which typically featured skulls and crossbones to symbolize death and
intimidate their enemies.
Contrary to popular myth, theres scant evidence to suggest that pirates
buried their treasure as standard practice. More likely, theyd spend it. Port
Royal, Jamaica, became a safe haven for pirates, a place of great wealth and
debauchery known as the wickedest city on earth. Theres also little
evidence that pirates made people walk the plank as a common form of
punishment. This notion likely gained popularity with J.M. Barries Peter
Pan, which debuted as a novel and a stage play in the early 1900s and
featured a pirate named Captain Hook.

20

Piracys Golden Age ended by the 1720s, when pirates were outmatched by
European military forces in the Caribbean. Despite the term Golden Age, a
pirates life was hardly glamorous. Ships were smelly, uncomfortable and
infested with rats and bugs. Food and fresh water were limited. Disease and
periods of boredom were other unwelcome aspects of life onboard these
vessels. And not all pirates chose such lives in the first place. Some men
were kidnapped and forced to serve on pirate ships.

Background to King Philips War

Colonists hunger for land, as well as the heavy-handed treatment of the
Wampanoag and other Native People by government officials, led to one of
the most disastrous wars in Americas history.
Governor William Bradford died in 1657; Massasoit, the principal leader
among the Wampanoag, died in 1660 and was succeeded by his son
Wamsutta, called Alexander by the colonists. With the passing of the first
generation, which had forged an uneasy alliance, the personal bonds which
had helped to create a working peace ended.
The two cultures different ways of life and concepts of land use had
caused tension for many years. A continuing problem was the trampling of
Native cornfields by colonists livestock. While colonists were legally
responsible for damage, such laws were difficult to enforce in remote areas
such as Rehoboth and Taunton. Increased competition for resources
(particularly land for planting, hunting and fishing) caused friction between
the two groups. Changes in the regional economy, such as collapse in the fur
trade, led many Native People to support themselves by selling their land.
With other governments (Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut) all competing to
establish their territories, Plymouth wanted exclusive rights to purchase land
from the Wampanoags.

KING PHILIPS WAR : THE WAR

21

In 1662, in an arrogant attempt

to exert control, the Plymouth
Court summoned Wampanoag
leader Wamsutta to Plymouth.
Major Josiah Winslow and a
small force took Wamsutta at
gunpoint. Soon after questioning,
Wamsutta sickened and died. His
death greatly angered the
Wampanoag.
Wamsutta's brother Metacom
(also called Philip) succeeded
him. Plymouths continued
unyielding policy toward Native
leaders, as well as the events
surrounding the murder of
Sassamon, a liaison between the
two groups, caused the
breakdown in relations that led to
war.
Portrait of Josiah Winslow

In 1675, hostilities broke out in the town of Swansea, and the war spread as
far north as New Hampshire, and as far southwest as Connecticut. Not all
Native People, however, sided with Philip. Most Natives who had converted
to Christianity fought with the English or remained neutral. The English,
however, did not always trust these converts and interned many of them in
camps on outlying islands. Also, some Native communities on Cape Cod
and the Islands did not participate in the war. Native soldiers fighting on the
side of the colonists helped turn the tide of the war, which ended in 1676
when Philip was killed by a Wampanoag fighting with Captain Benjamin
Church.

KING PHILIPS WAR : THE EFFECTS

King Philips War was one of the bloodiest and most costly in the history
of America. One in ten soldiers on both sides was injured or killed. It took

22

many years for Plymouth and the other colonies to recover from damage to
property
The outcome of King Philips War was devastating to the traditional way
of life for Native People in New England. Hundreds of Natives who fought
with Philip were sold into slavery abroad. Others, especially women and
children, were forced to become servants locally. As the traditional base of
existence changed due to the Colonists victory, the Wampanoag and other
local Native communities had to adapt certain aspects of their culture in
order to survive.

Pre-Revolutionary America/England 1620-1760

Revolution and politics in England
Charles I dissolved Parliament in 1629 and attempted to rule as an
absolute monarch for 11 years
Civil War broke out in 1642 Charles I was convicted of high
treason and beheaded in 1649
After several years of instability, Oliver Cromwell was appointed
Lord Protector of the Commonwealth by Parliament in 1653 and
held this position until his death in 1658
After a little over a year of weak rule by his successor, the crown
was restored in 1660, when Charles II ascended to power
Charles II had no children, so the crown went to the Catholic
Duke of York, James II.
The Glorious Revolution
Parliament found James II to have broken the contract of the
Magna Carta and stripped him of the throne
James IIs oldest daughter Mary and her husband William of
Orange were invited to take over the throne of England
Parliament passed a Bill of Rights to clarify the powers of
Parliament over the crown
Politics in the Colonies
three types of colonies:
corporatelargely self-governing, electing Governor and
legislative assembly

23

proprietarygoverned by the person to whom the

proprietary charter was granted
RoyalKing appointed the governor, who was subject to
the direction of the Crown, legislature may be elected by
some portion of the public
Judiciary was largely dictated by the executive in the colonies,
rather than being independent
by 1752:
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were
nationalized into royal provinces
Connecticut and Rhode Island remained self-governing
Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were proprietary
colonies
In some colonies, the treasurer was responsible to the legislative
assembly, in others he worked for the governor; what implications
would this have? --Governor might not have ability to raise taxes
and may not get to decide how to spend the money
When the assemblies were seen to have too much power in a
colony, the British had two choices:
impose a tax on the colony, so the governors had the money
they needed to administer the colony and would not have to
depend on the colony for money
pass a law commanding all assemblies to do the bidding of
the King and his Privy Council
What issues do you see with this?
The Georges Hanoverian Kings
George I (1714 1727)
His mother, Sophia, was granddaughter of James I
Sophia, had been chosen as heir to Queen Anne, because she
was Protestant; this prevented the throne returning to the
Stuarts, in particular, Annes Catholic half-brother, James
(Act of Settlement of 1701)
Sophia died very shortly before Queen Anne
spent much time in Germany, his home
delegated much of the administration of government to the
Prime Minister, chosen from the House of Commons
Robert Walpole and the Whigs established the office of the
Prime Minister during Georges reign, fending off a Tory
challenge to restore a Stuart to the throne
24

George II (1727 1760)

son of George I
hated his father and encouraged opposition to his fathers
rule
associated with Walpole before he came to power under his
father as PM (1721 1742)
George I & II supported Walpole and the Whigs, because
they feared that the Tories would repeal the Act of
Settlement, which established the Hanovers as English
monarchs
Georg Friedrich Hendel wrote the music for George IIs
coronation
Created the colony of Georgia in 1732
Famous for taking mistresses rather than remarrying after
his wife Caroline died in 1737
Got Britain involved heavily in the War of the Austrian
Succession
Fought in Germany to protect Hanover from the French in
the War (last British monarch to actually participate in a
battle)
In 1745, Bonnie Prince Charlie, led a Jacobite rebellion to
return direct descendent of James II to the throne; he
invaded Scotland and marched on England
Prince Charles was defeated by the Duke of Cumberland
(George IIs younger son) at the Battle of Culloden
Frederick, Prince of Wales, died suddenly in 1751, making
his son, George, the heir to the throne and the new Prince of
Wales
Britain adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752.
In 1752, Great Britain reformed its calendar. It had previously operated under the Julian Calendar, but
during 1752 adopted the Gregorian Calendar. The calendar change required omitting eleven days; 2
September was followed by 14 September. Furthermore, 1 January became the official beginning of the
New Year, instead of 25 March. The former date had been commonly regarded as the beginning of the New
Year for a long time, but the latter was retained in formal usage. To ensure consistency of financial record
keeping, and to prevent annual payments falling due before they would have under the Julian Calendar, the
fiscal year was not shortened, with the result that in the United Kingdom each tax year has since begun on 6
April.

Became involved in the Seven Years War to prevent Austria, which

had turned on Britain and made alliances with Russia and France, from
invading Hanover; this put Britain in an Alliance with Prussia and
Hanover against Austria, Russia and France

25

William Pit the Elder guided Britains effort during the Seven Years
War under George II and his grandson, George III
George III (1760 1820, but his son took over role of Prince Regent in
1811)
grandson of George II
had 15 children
suffered from a disease that caused episodes of madness and other
unpleasant symptoms
attempted to weaken the power of Parliament and the Cabinet that had
built under the prior Georges
Britain became THE world super-power after the Peace of Paris
(1763), ending the Seven Years War
Issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 limiting westward expansion
into Indian territories.
Pontiacs War
Native tribes in the Great Lakes fearful of the new English administration in
the region after the end of the war, rebelled and destroyed 8 English forts
Hundreds of colonists and natives were killed
Battle of Devils HoleNiagara gorge, British were ambushed and massacred
Britain responded with the Royal Proclamation of 1763
The violence and terror of Pontiac's War convinced many western Pennsylvanians that their
government was not doing enough to protect them. This discontent was manifest most
seriously in an uprising led by a vigilante group that came to be known as the Paxton Boys,
so-called because they were primarily from the area around the Pennsylvania village of
Paxton (or Paxtang). The Paxtonians turned their anger towards American Indiansmany of
them Christianswho lived peacefully in small enclaves in the midst of white Pennsylvania
settlements. Prompted by rumors that an Indian war party had been seen at the Indian village
of Conestoga, on December 14, 1763, a group of more than 50 Paxton Boys marched on the
village and murdered the six Susquehannocks they found there. Pennsylvania officials placed
the remaining 14 Susquehannocks in protective custody in Lancaster, but on December 27 the
Paxton Boys broke into the jail and slaughtered them. Governor John Penn issued bounties for
the arrest of the murderers, but no one came forward to identify them.The Paxton Boys then
set their sights on other Indians living within eastern Pennsylvania, many of whom fled to
Philadelphia for protection. Several hundred Paxtonians marched on Philadelphia in January
1764, where the presence of British troops and Philadelphia militia prevented them from
doing more violence. Benjamin Franklin, who had helped organize the local militia,
negotiated with the Paxton leaders and brought an end to the immediate crisis. Afterwards,
Franklin published a scathing indictment of the Paxton Boys. "If an Indian injures me," he
asked, "does it follow that I may revenge that Injury on all Indians?"

How would Pontiacs war affect peoples opinions? Who are some of the
important people that would have been affected by these events?
British army negotiated peace agreements with each tribe from 1764 1766
and finally with Pontiac in 1766no land was ceded, the British did not
leave, the British acknowledge Natives right to their land
The colonies rose in population from 250,000 in 1700 to 2,150,000 in 1770. This is
annual growth rate of 3%. Few have grown at such a rapid rate. of the population was
under the age of 16 at any given time during the late colonial period.

26

Immigration occurred from the Scottish and Irish (250,000) in the 18th century. The
reason for this immigration was that Catholic Ireland needed order so they sent Scottish
Presbyterians to the northern region of the Irish countryside. The English then
discriminated against the Presbyterians. The British passed laws against the Scottish and
Irish when they traded in England, they taxed them at a very high rate. When their
harvests failed for several years in a row, many decided to emigrate to the British
colonies in America. After coming to America, many reported back of the vast amounts
of land they could buy with just a little money. Most landed initially in Philadelphia, but
they went further west in Pennsylvania.
Immigration also occurred from the Germans. Over 100,000 came from the Protestant
sects of the Rhine River Valley. These worshippers were similar to the Quakers, but were
known as the Mennonites. The Lutherans, Calvinists and Mennonites fled Germany to
achieve prosperity because many were hungry, and others wanted to avoid the war torn
region. These people arrived mainly around 1717 and by 1766 the people of German
heritage in Philadelphia had made up 1/3 of Pennsylvanias total population. They
quickly became known as the best farmers in America.
Year
1720
1730
1740
1750
1760
1770

Boston
12,000
13,000
15,601
-------15,631
15,877

Newport
3,800
4,640
5,840
7,500
7,500
9,833

New York
7,000
8,622
10,451
14,225
18,000
22,667

Philadelphia
10,000
11,500
12,654
18,202
23,750
34,583

Charleston
3,500
4,500
6,269
7,134
8,000
10,667

These 5 cities listed above were the largest in population in 1775, but they still only
contained 5% of the colonial population. These cities served as ports which received
agricultural goods from within the country to be exported to England to then be resold to
other countries. This concept of the colonies existing for the sole purpose of the gain of
the mother country was known as mercantilism. Also these ports received goods that
had been sold previously to British merchants who then sold them to the colonists
through these 5 main ports to be expedited throughout the colonies.
The population increase from 1700 to 1775 was tenfold and with so many more people,
to clothe and provide for didnt negatively affect their per capita income. The Americans
produced an increasing number of goods in the products of tobacco, wheat and rice which
were then sold in the West Indian market as well as England and then to the remainder of
Europe.
Navigation Acts: 1660 1) No ship could trade in the colonies unless it had been
constructed in England or America and carried a crew that was at least 75%
English/Colonists. 2) That certain enumerated goods of great value that were not
produced in England-tobacco, sugar, cotton indigo, dye wood, ginger could be
transported from the colonies only to an English or another colonial port.

27

1663- 2nd Navigation Act-Staple Act Nothing could be imported into

America unless it had first been transshipped through the mother country. This added to
the price of each of the goods as it went through British merchants
1670- import duties on tobacco accounted for 100,000 pounds.
1673-extended the jurisdiction of the London Customs Commissioners to
America.
1675-The Privy Council was formulated to create a powerful
subcommittee, the Lords of Trade, which was responsible for regulating
colonial affairs.
A plantation duty which was a sum of money equal to normal English
customs duties was collected at the colonial ports.
1696- 1)All colonial governors were to swear oaths to uphold the
Navigation Acts, (this on the heels of a proposal to have all colonial
outposts upheld by the kings troops and the leader of the military would
be responsible for collections, but this didnt really go into effect except
for a short time in Virginia and Jamaica.) 2)Also in 1796, the American
customs service were to be stationed in every colony. They were granted
broad powers of search and seizure and to prosecute suspected smugglers.
3) Vice-Admiralty courts were created in America. These were to settle
disputes at sea. These courts operated without juries and there were no
cross-examinations. King William III replaced the ineffective Lords of
Trade with the Lords Commissioners of Trade and Plantations. Usually
referred to as the Board of Trade. They had no real power, but their
influence was heavy on the King as he listened to their recommendations.
Half were supposed to be well-versed civilians on American affairs the
other half politicians.
1700- of all goods shipped from England were of direct result of
colonial goods shipped first to England and then elsewhere.
1704- Parliament added rice and molasses to the restricted list
1705- Wood rosins, tars and turpentines needed for shipbuilding were
added to the restricted list.
1722-Furs added to the restricted list
1711,1722, 1729- Added White Pines Acts which forbade colonists from
cutting white pine trees without a license. This allowed for the best trees
to be used for the Imperial Navy.
1732-Hat and Felt Act attempted to limit the production of colonial goods
that competed with British exports.
1733-Sugar Act or Molasses Act placed a heavy duty on molasses
imported from foreign ports.
1750-Iron Act Also limited the production of colonial goods that competed
with British exports
Despite these legal reforms, serious obstacles were found in enforcing these Acts. One
such problem was the lack of customs service agents to enforce the law. Some men sent
actually did more harm than good in collecting duties. Some treated the merchants

28

(colonial) with disrespect. There were too many governing bodies, the customs office,
the Treasury, the Admiralty and the Privy Council all had sovereignty. Also, many people
ignored these acts on both sides. The middle colonies continued to produce iron,
molasses was imported from the French Caribbean islands without paying customs the
full amount. The British Industrial Revolution was in play and many were able to buy
more goods, so the rules were overlooked because the demand was higher, also some
customers officers were paid to look the other way.
Triangular Trade
1768- The American market accounted for 27 percent of all exports from
just the ports of Boston, Newport and Philadelphia. These goods of lumber, fish, grain,
and meat from the colonies would then sail to the Caribbean and returned to the Middle
Colonies or New England Colonies with cargoes of fruit, molasses, sugar and rum.
Trade with Africa accounted for less than 1% of all American exports. Slaves were sold
directly to colonial ports where they were sold directly colonial ports where they were
sold for cash or credit. From Britain, the colonists bought manufactured goods, clothes,
and furniture.
Settled
Reason
Traded
Colonies

New England
1620-1636
Religious freedom
Grain, Fish, ships
Lumber, furs, iron
Whales, cattle
Connecticut,
Rhode Island,
Massachusetts
New Hampshire

Middle
1624-1681
Trade/Profit
Grain, Fish, Rum
Cattle, Lumber, iron
New York
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Delaware

29

Southern
1607-1732
Religion/Trade
Rice, Grain, Lumber
Indigo, Tobacco, Iron
Cattle, Fish, Rum
Georgia, Virginia
Maryland, North
and South Carolina

People & Events

Resource Bank Contents

The Middle Passage

c.1600 - 1800

For weeks, months, sometimes as long as a year, they waited in

the dungeons of the slave factories scattered along Africa's
western coast. They had already made the long, difficult journey
from Africa's interior -- but just barely. Out of the roughly 20
million who were taken from their homes and sold into slavery,
half didn't complete the journey to the African coast, most of
those dying along the way.
And the worst was yet to come.
The captives were about to embark on the infamous Middle
Passage, so called because it was the middle leg of a three-part
voyage -- a voyage that began and ended in Europe. The first leg
of the voyage carried a cargo that often included iron, cloth,
brandy, firearms, and gunpowder. Upon landing on Africa's
"slave coast," the cargo was exchanged for Africans. Fully
loaded with its human cargo, the ship set sail for the Americas,
where the slaves were exchanged for sugar, tobacco, or some
other product. The final leg brought the ship back to Europe.
The African slave boarding the ship had no idea what lay ahead.
Africans who had made the Middle Passage to the plantations of
the New World did not return to their homeland to tell what
happened to those people who suddenly disappeared. Sometimes
the captured Africans were told by the white men on the ships
that they were to work in the fields. But this was difficult to
believe, since, from the African's experience, tending crops took
so little time and didn't require many hands. So what were they
to believe? More than a few thought that the Europeans were
cannibals. Olaudah Equiano, an African captured as a boy who
later wrote an autobiography, recalled . . .
When I looked round the ship too and saw a large furnace of
copper boiling, and a mulititude of black people of every
description chained together, every one of their countenances

30

expressing dejection and sorrow, I no longer doubted of my fate

and quite overpowered with sorrow and anguish, I fell
motionless on the deck and fainted. . . . I asked if we were not to
be eaten by those white men with horrible looks, red faces and
long hair?"
The slaves were branded with hot irons and restrained with
shackles. Their "living quarters" was often a deck within the ship
that had less than five feet of headroom -- and throughout a large
portion of the deck, sleeping shelves cut this limited amount of
headroom in half.4 Lack of standing headroom was the least of
the slaves' problems, though. With 300 to 400 people packed in a
tiny area -- an area with little ventilation and, in some cases, not
even enough space to place buckets for human waste -- disease
was prevalent. According to Equiano, "The closeness of the
place, and the heat of the climate, added to the number in the
ship, which was so crowded that each had scarcely room to turn
himself, almost suffocated us. This produced copious
perspirations, so that the air soon became unfit for respiration,
from a variety of loathsome smells, and brought on a sickness
among the slaves, of which many died."
Faced with the nightmarish conditions of the voyage and the
unknown future that lay beyond, many Africans preferred to die.
But even the choice of suicide was taken away from these
persons. From the captain's point of view, his human cargo was
extremely valuable and had to be kept alive and, if possible,
uninjured. A slave who tried to starve him or herself was
tortured. If torture didn't work, the slave was force fed with the
help of a contraption called a speculum orum, which held the
mouth open.
Despite the captain's desire to keep as many slaves as possible
alive, Middle Passage mortality rates were high. Although it's
difficult to determine how many Africans died en route to the
new world, it is now believed that between ten and twenty
percent of those transported lost their lives.
People & Events

Resource Bank Contents

John Newton
1725 - 1807

31

You could say that John Newton was born again . . . at least several times during his
life. In his youth he ridiculed Christianity, only to later become a minister. Born a free
man, he was enslaved, then set free. Once the captain of a slave ship, he later
denounced the slave trade, becoming a great influence in its demise.
After his mother's death when he was seven, John Newton went to English schools that
prepared students for the ministry. By the age of ten, Newton was sailing on his first
voyage with his father, a strict sea captain. For the young John, this life as a sailor
would continue for many years.
After many voyages, including stints on a Spanish merchant ship and with England's
Royal Navy, Newton found himself sailing on a slave ship. Always troublesome in his
youth, Newton was discharged along the African coast, where he went to work for a
slave trader. The trader's black "wife" disliked the young Newton intensely and
convinced the trader that the boy should be treated as a slave. So there he worked,
along with black slaves -- poorly fed, poorly clothed, unpaid -- for about a year. He was
rescued by another white slave trader and later returned to England on the ship
Greyhound.
It was on the Greyhound that John turned back to his Christian roots. But his refound
religion didn't alter his views on slavery. Five years later, as captain of his own ship, he
wrote in his journal that he was thankful for being led into "an easy and creditable way
of life." And he was not alone in his way of thinking. In 1753, when he wrote the entry,
the slave trade was respectable and, in England, overwhelmingly accepted.
After four years as a slave ship captain, Newton resigned his commission on the advice
of his doctors. By this time his views on the trade had begun to change. Several years
later, after becoming a minister, he wrote, "I think I should have quitted [the slave
trade] sooner had I considered it as I now do to be unlawful and wrong. But I never had
a scruple upon this head at the time; nor was such a thought ever suggested to me by
any friend."
In 1770, Newton wrote these familiar words:
Amazing grace, how sweet the sound
That saved a wretch like me.
I once was lost, but now am found,
Was blind, but now I see.
Newton continued to speak out against the slave trade. In 1797, he stated, "If the trade
is at present carried on to the same extent and nearly in the same manner, while we are
delaying from year to year to put a stop to our part in it, the blood of many thousands of
our helpless, much injured fellow creatures is crying against us. The pitiable state of the
survivors who are torn from their relatives, connections, and their native land must be
taken into account."

32

Just before Newton's death in 1807, the English government officially brought to a
close its participation in the slave trade.
People & Events

Resource Bank Contents

Olaudah Equiano
1745 - 1797

Captured far from the African coast when he was a boy of 11,
Olaudah Equiano was sold into slavery, later acquired his freedom,
and, in 1789, wrote his widely-read autobiography, The Interesting
Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the
African.
The youngest son of a village leader, Equiano was born among the
Ibo people in the kingdom of Benin, along the Niger River. He was
"the greatest favorite with [his] mother." His family expected to
follow in his father's footsteps and become a chief, an elder, a
judge. Slavery was an intregal part of the Ibo culture, as it was with
many other African peoples. His family owned slaves, but there
was also a continual threat of being abducted, of becoming
someone else's slave. This is what happened, one day, while
Equiano and his sister were at home alone.
Two men and a woman captured the children. Several days later
Equiano and his sister were separated. Equiano continued to travel
farther and farther from home, day after day, month after month,
exchanging masters along the way. Equiano's early experiences as
a slave were not all disagreeable; some families treated Equiano
almost as a part of the family. The kind treatment, however, was
about to end.
About six or seven months after being abducted, Equiano was
brought to the coast, where he first encountered a slave ship and
white men.
As it was for all slaves, the Middle Passage for Equiano was a
long, arduous nightmare. In his autobiography he describes the
inconceivable conditions of the slaves' hold: the "shrieks of the
women," the "groans of the dying," the floggings, the wish to
commit suicide, how those who somehow managed to drown
themselves were envied.
The ship finally arrived at Barbados, where buyers purchased most

33

of the slaves. There was no buyer, however, for the young Equiano.
Less than two weeks after his arrival, he was shipped off to the
English colony of Virginia, where he was purchased and put to
work. Less than a month later, he had a new master -- Michael
Henry Pascal, a lieutenant in the Royal Navy. Under this master,
who owned Equiano for the next seven years, Equiano would move
to England, educate himself, and travel the world on ships under
Pascal's command.
In 1766, Equiano bought his freedom. He found work in the trade
business in the West Indies, then in London. In 1773, he took part
in an expedition to try to discover the Northwest Passage, a route
through the arctic to the Pacific Ocean.
Back in England, Equiano became an active abolitionist. He
lectured against the cruelty of British slave owners. He spoke out
against the English slave trade. He worked to resettle freed slaves.
By 1789, the year he published his autobiography, Olaudah
Equiano was a well-known abolitionist.
Ten years after his death in 1797, the English slave trade was
finally abolished.
People & Events

Resource Bank Contents

Nicolas Owen
c.1758

Africa's west coast was known as the "white man's grave," and for good reason. The
slave traders who worked along the coast lived in an inhospitable land. Exposure to the
hot, damp climate and to diseases that their bodies had little resistance to resulted in
short life expectancies. There was a reason to be there, though, and that reason was
money. Every slave trader had the hope of making a quick fortune, and although many
would become successful, there were many more -- such as Nicolas Owen -- who
wouldn't.
An entry in the journal of Nicolas Owen reads as follows: "I have found no place where
I can enlarge my fortune so soon as where I now live, wherefore I intend to stay in order
to enlarge my fortune by honest means." Owen was sincere when he stated that the
slave trade was a way to prosper "by honest means" -- nowhere in his journal, which he
kept for five years, does he show any compassion for slaves or the least bit of remorse
for being involved in the slave trade.

34

Owen had sailed to Africa with his brother. Once there, they were captured and
imprisoned. A slave dealer named Richard Hall rescued the two and offered them jobs
as his agents. With no money to return home, the two brothers accepted the offer.
Like all traders at the time, Owen did not capture slaves himself; rather, it was Africans
who acquired slaves and traded the captives for various European goods. Sometimes the
captives would be prisoners of war. Other times, groups would venture deep into
Africa's interior for the sole purpose of capturing slaves.
Passages from the journal reveal that Owen had little respect for the Africans he dealt
with. "It seems strange that here in the country you'll find men of ready wit in all things
relating to common business, yet if they are questioned concerning a future state, they
give up all pretentions to humanity and wander in absurdities as black as their faces.
They laugh at one anothers misfortunes and don't seem to repine their own, given to
drunkiness and quarreling, being very cowardly and great boasters, miserably poor in
general and live low as to victuals [food supplies], soon provoked to anger and soon
made up again if the offender makes an acknowledgement of his crime . . . ."
Other passages illustrate the inherent dangers of being a slave trader. In one account,
Owen tells of how some Africans had seized an Englishman who was walking at night
on a trail. "As soon as their prize is secure they devour him without mercy along with
their associates in the bushes, who has prepared a fire for that purpose."
In 1758 Nicolas Owen wrote, ". . . we spend the prime of youth among Negroes,
scraping the world for money, the universal god of mankind, until death overtakes us."
It would not take death long to overtake Owen. He died in Africa the following year.
People & Events

Resource Bank Contents

Efforts to end the slave trade

1785 - 1807

A young student at England's Cambridge University decides to

enter an essay contest, the theme of which is slavery. The student
knows almost nothing about the topic, but delves into the subject
anyway. He is enraged by what he reads, and writes a passionate,
moving exposition that wins him the contest. It also inspires him
to devote his life to the abolition of the slave trade. The student's
name was Thomas Clarkson. He, along with another
Englishman, William Wilberforce, would lead this fight to end
the trade.
Opposition to slavery existed from the outset among enslaved

35

Africans themselves. Even among Europeans, occasional

opposition went back much further than Clarkson's 1785 essay -almost back to the beginning of New World slavery itself. In
1643, the New England Confederation assisted runaway
servants, including slaves. In 1652, Rhode Island declared that a
slave must be freed after ten years of service. In 1676, slavery
was prohibited in West New Jersey. The Quakers were another
outspoken group against slavery. Their writings had great impact
on the opinions of both Americans and Europeans.
In England, a humanitarian milestone was reached in 1772 when
the courts decided in the famous Somerset Case that a slave
became free as soon as he set foot on English soil. Slavery was
abolished within England, but it was still permissible within the
colonies, as was the slave trade itself.
Eliminating England's involvement with the slave trade would
be no small task. Directly and indirectly, the trade supported
many of England's industries, including textiles, sugar refining,
and the manufacture of firearms.
In 1787, two years after writing his essay, Clarkson helped
organize a group called the Society for the Abolition of the Slave
Trade. The group wanted to make a case to Parliament, but first
it needed evidence. So Clarkson travelled to Liverpool and
Bristol, England's two major slave ports, to interview anyone
with first-hand knowledge of the trade. With this ammunition,
the group approached William Wilberforce, a Member of
Parliament. He readily agreed to present their case.
The fight for abolition of the trade was joined by many others,
including former slave ship captain John Newton, former slave
ship surgeon Alexander Falconbridge, and ex-slave Olaudah
Equiano. They, along with countless others, began to sway the
opinion of the public.
In 1807, Parliament finally passed a bill that made it illegal for
any English vessel to take part in the slave trade.
Incidentally, that same year the United States Congress enacted a
law prohibiting the importation of slaves, which under
Jeffersons leadership led to the abolition of the slave trade in the
U.S. starting in January 1808, except Washington D.C.
People & Events

Resource Bank Contents

Liverpool and the slave trade

36

1829

In the span of a hundred years, from 1700 to 1800, the town of

Liverpool in northwest England was transformed from what was
"not much more than a fishing village" into one of the busiest
slave-trading ports on the Atlantic, with its ships accounting for
over 40% of the European slave trade from Africa to the New
World.
There was no single reason for Liverpool's dramatic growth. By
1700, ties with the American colonies had been firmly
established -- the port was importing shiploads of sugar and
tobacco in exchange for white indentured servants. Also, early in
the 18th century, the areas surrounding Liverpool saw an
extensive rise in the manufacturing of textiles, iron, and firearms
and gunpowder -- tempting items for the black slave traders of
Africa. Another reason for the growth was the availability of
capital. Landowners and merchants hoping to increase their
wealth began funneling their money into shipping ventures. And
still another reason: the Royal African Company's monopoly on
the slave trade had recently ended, opening the trade to all.
Liverpool's first slaving vessel, ironically named the Blessing,
set sail in 1700. In 1730, 15 Liverpool slave ships headed toward
Africa; in 1799, 134 ships made the voyage. Although some
voyages reaped huge profits -- the ship "Lively" made a profit of
300% in 1737 -- the overall profit for the trade during the second
half of the century ranged between eight and ten percent. Still,
due in large measure to profits from the slave trade, Liverpool
prospered.
Slave-trading voyages stopped in 1807 when England abolished
its participation in the trade. Liverpool, however, would turn to
industrial manufacturing and would continue to prosper for
many years.

Causes to the American Revolution: 1760-1775

Writs of Assistance-The right for the government to search and seize items
that are under suspicion of smuggling without the burden of proof. It was up
for review for 6 months after the coronation of a new King. In this case it
was the coronation of King George III in 1760 that had them reviewing the
case, which was usually a rubber stamp approval process.
37

James Otis senior was a prominent lawyer who had in many of the Bostonians minds
earned his way to the chief justice of the supreme court. When the position came
available it was his son, James Otis jr. who went to the Lieutenant Governor Hutchinson
to lobby for his Dad to the governor Francis Bernard. Hutchinson was already 2nd in
command in the executive branch and the leader of the legislative branch as he was
president of the House of Representatives. James Otis Jr. asked Thomas Hutchinson if he
were interested in the position and Hutchinson declined. Once assured of Hutchinsons
disinterest he pleaded his case for his Dad. Hutchinson said he would do what he could
for him. When the position became available, Bernard asked Hutchinson if he would
like to be chief justice of the court in Massachusetts. Hutchinson declined saying many
of the people want James Otis Sr. to take the position. Bernard assured him whether
Hutchinson accepted or not that Otis Sr. would not be receiving the appointment. At that
urging Hutchinson accepted the position of Chief Justice. James Otis Jr. was infuriated.
He then quit his job in disgust/or out of conviction for the immoral cause of the British
customs officers having the right to ransack homes without probable cause or a warrant.
This very issue became the 4th Amendment in the Constitution.
Montesquieu had already published his work on The Spirit of Laws in 1748, which said
there should be a check and balance in government and that their should be 3 distinct
branches which was later used to influence the making of the U.S. Constitution.
Jeremiah Gridley was Otis teacher and friend who took up the case for the crown.
Gridley admitted that the writs had provoked widespread antagonism by infringing on the
common rights of Englishmen, but he did argue for the case of search warrants. He said
how could a state protect itself against foreign enemies or subversives at home. Which
was more important, protecting the liberty of an individual or collecting taxes efficiently?
He said that gathering the money must take precedence.
There was a history that the audience was well aware of in which a man named Ware had
sworn profanity on the Sabbath Day, and was found guilty in a court of law. Ware then
took his rights as a customs officer to search, ransack and destroy property of the judge
who presided and then he went to the constable who arrested him and did the same to his
house.
A man named Coke had compiled all of English law in the 1600s and then it was used to
challenge the Kings power, and then pleaded with judges to nullify any act that violated
an individuals common rights, or against reason.
Otis argued for four hours about how any law was void if it violated English constitution.
For Hutchinson, when James II was forced out and William and Mary were brought into
royalty it gave parliament the ultimate authority and that meant that the parliament was
able to dictate what the constitution entailed.

38

Otis said that every man lived in a state of nature. Every man was his own sovereign,
subject to the laws engraved on his heart and revealed to him by his Maker. No other
creature on earth could legitimately challenge a mans right to life, his liberty and his
property. He said that right took precedence over the authority of parliament. He then
challenged the King directly, saying that the writs of assistance represented the sort of
destructive and arbitrary use of power that had cost one king his head and another his
throne. He then went on to say A Mans Home is his castle and there he must be as
well protected as a prince.
Otis definitely won the day and John Adams was there to record the action. He
Hutchinson knew that his side was beaten, but the problem of an emotional argument is
that it only effects those that are listening within the courtroom. On paper it loses its
sting, and Hutchinson coyly delayed his ruling as he realized the other members of the
court were in favor of Otis argument. He effectively delayed the verdict by asking for
advice on whether or not we made these writs specific, wouldnt an informants name be
leaked. If that were the case, we as upholders of the law would lose a powerful pipeline
of information. He convinced the 4 other judges to ask for council from the King. This
of course took some time as they had to cross the Atlantic, then the argument had to be
presented before the King, and then his response needed to be returned, which took over
4 months. By then the emotional argument of Otis was lost and the Writs were restored.
The aftermath of it all was that Hutchinson was looked upon as a dirty politician within
his sovereignty and Otis though he lost, gained the power of the people. Otis is the one
who came up with the slogan Taxation without Representation is Tyranny.

The Treaty of Paris 1763

The French and Indian War (Seven Years War) was very costly. The war had
brought on a debt so huge that over one half of the annual budget went to
pay the interest payments. They kept a peacetime army 3000 miles away
from the mother country providing even further expenses. This served as
the basis for the stage in which the British parliament looked for ways to
help pay this enormous debt and to maintain the army. Hence the upcoming
taxes and the Quartering Act. The good news is that the French ceded the
land from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River and the land
of Canada.
Pontiacs Rebellion 1763
The Colonists didnt value this army because it was too spread out and
ineffective as Pontiacs Rebellion had already demonstrated, but it was this
39

event which provoked the army to be stationed along the western frontier to
protect them from further native American uprisings. The Ottawa tribe was
aligned with the French during the war and Pontiac and his hatred for the
British didnt stop because of the Treaty of Paris. He attacked Detroit,
while other Native American tribes attacked the Virginia and Pennsylvania
frontier. After a year of fighting many deserted the cause and then Pontiac
was forced to sue for peace. This exposed the inability of the British army
to defend themselves against the uprisings that could threaten colonial
settlements and several thousand Americans lost their lives.
Proclamation of 1763
Because of this new land being available, the colonists wanted to settle it.
However, the British parliament didnt feel they could protect the land over
the Appalachian Mountains. Those colonists that had moved over the
mountains were ordered to return to the safe side or the eastern side of the
Mountain Range. Of course, no new settlements were to be made on the
western side of the Appalachian Mountains. This greatly angered colonists,
but they mostly obeyed. They began to view the army as more to keep them
from an economic opportunity than protection from a force of native
Americans that they couldnt realistically defend anyway because the
frontier was too vast.
Sugar Act of 1764
George Grenville, who replaced Lord Bute as prime minister in 1763, looked
for ways in which to have the colonists bear more of the economic burden.
The original Navigation Acts forced the Americans to first trade with Britain
and then they would trade it elsewhere. This act changed that to a degree by
making the major purpose to raise money for the crown. The colonies were
now seen to raise revenue, and the colonists did not respond to this well.
The Molasses Act of 1733 had set the tax at six pence per gallon, but this act
actually reduced the tax on molasses to three pence per gallon in order to
attract more smugglers to actually report their real amount of goods coming
in because it may be cheaper to report it than to pay off customs officers.
Grenville also added tough new enforcement laws for those that tried to
outrun navy patrol boats. He enacted an expanded jurisdiction of the viceadmiralty courts over commerce and the customs officials were given more
power to search for illegal smuggling.
40

The American reaction was to claim that the Americans claimed that they
alone had that power to tax through local assemblies not from parliament.
The petitions were sent from many assemblies in the colonies led by Rhode
Island and Massachusetts.
However, Grenville and others in parliament saw the Americans as
ungrateful. Didnt the British army just save them from the French?
What Grenville didnt fully grasp and many of the colonists werent there
yet either but the colonists provided so much revenue for the British
merchants due to the Navigation Acts and the rule that they had to trade
with the mother country on many of their staple products. Economically
speaking the Americans were helping to maintain the stability of the pound
by providing the market for them to sell furnished items that were
manufactured. The Americans didnt see the need for a new policy that
seemed too aggressive and now that the military threat was gone (end of
French and Indian War) Grenville was seen as crazy.
Stamp Act 1765
The point of the Stamp Act was to raise revenue by 60,000 pounds annually
from the Americans. Grenville appointed stamp distributors in every
colony. It was to go into effect by November 1, 1765. Colonel Isaac Barre
in the House of Commons who had fought in the Seven Years War in
America warned his colleagues that the Americans were Sons of Liberty.
Hence the name; but Parliament did not listen to him.
The Stamp Act was to have a stamp placed upon any printed documents
including newspapers, wills, marriage licenses, deeds and playing cards.
Without the official paper with the stamp on it the above would not be legal
and could be challenged in a court of law.
Americans heard about the Stamp Act in May. Patrick Henrys move was
the most dramatic in the House of Burgesses. He waited until late in the
session as many of the members had already retired to their homes when he
introduced this significant legislation. He was an extremely good oral
speaker. His resolves centered on the idea that the House of Burgess had
the sole right to tax its citizens. His most aggressive measure said that any
41

attempt to collect taxes by parliament was illegal, unconstitutional and

unjust and will destroy both British and American liberty. He said, That
Caeser had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and then he said King
George III Many cut him off and cried TREASON!! pause pause wait
for itcould profit from their example.
Newspapers in Virginia had thought that all 7 measures had past (even
though 2 had not been introduced) and then it went throughout all of the
colonies that even some that didnt pass did causing many in Massachusetts
to feel as though they were behind. Now the competition was on and other
colonies were trying to keep up with Virginia. The Governor of
Massachusetts Francis Bernard called it an alarm bell when referring to
the Virginia Resolutions.
A Stamp Act Congress was formed in which 9 states had sent
representatives to seek ways to protest the Stamp Act. This was the first
representative body that had actually taken place since the first idea of this
was proposed by in the 1754 with Benjamin Franklins Albany Plan.
This congress was able to discuss more than the limited idea of the Stamp
Act, where they shared about other common difficulties and got to know
leaders from different regions. They did draft petitions to the king and
parliament which restated the beliefs of the Americans that no taxes should
be imposed upon the colonists. Only through their own representative
bodies could they be in favor of these taxes. There was no mention of
Independence from England or any disrespect to the King. This was about
the sovereignty of parliament.
The leaders had set the stage for those that were a bit less couth to hit the
streets with their true feelings. There were organized mass protests in the
major colonial ports. The newfound group now named Sons of Liberty
burned in effigy the local stamp collector and brother-in-law to Lt. Governor
Thomas Hutchinson, Andrew Oliver. Oliver did not resign so the
townspeople invited Oliver to the Liberty tree where they found an effigy
(likeness) of Oliver hanging from the tree, with a Stamp Act paper in his
pocket and a boot kicking him (representing Lord Bute). This was a severe
form of intimidation that resulted in the destruction of his house and
eventually this forced Oliver to resign. By November 1st all of the stamp
collectors had resigned and the Stamp Act raised no revenues at all. Not
only did they destroy Olivers house, but they also razed Hutchinsons
42

house, thought to be the finest in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. This also
resulted in the destruction of the history that Hutchinson was writing on the
same colony. Hutchinson did not resign and it almost gave him a bit of
sympathy among the townspeople because he showed up for work in the
same clothes that he had on prior with no sleep to sit at his chair to rule as
Chief Justice. He apologized for his appearance, explained his situation and
then conducted business as usual.
Stamp Act repealed and Declaratory Act
Grenville lost his job as leader of the Treasury and he remained within the
main body of the House of Commons. With Grenville out of the way, the
parliament repealed the Stamp Act on March 18, 1766. Grenville urged
parliament to be tough with the colonists and he was able to get them to pass
the Declaratory Act on the same day to establish the sovereignty of
parliament over the colonies in all cases whatsoever! This was largely
ignored by the colonists because they won the major victory of removing the
Stamp Act.
The British merchants said to the local colonial merchants that they alone
were responsible for the repeal and now you owe us. This outraged the
colonists further that they would take credit for what was rightfully their
own doing. George Mason was offended so that he called the claims
ridiculous. The British merchants were seen as haughty and now the
imperial officers were seen tarnished, no longer were they able to command
the respect that they had once had. They looked to be puppets of the
parliament and no longer one of them, the colonists.
Quartering Act of 1765
In order to lessen the cost for stationing troops in America, parliament came
up with the idea to have the soldiers live within the homes of those who
lived on the frontier so they could be readily be available to fight a direct
threat from the Native Americans as exhibited by Pontiacs Rebellion in
1763.
These troops were resented by the colonists, because they were largely
ineffective, they were haughty toward their hosts. They were expected to
receive rum, candles, salt and whatever items deemed necessary for their
existence on the frontier. Many of them were loud, obnoxious and there
43

were reported issues of harassment toward the women and even some
accounts of rape.
Townshend Revenue Acts 1767
Charles Townshend Chancellor of the Exchequer was elected on a promise
that he knew of a way that he could gather funds from the colonists. On this
prediction, parliament immediately voted to lower the land taxes on those
who lived in England proper, further pressuring the government to follow
through with these new promised revenues.
Champagne Charlies vision was to place duties (taxes) on any items
bought from the following list. That way they would tax themselves on
whatever item they wished to purchase. The imported items included:
glass, lead, paint, paper and tea. Townshend created The American Board of
Customs Commissioners based in Boston to oversee the collection of these
duties. He also reorganized the vice-admiralty courts located in Boston,
Philadelphia and Charleston.
The Americans organized boycotts against these duties by having home spun
cloth by their own women, and they took pride in wearing these items to not
buy anything from England including the latest fashions. They even drank
Liberty Tea to avoid drinking their favorite import. These efforts by the
ladies gave them the nickname Daughters of Liberty.
In Feb. 1768, the Massachusetts House of Representatives drafted a circular
letter which was sent to other colonial assemblies which suggested ways to
avoid paying the duties on the items of the Townshend Revenue Acts.
The secretary for American Affairs, Lord Hillsborough saw the circular letter
as sedition against the crown. Prior to this the other colonies were busy with
other business really to give it much thought, but after the Massachusetts
House of Representatives heard of Lord Hillsboroughs demand to rescind
the circular letter, the legislative body voted 92-17 to defy his ruling. 92
now became a number of Liberty and some would use it at a rallying cry for
other later efforts.
After this act of rebellion by Massachusetts, the other legislative bodies
began to pay a bit more attention and came to the support of Massachusetts.
With open support for Massachusetts many of the legislative bodies were
44

suspended by their governors by direct order from Lord Hillsborough which

was in direct conflict with the idea of a representative assembly and against
the cause of liberty. Now the colonies were united in communication and
cause as they had a rallying point.
In order to announce a presence of force 4000 troops were moved from
Nova Scotia and Ireland to Boston in 1768 to help deal with the talk of the
injustices of disbanding the legislative body. Many of the troops were
taken from the frontier for their protection from the Native Americans and
moved more inland. This begged the question who was the army there to
police?
These soldiers were administered discipline in front of the Boston citizens
on their bare backs, which is where they earned the nickname bloody
backs or lobsters. These soldiers were underpaid, so in order to earn
money they would compete with Bostonians for jobs. This was cutting into
the townspeoples ability to make a living for themselves so these soldiers
were resented for more reason than one.
On March 5th, 1770, after all of the protests and boycotts, parliament saw no
profit (literally and figuratively) and neither did the British merchants from
the Townshend Revenue Acts so they repealed all of the duties on
everything but tea. In fact these taxes did more to help build up some
limited industry to become more self-reliant for the American colonists.
Boston Massacre 1770
Also on March 5th 1770, a soldier named Hugh White was guarding the
Customs House where the Kings gold was kept when he got into an
altercation with a teenage boy which resulted in what started out as a
snowball fight among some kids and the sentry. When the church bells were
rung it usually signified there was a fire in the town and all the men came
running to assist bringing whatever they could to allegedly put out the fire.
The town had burned down about a decade earlier so the memories were still
very much in their minds as to the damage that could be caused by the fire.
As all the men came rushing, the British sentry called for the barracks to turn
out the main guard. However only Captain Thomas Preston and 8 soldiers
came to his aid as the officer on duty tried to maintain the level of escalation
by keeping the men inside so they were less of a chance of violence. As
they approached, some of the men intimidated the townspeople by attaching
45

bayonets and loading with double shot to protect Hugh White. The
townspeople dared the soldiers to fire, Private Hugh Montgomery was
knocked down and came up firing and urged all of them to fire. His actions
and words caused the other soldiers to think that Preston had given the order
to fire. With violence and the threat of violence from both sides as clubs had
struck soldiers, sailed through the air as missiles, ice, rocks and snow were
thrown at the soldiers along with name calling left the townspeople with 5
people killed and 8 wounded. This incident became electrified throughout
the American colonies by the Paul Revere engraved print that was circulated
that showed the British soldiers firing into a harmless crowd which was an
effective use of propaganda.
As a reaction to this the British soldiers were moved off the mainland and
stationed at Castle William to remove the two embittered sides.
Customs Commissioners from 1768-1775 overstepped their boundaries on
their power of search and seizure and were willing to harass any person,
home, or ship that was suspected of smuggling. This caused people such
as John Hancock a noted businessman and noted smuggler to take notice and
join the cause. Sam Adams kept up the pressure by having parades on
Massacre Day and celebrating the repealed Stamp Act. Many though were
scared enough by the Boston Massacre to not get too excited. However as
each new piece of legislation occurred. In 1772 he generated enough
support to form the committee of correspondence which noted common
grievances among the different colonies.
Gaspee Incident 1772
A British vessel named the Gaspee was in search of ships that were
smuggling. While they had landed looking for some suspected smugglers
they chased some of their prey on the shores of Rhode Island. While they
were gone, a group of Rhode Islanders set the ship, Gaspee, on fire until it
was destroyed. When the people of Rhode Island were questioned about the
incident, no one had the slightest idea what had happened..
Tea Act 1773
This legislation actually helped to lower the cost of tea to the colonists by
cutting out the middle man. This was not a revenue measure, but in order to
save the East India Company from bankruptcy, they allowed the company to
46

trade directly with the colonists, which allowed for a higher profit for the
company, but lower costs to the colonists. The Americans saw this piece of
legislation coupled with the remaining tea tax from the residual of the
Townshend Revenue Acts as a trick to make colonists pay the tax. It also
undercut smugglers of tea, which made up very powerful leaders in Boston.
Philadelphia and New York City were able to make the ships leave without
unloading the tea. Boston chose a different route as they wouldnt leave, so
they decided to disguise themselves as Mohawk Indians and went on
board the ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor effectively
changing the color of the water. This amounted to a net loss of over 10,000
pounds.
Intolerable Acts of 1774
The official piece of legislation was called the Coercive Acts but the
colonists called them the Intolerable Acts. There were several measures that
had to take place. First it closed Boston Harbor until they paid for the losses
of the East India Company. Second, the legislative body would no longer be
elected, but appointed by the Governor. Also they would only be allowed
one meeting a year. Third, the Governor could transfer any British soldier
to England to be tried for their alleged crime. Fourth, the army could be
quartered wherever the governor wanted them to be within Boston. Gage
was appointed the new royal governor. Hutchinson was removed.
Quebec Act of 1774
This was the area of Canadian Quebec province that was under British
authority since the end of the French and Indian War. In this act, Quebec
was not given an elective authority in an assembly, it gave more power to the
Catholics than was warranted which angered many of the colonists. They
made it known that Quebec was equal to the land that is presently Quebec
plus the area down to the Ohio River all the way to the Mississippi River.
This outraged colonists as they had designs on settling this area west of the
Appalachian Mountains.
1st Continental Congress 1774
The Committee of Correspondence had been working since 1773, but it
seemed that they needed a face to face body that would allow for quicker
47

work among the colonists. This was brought about largely by the influence
of Sam Adams. This continental congress selected 55 delegates from around
12 colonies with only Georgia absent, but they gave their consent to
whatever was agreed upon. This was the meeting where Patrick Henry,
George Washington and Richard Henry Lee from Virginia met with John
Adams and Sam Adams from Massachusetts along with Christopher
Gadsden from South Carolina and Joseph Galloway from Pennsylvania.
These people were giants by reputation and most were extraordinary
speakers, but this meeting was largely used to get to know one another and
how far they and their respective colonies were able to go in terms of liberty.
Suffolk Resolves of 1774
Sam Adams maneuvered the moderates to form these resolves. This was the
idea to resist the coercive acts with force if necessary. All commerce was
halted with England until the Coercive Acts were withdrawn. George III
predicted war with New England and looked forward toward teaching them
a lesson.
Paul Reveres Ride 1774-1775
Date
From
To
Purpose
Dec. 17, 1773
Boston
Philadelphia Explain the
Boston Tea Party
Dec. 17, 1773
Philadelphia
NY City
Explain the Boston
Tea Party
May 14, 1774
Boston
Philadelphia News of
Intolerable Acts
May 14, 1774
Philadelphia
NY City
Response of
Colonies
Hartford
Boston
Summer of 1774 Boston
New York Meetings with
Whig leaders
New York
Boston
for calling a
Congress
Sept. 11, 1774
Boston
Milton
Pick
up Suffolk Resolves
Sept. 11, 1774
Milton
NY and Philly
Suffolk Resolves to Congress
48

Sept. 18, 1774

Philadelphia
Boston
Congressional Response
Sept. 29, 1774
Boston
Philadelphia Response to
British measures
Oct. 11, 1774
Philadelphia
Boston
Congressional Resolves
Dec. 12, 1774
Boston
Portsmouth Warning of
British attacks
Dec. 13, 1774
Portsmouth
Boston
Return
January 26, 1775 Boston
Exeter
Liaison with
N. H. Congress
Exeter
Boston
Return
April 7, 1775
Boston
Concord
Warning to move
arms
April 16, 1775
Boston
Lexington Meeting
with town leaders
Lexington
Charlestown
Charlestown
Boston
April 18, 1775
Boston
Lexington Warning of
British march
April 20, 1775
Boston
Various
Work for the
Com of Safety
Nov. 12, 1775
Boston
Philadelphia Studying
munitions methods
British marches on Colonial arms
In order to avoid armed conflict, Thomas Gage, Governor of Massachusetts
and the ranking general in the colonies decided to gather all powder that
could be used against them if it came to that.
Sept. 1st 1774

Powder Alarm

At 4:30 in the morning, while the town was asleep, Colonel Maddisons men
marched toward the largest Massachusetts supply of powder. The Powder
House on Quarry Hill had all of the 250 half-barrels were carried to the
boats and 2 brass cannon, and returned to Boston without a shot being fired
before the break of day. The news of this coup by Gage and his men made
the men of Boston pay that much more attention and the mechanics
49

(spies)led by Dr. Joseph Warren and executed by Paul Revere were not to be
caught unawares again.
Dec. 13-19th 1774 Portsmouth Alarm (New Hampshire)
Revere went by land to thwart off the seized armament that the British were
looking to grab like at the Powder Alarm. The British went by sea, but the
tide wasnt favorable, nor was the weather warm as the wind and snow was
tough on the British sails. This allowed Revere a chance to get there before
the British soldiers. The land in which Revere traversed was filled with
snow and mud as winter had come early. The mud had just frozen over.
This was very difficult for Revere and his horse had to ride. Revere rode 60
miles in a period of a day and a half. He told the Whigs that Fort William
and Mary was going to be under attack by two British regiments to seize
their powder. Within a days time of Reveres arrival they had gathered up
400 militiamen to retain their powder. The British garrison at Fort
William and Mary was outnumbered 400 to 6 and they didnt want to
surrender. They fired 3 shots from their cannon trying to hold off the 400
men who went over the walls without a single casualty. They were
physically overpowered, and then they surrendered. The captain was
allowed to keep his sword which he drew upon his attackers when they took
down the Kings colors. Another soldier took up for Captain Cochran and
was struck in the face with a revolver. (first blows of the war??) The
militiamen were able to secure 100 barrels of gunpowder, muskets, sixteen
cannon. They were unable to save 20 heavy cannon that they could not
move or hide effectively in the countryside. The British were unable to send
support as the navy vessel that approached was conned into coming into
shallow water at high tide which kept them from being able to effectively
land their troops for days. They were very angry. Gage saw this as
outrageous. The Kings troops had been attacked, the arms secured and the
military was unable to support. Many other towns followed Portsmouths
lead: Newport, Providence and New London.

Feb. 26th-27th 1775 Salem Alarm

250 British soldiers were sent to acquire a growing number of field pieces
that were being converted from old ships. Gage decided to go after them,
50

and then perhaps set a trap for Revere and his other mechanics as they rowed
out to take a closer look they were detained. This allowed for the soldiers to
approach Salem without warning. Colonel Leslie was an able commander,
but a gentleman at that. Leslies men landed on a Sunday at 9:00 in the
morning. They waited hidden from view by the townspeople until they went
to church in the afternoon. After they were in their meetinghouses Leslie
ordered them to approach the storehouses. Five miles away, they felt very
confident so they started marching to the fife and drum announcing their
presence with authority by playing Yankee Doodle. Major Pedrick a Whig
militia man had seen the regulars land and was now trying to figure away to
warn the townspeople. He could only approach the town by the same way
that the road went and it was the same approach as the regulars. Major
Pedrick mounted his horse and rode up to the column and saluted Colonel
Leslie. Colonel Leslie ordered his men to stand aside so that Major Pedrick
could get across the bridge. He marched slowly along until he was out of
sight, then galloped to where the stores of ammunition were kept. Quakers,
Baptists, and Congregationalists worked together on the Sabbath to secure
the arms. There was a drawbridge over the North River which they would
not lower to the British army once they made it to the town. Colonel Leslie
cursed, stamped and wanted to know why the Kings highway was being
obstructed. He threatened to shoot them. John Felt, the militia captain
warned him that if he did that the whole lot of the soldiers would be killed if
they open fired. He maintained the road was the towns not the Kings!!
Some sat on the edge of the drawbridge and taunted Col. Leslie. Thomas
Barnard witnessed the tension and as a minister he felt it his duty to save
peoples lives if he could. He asked Col. Leslie where he was going and
what he was looking for. He then said if they arent there will you return
home. Leslie replied that he would. Thus averted the crisis because the
drawbridge was lowered, the regulars saved their pride by looking for their
prize but finding none returned home frustrated yet again.
April 18th-19th 1775
Concord raid (also to capture John Hancock and
Sam Adams hiding in Lexington)
Paul Revere was on alert yet again with his mechanics, when he was told by
Dr. Joseph Warren that the Regulars were on the march that next morning
and that he would need to get ready to cross the Charles River by rowboat
past the Somerset a British ship of the line in which the moon cooperated
and was dark enough for him to sneak past the guards on the ship. Dr.
Warren allegedly received his intelligence from Gages wife! Warren also
51

sent William Dawes by land through Boston Neck and the soldiers let him
go, because he was acting like a town drunk for months to prepare for this
moment. They thought he was harmless so they let him go. Revere rowed
across the River looking for the lanterns in the Old North Church One if by
land, two if by sea. It turns out that the regulars were coming by sea in
order to cut off about 10 miles of their march. Revere rode on Brown
Beauty the best horse in the land that was donated by Deacon Larkin.
Revere rode all night trying to alert as many of the militia captains as he
could. This allowed for the network to be more efficient as they could then
alert the townspeople quicker. Dawes on the other hand, randomly shouted
out The Regulars are out while Revere shouted the same thing (Not the
British are coming, as they were considered British too.) As Dawes and
Revere met up at Jonas Clarkes home, it was strongly emphasized that
Hancock and Adams needed to get away as they knew the vicinity in which
they were hiding out. Revere then went on his way to Concord to finish his
ride with Dawes. On their way, Dawes and Revere met up with Dr. Samuel
Prescott who was a Whig and let them know that he knew the town well as
he was from there and would like to ride along with them. Revere got
caught by a British patrol, and Dawes shouted, Ive got two of them over
here, confusing the British a bit, allowing Dr. Samuel Prescott and his mount
to jump a fence and to get away to Concord. Revere was still captured as
they had cut his bridle. Dawes mount threw him and he lost his horse and
his ride was over for the night. Revere remained captured, and while the
soldiers questioned him it was Revere who turned the investigation into an
interrogation of the soldiers. When they asked his name, they were
mystified that The Paul Revere was out here and then they were
incredulous. The information for this march was kept only to Gages wife
and the commanding officer Colonel Smith. Therefore, Paul Revere knew
more about their mission than they did. Revere told them they would miss
their aim at Concord and that the whole countryside had been awaken and
that there would be 1000s of militia surrounding them by morning. The
soldiers felt like they were being slowed down by this prisoner and their
curiosity to the information made them let Revere go as they could find out
more and then also report the information that Revere had given them.
Revere then went to Jonas Clarkes house surprised to find Hancock still
there with Adams! Hancock had resisted leaving because he felt like his
place was to be with the militiamen up on Lexington Green. Sam Adams
finally convinced him to leave, but not before Hancock got Revere to secure
that his papers would be secure. He had left them in a trunk in a tavern
located Lexington Green. Revere went with another young man to retrieve
52

the trunk. As he left the tavern with the trunk to bury he heard a shot fire in
front of him. He was behind the militiamen who were fired at Lexington
Green. While Adams and Hancock left the Clarkes Adams heard the shots
fired and he said it was a fine day. Hancock looked to the sky and said yes it
isthis brief conversation sums up the difference between Adams and
Hancock. What did each mean?
Dr. Joseph Warren
learned of the British
plans and sent Paul
Revere to alert John
Hancock and Samuel
Adams. Paul Revere
promised to warn them
when the British soldiers
started to march. Since
he wasn't sure that he
would be able to get out
of Boston with the
message, he made plans
to alert people by putting
lanterns in the Old North
Picture of the Church Steeple in which Paul Revere
Church steeple. He
would light one lantern if hung his lanterns to warn the colonists the British
the British were coming were coming (Source: Library of Congress)
by land, and two lanterns
if the British were
coming by sea.
On the evening of April
18th, the British troops
were ferried across the
Boston Harbor to start
their march on
Lexington. Paul Revere
hung two lanterns in the
church steeple. Then
Paul Revere, William
Dawes and Dr. Samuel
Prescott rode to warn the
colonists that the British
53

were coming.
Paul Revere rode to
Lexington and alerted
Samual Adams and John
Hancock. By the time
the British soldiers
reached Lexington,
Samual Adams and John
Hancock had escaped.
The colonists had been
expecting a fight with
the British. They had
organized a group of
militia, called the
Minutemen. They were
called Minutemen
because they needed to
be prepared to fight on a
minutes notice.
When the British
soldiers reached
Lexington, Captain
Jonas Parker and 75
armed Minutemen were
there to meet them. The
Minutemen were greatly
Minute Man Memorial, Concord, Massachusetts
outnumbered. The
(Source: Library of Congress)
British soldiers fired,
killing 8 Minutemen and
injuring 10 others.
Although Paul Revere
was captured by British
scouts before reaching
Concord, other
messengers managed to
get through and warn the
54

people. While the British

soldiers continued on
their way to Concord,
the men and women of
Concord were busy
moving the arms and
ammunition to new
hiding places in
surrounding towns.
When the soldiers
arrived they were only
able to destroy part of
the supplies.

The British Retreat to

Boston
Minutemen from nearby
towns were now
responding to the
messengers' warnings.
The smoke from the
burning supplies was also
attracting local farmers
and townspeople. A large
force of patriots was now
gathered in response to
the British troops.
As the British soldiers
headed back to Boston,
they were attacked by the
Minutemen. All along the
route, Minutemen, local
farmers and townspeople
continued the attack
against the British. By the
55

time the soldiers reached

Boston, 73 British solders
were dead and 174 more
were wounded.
In the days fighting, 49
patriots were killed, and
39 more were wounded.

The American Revolution 1775-1783

In the Spring of 1775, Fort Ticonderoga was
captured for the American Colonies by a troop led
by Ethan Allen.
The fort is situated at a very
strategic point at the southern
tip of Lake Champlain, and
had been in British hands
since the Peace of Paris in
1763. At the time of the attack
it was neither well-maintained
nor well-guarded;
furthermore the garrison had
no idea that hostilities had
broken out in Concord and
Lexington.
Ethan Allen recognized the
significance of capturing the
fort and was preparing to do
so, with the Green
Mountain Boys, when
Benedict Arnold arrived with
a military commission from
the Massachusetts and
Connecticut revolutionary
councils to lead an attack.

56

The Green Mountain Boys refused to serve under

anyone other than their own commander, so Ethan
took charge leaving Benedict Arnold the honor of
being co-commander of the force. At dawn on May
10th the fort was easily taken, as the garrison of a
mere fifty men was indeed totally surprised.
Crown Point, another British fort a few miles to the
north, was also taken without an engagement the
following day. The capture of these two forts secured
protection from the British to the north, and provided
much needed cannon for the colonial army.
Although popular mythology attributed these early victories to
Ethan's military skill, they were only possible because of the total
unpreparedness of the British.

Notwithstanding the Lexington disaster, British hopes again ran high

in Boston harbor during the spring of 1775. The arrival in May of
Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, with another army, raised the British
force to ten thousand men. Gage seemed no longer to doubt his
ability to put down the rebellion; and yet, to show his moderation, he
issued a proclamation, offering a free pardon to all, except Adams
and Hancock, who would lay down their arms and return to their
allegiance, while those taken in arms were to be put to death. Gage
had possession of Boston, and he might have felt secure but for the
menace of the surrounding hilltops from which the enemy might throw
shells into his camp and shipping. He therefore determined to occupy
some of these hills.
Boston, a city of some seventeen thousand people, was situated on a
peninsula jutting northward, while farther to the north, across a
narrow channel of water, was the Charlestown peninsula, connected
with the mainland by an isthmus known as Charlestown Neck. On the
point of this peninsula lay the village of Charlestown, and back of the

57

village rose an elevation called Breed's Hill, while farther back was
situated a higher elevation known as Bunker Hill.
The American army occupied the mainland and extended in a grand
semicircle for sixteen miles -- from Cambridge to the Mystic River. It
was under the general command of an honored veteran of the late
war, General Artemas Ward, whose headquarters were at
Cambridge. Hearing of Gage's intention to occupy the hills above
Charlestown, Ward sent a force of twelve hundred 1 men on the night
of the 16th of June to fortify and possess Bunker Hill and thus to
forestall the English.
Under Colonel William Prescott, who had witnessed the dispersion of
the Acadians twenty years before, this band of men marched silently
to the place. Passing Bunker Hill, for some cause unknown, they
reached Breed's Hill at midnight and began to throw up
embankments. Faithfully they toiled on till break of day revealed their
work to the gaze of the astonished British. The English guns were
soon trained on the works, and the sleeping city was awakened by
the boom of cannon. But the men on the hill toiled on, and by noon
they were well intrenched behind a strong redoubt. The British
meanwhile decided to storm the American works.
The British landed -- three thousand of them, led by Howe -- about
three in the afternoon, and began the ascent of the hill toward the
American breastworks. It was a daring thing to do -- and not only
daring, it was foolish and suicidal. They might have gone round to
Charlestown Neck and cut Prescott off from supplies and
renforcements, and eventually have forced his surrender. But here
was a sample of the bulldog courage of the Englishman. Up they
marched, in line of battle, with undaunted courage.
Not a shot was fired from the top of the hill; the Americans were
coolly reserving their fire. General Putnam rode along the lines and
ordered the men not to fire until they could see the whites of their
enemy's eyes. When the British had come within a few rods, a flame
of fire swept along the American lines and the front ranks of the
enemy were cut to pieces.

58

Another volley followed, and another, until the British fell back in
disorder, leaving the hillside strewn with dead and wounded. 2
Scarcely fifteen minutes elapsed before they had re-formed their lines
and made another dash up the hill, only to receive again such a
murderous fire from the breastworks as no army, however brave,
could have endured. Again they rolled down the hill in confusion -except the hundreds who lay dead or wounded on the slope.
More than an hour now elapsed before the English could rally to a
third attack, and it was only a blind tenacity of purpose, untempered
by wisdom, that led them to make it at all. They had lost near a
thousand men, while the Americans had suffered but little. It is true
that the latter had almost exhausted their supply of powder, but this
the British did not know; and but for this fact any number of assaults
would have resulted as did the first two -- until the British army would
have been annihilated.
With wonderful courage they now made a third charge up the hill. The
first volleys of the Americans swept down their front ranks as before.
But as the assailants neared the crest of the hill, they noted the
slackening of the American fire, and Howe determined to charge with
the bayonet.
Madly the English rushed forward and leaped over the parapet. The
Americans were without bayonets to their muskets, and the fight was
now an unequal one; hot with clubbed muskets and stones they
made a valiant stand against the oncoming enemy. Scores of them
were cut down, until Prescott, seeing the folly of continuing the
struggle, ordered a retreat, and the British were left in possession of
the field.
One of the last to leave the redoubt was General Joseph Warren,
who lingered in the rear as though he disdained to fly, and this cost
him his life. He had joined the ranks as a volunteer and had fought
bravely during the day, but with the last English volley he fell dead
with a bullet in his brain. Through his death the American cause
suffered the most serious loss in a single life during the war.
The victory won by the British at Bunker Hill 3 was a costly one. They
lost in killed and wounded 1054 men, one tenth of whom were

59

officers. Pitcairn was among the dead. Howe was wounded in the
foot.
The victory enabled the English to hold Boston for nine months
longer, but the moral effect lay wholly with the Americans, whose loss
was 449. At Bunker Hill they had discovered their own prowess, their
ability to stand before the regulars; and Bunker Hill became a rallying
cry of the patriots in every contest of the war.
Debate: Who was right? The colonists for wanting to break away, or
the mother country for wanting to maintain their colonies which they
provided for their very exisitence.
The debate will occur in the year 1776. Anything prior to 1776 you may
utilize within your subordinate points. Your major points have all been put
out there for you to choose. Following your agreement with your team
(British or Colonial side) you may start digging for information to support
your argument. You will have 2 and half minutes to make 3 subordinate
points. For grading purposes if you give one point you will receive a C, if
you make 2 points you will receive a B. If you make 3 points you will
receive an A regardless of whether or not you win the debate or not. You
will have the resources that are within the room, your textbook, and any
printed internet research that you bring into class. We will begin our debate
on Tuesday Sept. 4th. Be prepared to begin. You will not know the order of
who will go first, so make sure you are ready. The debate format will be as
follows:
A:
B
:30 seconds 1:00 minute
1:30 seconds
1:00 minute
:30 seconds :30 seconds
:8 second free for all.
Topics for the choosing:
1. Writs of Assistance
2. Proclamation of 1763
3. Pontiacs Rebellion
4. Sugar Act
5. Stamp Act
6. Quartering Act
60

7. Declaratory Act
8. Townshend Revenue Acts
9. Boston Massacre
10. Gaspee Incident
11. Boston Tea Party
12. Coercive (Intolerable acts)
For your next project, we will make a video over the following years. We
will break into groups and due to whatever venue you like you will film your
artistic choice of storytelling in one of the following years and include the
following topics thoroughly described within the relevance of the said year.
1775
Paul Reveres Ride 5/18-5/19
Lexington and Concord 5/19
Fort Ticonderoga 5/10
Bunker (Breeds) Hill 6/17
2nd Continental Congress
Olive Branch Petition
Continental Army
George Washington
Israel Putnam
William Prescott
Thomas Gage
Joseph Warren
Artemis Ward
Patrick Henry
Give me Liberty or Give me Death
1776
Battle of New York (Harlem Heights 9/16, White Plains 10/28, Brooklyn
Heights 8/27)
William Howe
George Washington
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson
Benjamin Franklin
Declaration of Independence 7/2-8/2/1776
61

Common Sense
Thomas Paine
Battle of Trenton 12/26/1776
Colonel Rall
Delaware River
1777
Battle of Princeton 1/3/1777
Lord Corwallis
The American Crisis
Thomas Paine
George Washington
Battle of Saratoga 10/17 (Bennington 8/16, Freemans Farm 10/7)
Benedict Arnold
Horatio Gates
St. Leger
John Burgoyne
Simon Fraser
Battle of Brandywine 9/11/1777
Battle of Germantown 10/4/1777
Loss of Philadelphia 9/26/1777
William Howe
1778
Treaty with France 2/6/1778
Benjamin Franklin
John Adams
Silas Deane
Battle of Monmouth 6/28/1778
Charles Lee
Sir Henry Clinton
Marquis de Lafayette
Valley Forge Winter of 1777-1778
Baron von Steuben
1779-1780
War moves toward the south
Tories fighting in the war
62

Swamp Fox Francis Marion

Charles Town 5/12/1780
Camden 8/16/1780
Kings Mountain 10/7/1780
Savannah Falls to British 1780
Henry Clinton
Lord Cornwallis
Daniel Morgan
Nathaneal Greene
Benjamin Lincoln
Spanish Treaty
1781
Cowpens 1/17/1781
Guilford Court House 3/15/1781
Eutaw Springs 9/8/1781
Ninety-Six abandoned by British
Admiral de Grasse
Admiral Hood
Battle of the Virginia Capes 9/5-9/9 1781
Battle of Yorktown 8/30-10/19/1781
George Washington
Lord Cornwallis
Nathanael Greene
Daniel Morgan
Banastre Tarleton
Treaty of Paris 1783
John Jay
John Adams
Benjamin Franklin
You will be graded on the following: covering the information completely
50 points, creativity 25 points, Peer evaluation 25 points.
Battle of New York 1776
On July 3, 1776, British troops landed on Staten Island. Over a period
of six weeks, British troop strength was increased so that it number
63

over 32,000 by the end of August. Meanwhile, General Washington

was preparing his men as well as he could under the circumstances.
Washington was hampered by the British control of the sea, which
allowed them to conceivably attack either Long Island or Manhattan.
Washington decided to defend both vulnerable areas. On August 22,
General Howe, the British commander, began transporting troops
across the bay from Staten Island to Long Island. Washington
decided to defend Brooklyn Heights by digging in around Brooklyn
Village. Washington fortified the Heights of Guan, a range of hills 100
to 150 feet in height and covered by heavy brush and woods. The
heights were broken by four passes. The furthest away was the
Jamaica pass. Only five soldiers were detailed to defend the pass.
On August 26th, Howe's troops quietly made their way to the Jamaica
pass and seized the five American guards there. The British
advanced behind American lines undetected until they reached the
settlement of Bedford, where they opened fire. At that point, British
troops rushed through the Bedford pass. Two hundred fifty American
troops, under General Stirling, were surrounded on three sides. They
fought bravely, but were soon overwhelmed. American troops were
forced back into Brooklyn Heights. Cornwalis did not follow-up with an
immediate attack on Brooklyn Heights. Washington's advisors
recommended a withdrawal before British frigates could block the
East River and any available means of escape. On the night of
August 30th, Washington successfully withdrew his troops across the
East River to Manhattan. Washington turned his attention to
rebuilding his army. He was given instruction by the Continental
Congress that allowed him to withdraw from New York. Washington
began moving his supplies and wounded soldiers north from
Manhattan. Meanwhile, Howe had decided not attack the heavily
fortified Manhattan, but instead to outflank Washington and trap him.
On September 13, Howe began to move his army across the East
River to Kips Bay, there he hoped to cut Washington off. The landing
was successful, and met only limited opposition. Washington's army,
however, was able to successfully move North to Harlem Heights.
The next day, a brief skirmish took place at Harlem Heights that
became known as the Battle of Harlem. In this brief battle, several
hundred British light infantry were badly mauled by Colonel Thomas
Knowlton's Connecticut regiment. The Americans and the British
began digging in. On October 12, Howe once again moved his army
to the north to outflank Washington, this time at Throgs Neck. He
64

landed there successfully, but his forces were bottled up on the Neck,
which, depending on the tides, was sometimes an island. Washington
decided to withdraw north to White Plains. The British slowly
followed. It took Howe ten days to arrive in White Plains. There, on
October 28th, the British troops captured Chattertons Hill, to the right
of American lines. Washington soon withdrew to New Castle, and
Howe did not follow.

The battles of TRENTON and PRINCETON are connected, and part of a

campaign against the British forces in NJ, during the American Revolution
during the 1776-1777 winter. Here is a general account of that campaign.
In the fall of 1776, Washington was in desperate straits, having been
defeated in Long Island, and having to retreat from New York City, which
being surrounded by water, was found to be indefensible from the British
with their naval mobility and larger force. Fort Washington on Manhattan
Island was captured by the Hessians (mercenary troops from Germany
employed by the British), and Fort Lee, opposite the Hudson on the Jersey
shore, was about to be attacked. Washington ordered the stores removed and
the troops to prepare for evacuation. Leaving most of the army under Major
General Charles Lee, in Westchester, he crossed into New Jersey.
General Howe, the British commander, for once moved quickly, and the
troops had to rush out of the fort barely ahead of the British, who found stew
still cooking on their fires in the fort when they arrived. The British failed to
move on New Bridge over the Hackensack River, and the American force
escaped. Before the war, Howe had supported the American efforts in
reducing their grievances, and hoped to have victory without a great deal of
bloodshed.
November 21st 1776, Washington moved south with the troops from Fort
Lee, desperately ordering the rest of the troops, under General Lee in
Westchester, NY, to join him. Lee, probably seeing a chance to make himself
look good in comparison to Washington (it was a continuing problem to get
people to act for the good of the country and not for themselves in all areas
of government during the war) and also wanting an independent command,

65

acted very lackadaisically, and moved very slowly to join him. Lee wanted
to show he could succeed against the British where Washington could not,
by attacking their flank and rear, and leaving Washington out on a limb.
Washington moved south first to Newark, and waited for the NJ militia to
rally. Few showed up. For the past several months the men of NJ were
supposed to alternate serving a month on duty in the militia, and now they
were fed up with it, and stayed with their families. Many states had a hard
time getting anyone new to serve in the army, as the British seemed to be
unbeatable. The revolution seemed to be failing, and most people wanted to
not get involved, faced with invasion by the famed British regulars. Every
kind of support for the war was failing, and all over, troops even had a hard
time getting permission to sleep in barns or buying food and clothing.
Washington moved to New Brunswick, leaving Newark on the 28th with the
British entering the town as the Americans left. While in New Brunswick,
two Brigades of the "Flying Camp" a unit set up to respond quickly to
attacks from Staten Island by the British, had their terms of enlistment
expire, and 2026 demoralized men refused to reenlist, even with the enemy
just a short march away. Many more deserted. Washington has 3000 men left
to him, not all fit or able.
On the 1st of December, the British forces moved to New Brunswick, and
Washington orders the troops to begin moving to Princeton. While a few
units hold the bridge, the rest escape, finally followed by the rear guard.
Washington himself leads the pioneers at the rear of the march, destroying
bridges and cutting down trees, to delay any pursuit.
Once at Princeton,Washington, with less than 400 men with him, fell back to
Trenton (see MAP) along the Delaware River, the border with Pennsylvania,
on December. 2nd. Lee was very slowly moving across the state, General.
Greene had a force covering Washington at Princeton, and other units were
scattered around the state.
Two thousand Pennsylvania militia men joined Washington at Trenton.
Washington had all the boats available along the river taken and held on the
Pa. side of the river, with his supplies, then moved back to Princeton on the
7th. Repeatedly he called for Lee to come to his support, and called for the
NJ militia to rally to him.

66

The militia showed up in disgustingly small numbers. Most men stayed

home to protect their families from the advancing invaders, moving
possessions out of the way of the British and Hessians. The British and
Hessians destroyed Jersey homes, farms and possessions wantonly, and saw
little difference between loyalist and rebel, treating most the same.
As Washington moved to Princeton. General Greene was faced with the
advancing British and forced to retreat. Joining Washington, the combined
army now moved back to Trenton and then across the river. Washington had
every boat that could be found moved to safety across to the Pennsylvania
side.
The scene was set for the Battle of Trenton.
Lee continued to refuse to come to Washington, until he was captured in
Basking Ridge, NJ, by Lt. Col. Harcourt leading British dragoons, on Dec
13 th. Under the leadership now of Sullivan, the troops then quickly made
their way to Washington. At the same time, General Gates, had moved down
from Fort Ticonderoga with 800 men to Washington's aid. Both units crossed
the Delaware around Phillipsburg and reached Washington on the 20 th of
December.
Reaching the Delaware on the 8 th, Howe is cannonaded from across the
river. After a fruitless search for boats up and down the river, Howe decides
to stop for the winter. The American army was virtually helpless at this
point, ragged, demoralized, greatly outnumbered, undertrained and badly
equipped. Howe lost a major chance to end the war by stopping for the
winter instead of "foreclosing the mortgage" as one of his officers called it.
General Howe placed his troops across the state, with major commands at
Trenton, Burlington, Princeton, Perth Amboy and New Brunswick. The
Hessians, who had borne the brunt of the assault on Fort Washington in NY,
showing courage and discipline, had the honor of being to the front in
Trenton and Burlington. Howe recognized that his men were too spread out,
but the American army was in such poor shape, and so demoralized, they
were not considered a threat.
The British forces had crossed the state almost unopposed. The militia had
refused to join Washington, many of his troops on hand were under short
enlistment due to expire at the end to the month, desertion was rampant,
everyone was discouraged. Half the people had never really supported the
67

rebellion, and now they infected the rest. The new republic looked to be on
its last legs, and Washington perhaps wondered if he would be hung, drawn
and quartered as a traitor under British law.
Still everything was not going all the right way for the British. The Jersey
men, while not joining Washington, had not reacted passively to being
invaded, and the poor behavior of the British and Hessian troops enraged
many. Ambushes of British patrols became a standard tactic. Morris county
had several units of militia assembled, with some Continental troops, and
more troops were around Paramus in the Northeast.
New Jersey irregular troops, acting in small groups, uncoordinated, and
fueled by anger at the horrible plundering by both the Hessians and British,
raided the enemy to capture supplies, ambushed patrols, harassed
communications and movement. On Dec. 18 th, General Grant, under
Cornwallis in New Brunswick, ordered that nothing belonging to the army,
even officers, leave New Brunswick with out an escort. The local men of
New Jersey couldn't seriously hurt the British, but they could make them
cautious, and reduce their ability to get information by patrolling.
Along the river, von Donop was placed in charge of the Hessians, stationed
at Burlington, Trenton and with posts at Mansfield Square and Black Horse
Tavern. In Trenton, 3 regiments of Hessians, about 1 thousand men, were
under the command of Colonel Rall ( sometimes spelled Rahl). Rall was
ordered to build field works needed to defend the town, but did not. Rall told
one of his officers who wanted to build redoubts-"Let them come! We want
no trenches! We'll use the bayonet!" Small raids worried his troops, and
ambushes distressed his dragoons. He was forced to increase the size of his
picket posts, which created a lack of rest for his troops. Still Rall had no fear
of the American army, which seemed ready to dissolve in the face of winter.
Indeed, everyone in the American camp felt the situation to be desperate.
Col. Joseph Reed wrote Washington "that something must be attempted to
revive our expiring credit, give our cause some degree of reputation, and
prevent a total depreciation of the Continental money, which is coming in
very fast- that even a failure cannot be more total than to remain in our
present situation." Washington admitted in a letter that "the game was about
up."

68

On December 22 nd 1776, Washington had 4707 rank and file troops fit for
duty.
Washington had a staff meeting and decided to attack. At first he wanted to
attack von Donop at Bordentown, but the militia in the area, under Col
Griffin were too weak. The Hessians in Trenton were in an exposed position,
and it was known that they would heartily celebrate Christmas on the night
of Dec. 25 th. Washington decided on a predawn attack on the 26 th, while
the troops and officers were tired, and hopefully some suffering hangovers.
It is a misconception that the Hessians were expected to be drunk. Some of
the officers might have been expected to party late into the night, not the
troops.
Washington ordered the troops ferried across just after dark, but a storm
arose, first snow, then freezing rain, snow and hail.Washington's aide, Col.
John Fitzgerald wrote at 6 PM as the troops started across: " It is fearfully
cold and raw and a snowstorm is setting in. The wind northeast and beats
into the faces of the men. It will be a terrible night for those who have no
shoes. Some of them have tied only rags about their feet: others are barefoot,
but I have not heard a man complain." Col. Glover's reg't from Marblehead,
Mass, who were primarily sailors, manned the boats at McKonkeys Ferry.
They managed to get 2400 men, their horses and 18 cannon across the icy
river. Two other units, one to cross to the south of Trenton at the Trenton
Ferry, and one farther south at Bristol, were unable to cross, or unable to
land on the other side, due to the storm and ice.
These southern crossings were to prevent the escape of the Hessians and to
prevent von Donop from supporting Trenton. Fortunately, von Donop at
Burlington, had moved south in response to the group of Jersey Militia
troops under Col Griffin raiding towards him a few days earlier, and was out
of position to support Rall in Trenton.
Delayed by the storm, Washington's troops did not get across until 4 am,
well behind schedule for a predawn attack. They marched south to Trenton
in two columns, one along the river, the other along the Pennington road,
with Generals Sullivan and Greene commanding, Washington commanding
overall, and riding with Greene.
In a severe winter storm, the troops advanced south. By 6 am they must have
been complaining, in fact it is reported that two men froze to death, but

69

Washington is determined. Gen. Sullivan sends word that the men's muskets
will not fire due to being exposed to the storm all night. Washington sends
word back to rely on the bayonet-"I am resolved to take Trenton."
In Trenton, Hessian Major Dechow decided because of the severe storm not
to send out the normal predawn patrol, including 2 cannon, to sweep the area
for signs of the enemy. Though the storm cause extreme misery for the
troops, it allowed them to approach undetected.
At 8 AM Washington's party inquires of a man chopping wood where the
Hessian sentries are, just outside of Trenton. He points to a nearby house,
and the Hessians pore out and begin to open fire. The battle of Trenton is on.
Moving quickly and driving in the pickets, both columns move in on the
small town of Trenton. The Hessians are caught completely unprepared. Col.
Rall, who was up late at night, is slow to awaken and dress.
The Hessian officers tried to rally and form their troops, but the Americans
moved too quickly for them. The Hessians are constantly disrupted by fast
moving American units, charging in and moving to cover all routes in or out
of the town. American cannon are placed on a rise that controls the two main
streets of the town, and the Hessian formations are unable to form properly.
They try to get some of their own cannon into action but these are captured
before they can do any damage. The Americans moved rapidly and
aggressively, closing in on the Hessians, breaking up their formations,
blocking all exits from town, seeming to be everywhere to the Hessians. The
Hessians move around in town trying to make a front, but some orders are
misunderstood, and the von Knyphausen regiment is separated from the Rall
and von Lossberg regiments.
The Rall and von Lossberg Hessian regiments are forced out of town and
form in an apple orchard. Rall orders them to attack back into town,trying to
force a hole to the road to Princeton. Now the Hessians have wet guns from
the storm, and have a hard time firing. When they get again into the streets
of the town, the American troops, joined by some civilians from the town
fire at them from buildings and from behind trees and fences, causing
confusion, while the American cannon break up any formations. Rall is
badly wounded, and resistance falters. They retreat back to the orchard, but
are surrounded by the fast moving Americans.The Hessians surrender.

70

The third regiment of Hessians, on the south end of town, trying to get
across the Creek to head towards Bordentown are delayed by trying to bring
their cannon through a boggy area and suddenly find themselves surrounded
and surrender as well. Many Hessians escape in small groups, but 868 are
captured. 106 are killed or wounded. The American army lost perhaps 4 men
wounded and 2 or 3 frozen to death, captured 1000 arms, several cannon and
ammunition and stores.The fighting lasted only 90 minutes. About 600
Hessians, most of which had been stationed on the south side of the Creek,
escaped.
After the battle, Washington had the captured men and stores shipped across
the river, then followed with the army across to Pennsylvania. The next day
a thousand men reported ill.
von Donop, commanding at Burlington, learned of the battle from fleeing
Hessians who had escaped. Their estimates of the size of the force with
Washington were exaggerated. Rumors of attacks pending on them flew
thick, based on partial spy reports of various plans of Washington, and the
British forces all across the state were worried. von Donop moved first to
Allentown, NJ, then to Princeton, to resist attacks that were just rumors.
Washington had turned the tide, from desperate waiting for the axe to fall, to
aggressive victor, chasing the British forces from the Delaware river and
putting them on the defensive- for a few days.

After gathering information and their wits, Lord Cornwallis moved to attack,
leading to the 2 nd battle of Trenton and the victory at the BATTLE OF
PRINCETON.
Battle during the American War of Independence, the second of two battles
(with Trenton), that helped restore American morale after the loss of New
York. In the aftermath of the American victory at Trenton, Washington found
himself on the same side of the Delaware as the British. On the last day of
1776 the enlistments of many of the men in the army ended, and despite
Washingtons best efforts, only about half of these men could be persuaded
to stay for another month.

71

Washington did not want to pull back across the Delaware, fearing that it
would discourage the revival of militia activity in New Jersey, just reviving
after Trenton. Faced with a larger British force, Washington was forced to
pull all of his troops together at Trenton, although he feared that this would
leave them vulnerable to a counterattack. 1600 militia commanded by
General Mifflin and 2000 men commanded by Colonel Cadwalader joined
Washington, who started the year with 5000 men.
This left him with a force not much smaller than the 5,500 men commanded
by Cornwallis, sent from New York to restore the situation. However, the
entire British force was made up of regular troops, while Washington had a
sizable body of militia troops, who were less reliable in set piece battles.
Cornwallis was aware of his advantage, and on 2 January he set out from
Princeton, with the aim of forcing a battle. A combination of harassing
action by detachments of continental troops, and the generally poor
condition of the winter roads made progress very slow, and the British did
not reach Washingtons position until four in the afternoon.
The Americans were drawn up along the line of the Assunpink Creek. The
British made several attempts to force their way across the Creek, but their
army was stretched out along the road back to Princeton, and the advance
guard was not strong enough to break through the American line. Cornwallis
decided to rest overnight, and launch a proper attack in the morning.
Washington appeared to be trapped. Cornwallis had before him the prospect
of a victory that could end the rebellion.
That prospect was snatched away. Cornwallis had not considered the
possibility that Washington might outflank him and march further in to New
Jersey, but that is what happened. Leaving a small force in his camp to keep
the fires burning, and convince the British the entire army was still in place,
Washington slipped out of Trenton, and March'd by a round about road to
Princeton (Washingtons report to Congress, 5 January 1777). Seeing the
size of Cornwalliss force, Washington realised that Princeton could only be
weakly defended. This was true Cornwallis had left three regiments,
commanded by Lt. Colonel Charles Mawhood, to defend Princeton. If
Washington could break through this force quickly enough, then the road to
New Brunswick and one of the main British supply bases would be open.
Unknown to Washington, the British war chest of 70,000 was at New
Brunswick. Its loss would have been devastating to the British war effort.

72

Ironically, as Washington was marching toward Princeton, Mawhood with

two of his regiments was marching towards Trenton. The American advance
guard encountered Mawhood, who sent one regiment back into Princeton,
keeping the 17th Regiment of Foot to defeat what he believed could only be
a patrol. This force of about 275 men nearly changed the course of the battle.
First they saw off the American advance guard under General Hugh Mercer,
who was killed in the action, and then were on the brink of defeated 600
militiamen under Cadwalader, before Washington arrived on the scene in
person and restored the situation. Mawhood reached Trenton, but suffered
heavy losses. The fighting now moved on to Princeton. The British made a
short defence of the town, before attempting to withdraw. Washington
reported taking three hundred prisoners from Princeton, a sizable proportion
of the entire garrison.
News of the fighting at Princeton quickly reached Cornwallis back at
Trenton. Aware of the danger to his supply depot at New Brunswick, he
rushed his force back to Princeton. Washington had destroyed the bridge
over the Stony Brook, which allowed a militia unit to delay Cornwallis long
enough for the main American army to leave Princeton in good order.
Washington now intended to make for New Brunswick, but his army was
exhausted, and the British too close behind. Aware of the risk to his supplies,
Cornwallis headed straight for New Brunswick rather than pursuing
Washington, and was able to reach there before the end of the day. With New
Brunswick now denied him, Washington moved north to Morristown, which
he reached on 6 January.
The American army finally went into winter quarters, having inflicted two
embarrassing blows on the British. General Howe ordered a withdrawal
from New Jersey, abandoning one of the main benefits gained from the
capture of New York. This set a pattern for the rest of the war. British armies
could capture cities and win major battles, but they could not hold down the
country, and their outposts were always vulnerable. At Trenton and
Princeton, George Washington had probably saved the revolution

Battle of Brandywine 1777

The Battle of the Brandywine on September 11, 1777, marked the
apparent end of a long period of frustration for the British in North
America. For Lieutenant-General Sir William Howe, commander of
the British forces in North America, it was the first chance he had to
73

come fully to grips with General George Washington's army since the
British victory of Long Island in August 1776. That battle resulted in
the loss of New York City to the United States for the remainder of the
war. Since then, however, the only serious engagements between the
armies had been the inconclusive affair at White Plains, N.Y. in
October 1776, and the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, N.J. in
December 1776 and January 1777, when Washington inflicted minor
but stinging defeats on Howe's forces.
The British commander spent the first part of the summer campaign
of 1777 in New Jersey, trying to lure Washington into the open for
another major engagement that would finally wipe out the main
American army while Lieutenant-General John Burgoyne's northern
expedition severed New England from the rest of the colonies.
Washington's stubborn refusal to risk a major engagement forced the
British commander to find another means of forcing battle, and on
July 8 he began embarking his 16,500 men on board his brother
Admiral Richard Howe's armada at Sandy Hook, N.J.
General Howe's intention was to sail via the Delaware Bay to the
Delaware River, threatening Philadelphia and preventing Washington
from reinforcing Major-General Horatio Gates's northern army against
Burgoyne. In the process he might force the pitched battle he had
sought unsuccessfully in New Jersey. The fleet set sail on July 23
and reached the Delaware Bay on July 30, where Howe received
misleading intelligence of American obstructions in the Delaware
River that seemed to make an approach from that direction
impracticable. He decided in view of this to enter the Chesapeake
Bay, landing at the northernmost point possible and approaching
Philadelphia overland. The Americans were meanwhile kept guessing
about Howe's destination. The sighting of the British fleet in the
northeast Chesapeake Bay on August 22 and the subsequent British
landing at Turkey Point, 8 miles below Head of Elk, Md., on August 25
finally put an end to all speculation.
Unexpected as the landing was, the American main army, numbering
roughly 16,000 men, was not in a bad
position to defeat or at least contain it.
Marching from positions along the
Neshaminy Creek in Pennsylvania, the Americans passed through
74

Philadelphia to Darby, Pa., reaching Wilmington, Del. just as the

British commenced landing. Morale among the Continental troops
was high, as John Adams and others who watched them march
through Philadelphia attested. Though lacking the smartness of
professional soldiers they were, Adams noted, "extreamly well armed,
pretty well cloathed, and tolerably disciplined." The general orders for
the day had demanded the strictest march discipline, threatening any
soldier who broke ranks with "thirty- nine lashes"; though Washington
was not above stopping for refreshments with his entourage at the
City Tavern.
Although Howe's landing was unopposed, his soldiers were seasick
and exhausted. Their horses were in a wretched state, many having
died on the voyage; and although the local Tory inhabitants and
deserters from the American dragoons helped to re-equip the British,
this took some time. A concentrated American attack, given the
disorganized state of the militia and the distance of the main army,
was however clearly impossible, and Howe was left to rest and
reorganize his command in peace.
The British moved forward on September 3 in two divisions, one
commanded by the Hessian Lieutenant-General Baron Wilhelm
Knyphausen and the other by Major-General Earl Charles Cornwallis.
The two columns converged at what is now Glasgow, Delaware,
whereupon Cornwallis's division took the lead on the road leading
north. Here they met an advance guard of Brigadier- General William
Maxwell's light infantry, which had been sent forward to observe and
if possible harass the British advance. After a brief, running
engagement ending at Cooch's Bridge a short distance north,
Maxwell's men were driven off and Howe settled down to rest his
troops.
Washington ordered Maxwell's corps to take up positions on White
Clay creek after this engagement, while the main army encamped
behind Red Clay Creek just west of Newport, Del., on the direct route
to Philadelphia. Howe threw his army to motion again on September
8 to the accompaniment of what one of his officers called "a
remarkable borealis." A small force marched to demonstrate against
the American front while the main army marched around
Washington's right. Although a general alarm was beat in the
75

American camp, by early the next day Washington had seen through
Howe's plan and ordered a redeployment to Chad's Ford on the
Brandywine. The American movement commenced on the afternoon
of the 9th. Howe, meanwhile, proceeded to Kennett Square, reaching
it on September 10.

Chad's Ford, where the American army now took up positions, was at
the point where the Nottingham Road crossed the Brandywine Creek
on the route from Kennett Square to Philadelphia. It was the last
natural line of defense before the Schuylkill River, which could be
forded at so many points that it was practically indefensible. The
Brandywine, a shallow (knee to waist-high) but fast-flowing creek,
was fordable at a comparatively small number of places that could, so
it seemed, be covered fairly easily. At Chad's Ford, really made up of
two fords about 450 feet apart, the creek was 150 feet wide and
commanded by heights on either side. The surrounding area was
characterized by thick forests and irregular but low hills surrounded
by prosperous farms, meadows and orchards. Many of the local
Quaker inhabitants were sympathetic to the British cause, a fact that
would prove to be important in the efforts of both armies to secure
accurate intelligence.
Washington concentrated the American defenses at Chad's Ford, but
also prepared to prevent possible British flanking movements to the
south or north. Pyle's Ford, an easily defensible crossing and the only
practicable one south of Chad's Ford, was covered by two brigades
of Pennsylvania militia under Brigadier General John Armstrong.
Nathaniel Greene's 1st Division, composed of the 1st and 2d Virginia
Brigades under Brigadier Generals Peter Muhlenberg and George
Weedon, was entrusted with the primary defense of Chad's Ford.
Greene's troops straddled the Nottingham road leading east from the
Brandywine. To Greene's right was Brigadier General Anthony
Wayne's 4th division containing two brigades of Pennsylvania
Continentals. Colonel Thomas Procter's Continental Artillery
Regiment was placed on some heights commanding Chad's Ford to
Wayne's right.

76

On the right, Major General John Sullivan's 3rd Division consisting of

the 1st and 2d Maryland brigades was posted opposite Brinton's Ford
about a mile above Chad's Ford. Major General Lord Stirling's 5th
Division, containing a Pennsylvania brigade under Brigadier General
Thomas Conway and a New Jersey brigade, was placed in reserve a
short distance behind Sullivan. Major General Adam Stephen's 2d
Division, made up of the 3rd and 4th Virginia brigades under
Brigadier Generals William Woodford and Charles Scott, was also in
reserve, apparently in a position to move to the support of either the
right or left of the army. Finally, Maxwell's light corps was posted to
the west of the Brandywine along the Nottingham Road and on some
hills on the western side of Chad's Ford.
The most vulnerable point of the American position, as Washington
and his generals were well aware, was on the right. Sullivan was
therefore ordered to provide adequate cover at the three known fords
above Brinton's, namely Painter's, Wistar's, and Buffington's Ford,
each about two miles apart. Buffington's Ford was on the east branch
of the Brandywine, just above where the creek forks about six miles
above Chad's Ford. Sullivan detached for this purpose a Delaware
regiment and Colonel Moses Hazen's mixed "Canadian" Regiment,
the latter unit being divided to cover the two upper fords. The area
north of Buffington's Ford on both sides of the Brandywine was the
responsibility of the light horse under the general command of the
Virginian Colonel Theodorick Bland. Sullivan assumed that his
responsibility went no further north than Buffington's, and relied on
Bland to watch this area. Only a mile further upstream, however,
another ford known as Jeffries' provided in conjunction with Trimble's
Ford on the west branch of the creek an entirely unguarded route
around the American right flank. Washington and Sullivan appear to
have been unaware of the existence of this critical ford, of which
neither Bland nor any locals had informed them.

77

Prelude: The Affair at Cooch's

Bridge

As dawn broke on the morning

of September 11th, Sir William
Howe was in the process of
dividing his army. At six o'clock,
Knyphausen marched with 6,800
men along the Nottingham Road
directly toward Chad's Ford. His
mission was to engage
Washington's attention while
Howe marched at five o'clock
with 8,200 men northeast from
Kennett Square up the Great
Valley Road, turned east across
the Brandywine at Trimble's and
Jeffries' fords, and then
proceeded south around the
American right flank. A dense fog
cover initially shielded Howe's
march, and locals kept him well
informed of his route.

The first significant engagement of

the Philadelphia campaign took
place at Cooch's Bridge, Del., on
September 3. After resting and
refitting at Head of Elk for over a
week, Howe divided his army into
two divisions under Earl Charles
Cornwallis and Baron Wilhelm
Knyphausen. Howe accompanied
Cornwallis's column, which
advanced from Head of Elk and
reached Aiken's Tavern in what is
now Glasgow, Del. at about 9:00
A.M. Knyphausen's division,
marching from Cecil County
Courthouse, arrived an hour later.

Cornwallis's division, having

arrived earlier, proceeded first on
the road north from Aiken's Tavern
toward Cooch's Bridge and Iron
Hill, Del. Just a mile north, the
Knyphausen's Tory vanguard of vanguard of Hessian jgers under
the Queen's Rangers and Major Lieutenant Colonel Ludwig Johann
Adolph von Wurmb encountered
Patrick Ferguson's Riflemen
outposts of Brigadier-General
advanced only three miles
William Maxwell's light corps. This
before running into Maxwell's
ad hoc formation had been thrown
outposts near Welch's Tavern.
The Americans took advantage together to replace Colonel Daniel
Morgan's vaunted and invaluable
of the numerous defiles and
riflemen, sent some months earlier
woods along the road, as
Sergeant Thomas Sullivan of the to aid Major-General Horatio
British 49th Foot wrote, to keep Gates.
up "a running fire, mixed with
Stationed "at the entrance of a
regular volleys for 5 miles, and
wood," the Americans commenced
they still retreating to their main
an irregular fire on the advancing
posts, until they got almost in
British that continued for two miles
gun shot of the Ford." At the hills
up the road. Captain Johann
before Chad's Ford, Maxwell's
Ewald of the Hessian jgers, who
men unleashed an ambuscade
had gone ahead with six dragoons
from wooded and marshy
to scout the road, "received fire
from a hedge, through which these
six men were all either killed or
78
wounded." This continued for
some time as the Americans fell

ground on either side of the road, taking the Tories by surprise and
leaving "nearly half of the two corps . . . either killed or wounded,"
according to a Hessian witness.
"All the woods were full of enemy troops," wrote the Hessian Major
Carl Leopold Baurmeister, shouting "Hurrah" at the work their
musketry had done among the Tories. Proctor's artillery on the other
side of the Brandywine was now firing on the British as well,
shredding trees but doing little real damage due to poor siting. Some
of Greene's men splashed across the creek to support Maxwell, who
began building breastworks on a hill overlooking the road on
Knyphausen's right. The Hessian general rallied the Tories and
ordered Ferguson's riflemen to take position behind a house on his
right. He also dispatched the 28th and 49th Foot along with two
heavy and two light artillery pieces to an elevation behind them. The
British cannon promptly began pummeling the American breastwork,
which apparently mounted nothing more than a couple of light field
pieces. At the same time the Queen's Rangers and the 23d Foot filed
off to the left, and by musket and bayonet "quickly drove the rebels
out of their woods and straight across the lowland." On his right,
Knyphausen then pushed the 28th Foot in a flanking march around
Maxwell's left, to an eminence slightly behind the breastwork.
Maxwell had had enough. Once his breastwork had been outflanked,
he ordered a withdrawal across the creek, a maneuver carried out in
good order despite close pursuit by Knyphausen's troops. By 10:30
A.M., the British and Hessians had cleared the west bank of the
Brandywine and taken up positions overlooking the Ford. Aside from
some halfhearted British feints and random artillery fire, this part of
the battlefield lapsed into inactivity.
Washington had moved his headquarters to the heights where
Procter's guns were stationed in order to observe the commotion.
From there he was heard to "bitterly lament that Coll Bland had not
sent him any information at all, & that the accounts he had received
from others were of a very contradictory nature." Bland's silence
forced Washington to rely on reports passed on by Sullivan, who was
becoming nervous about his flank and had sent scouts of his own to
look for signs of the British upstream. Major John Jameson reported
to Sullivan at nine o'clock A.M. that "he came from the Right of the
Army & I might Depend there was no enemy there"; another officer
79

sent in the same direction returned to say that "no Enemy had passd
that way." Close on the heels of these reassuring reports, however,
an officer arrived at Proctor's battery with a letter from Sullivan stating
that Colonel Moses Hazen, stationed by Sullivan at Buffington's Ford,
had sighted a body of the enemy across the creek. Although this was
actually a detachment of Knyphausen's troops taking positions along
the river, Washington could not afford to ignore the possibility that it
was the first indication of a flanking attack and ordered Bland to
investigate it.
A more substantial report arrived shortly before noon in the form of a
letter from Lieutenant Colonel James Ross, who with a mixed force of
militia and dragoons was scouting the Great Valley Road. Ross,
writing at eleven o'clock, reported that he had skirmished with "a
large body of the enemy--from every account 5000, with 16 or 18 field
pieces" led by Howe himself and on its way northeast to "Taylor's and
Jeffries ferries on the Brandywine." Certainly no clearer proof could
be offered than this of Howe's having split his forces. If true, the
American right might be in peril; at the same time, however, an
immediate attack on Knyphausen might cripple half of the British
army before Howe had a chance to bring his force to bear. It was a
risk worth taking.
Washington seized the opportunity offered him, ordering Sullivan "to
cross the Brandywine with my division and attack the enemy's
[Knyphausen's] left, while the army crossed below [Sullivan] to attack
their right." Sullivan promptly put the orders into effect, and elements
of his division had already "crossed the river, and skirmished with and
drove the Yagers" before orders arrived for their immediate recall.
New intelligence had arrived.
Some time between noon and one o'clock, a
Major Joseph Spear of the militia arrived at
Sullivan's headquarters and reported that he had just returned from a
morning reconnaissance along the Great Valley Road without
detecting any sign of the British. The major was, indeed, "confident
they are not in that Quarter." How Spear had contrived to miss any
sign of Howe's column, marching along this very route, has never
been determined. Sullivan was suspicious of the report and hesitated
before sending it along to Washington, understanding it might mean
80

an end to the attack on Knyphausen. If, however, Howe's move up

the Great Valley Road was only a feint followed by a countermarch
back to Chad's Ford, Washington's planned attack across the creek
might well end in disaster. Sullivan sent the report and Washington
called off the attack.
Howe's column was at that moment nearing the end of a grueling
seventeen-mile march in sweltering heat, the fog having burned off
early that morning. The British crossed the west branch of the
Brandywine at Trimble's Ford at about 11 o'clock and then marched
east, crossing the east branch at Jeffries' Ford about three hours
later. They had to "cross these two branches in up to three feet of
water." At 2:30 P.M. the tired men were given leave to throw
themselves down on some heights to the east of the ford and rest for
an hour. Bland sighted an advanced party of Howe's column about
two miles southeast of Jeffries' Ford at a quarter after one o'clock, but
his scribbled note conveying this information to Washington came too
late.
By this point, with the British already moving toward his rear,
Washington had no choice but to make defensive dispositions. He
therefore ordered his reserve of Stirling's and Stephen's divisions to
take up positions near Birmingham meeting- house, a small Quaker
church on the east side of the road leading southeast from Jeffries'
Ford and about two miles north of Chad's Ford. Directly across the
road to the west was Birmingham Hill, a small eminence that was
nevertheless reasonably well-suited for defense.
Sullivan had meanwhile received another report from Bland of British
movements "in the Rear of my Right about two miles Coming Down."
The colonel added that he had seen "Dust Rise back in the Country
for above an hour." The situation demanded swift measures, and
Washington responded by ordering Sullivan to abandon Brinton's
Ford and join Stirling and Stephen near Birmingham meeting-house,
where Sullivan would take overall command of the three divisions.
While putting his division into motion, Sullivan encountered Col.
Hazen, who declared that the enemy were "Close upon his Heels,"
testimony backed up by the almost immediate sighting of the British
advance guard. Sullivan rushed his men to take up positions to
Stirling's left on Birmingham Hill, with Stephen's division already in
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place on the right. Inadequately trained as the Americans were in drill,

this nevertheless took some time, especially given the rough terrain.
Howe knew his dominating position and could afford to show a
"Cheerful Countenance" to his officers, with whom he chatted amiably
as he observed the American deployments. His troops meanwhile
formed into line for the critical assault on Birmingham Hill. The attack
began at about four o'clock, before Sullivan's division had a chance to
take up proper positions on the American left. On the right, Stirling
and Stephen's well-sited 3 and 4 pounder guns, which had been
dragged up the hill with tremendous effort, tore holes with canister
and grape shot in the ranks of the advancing Hessian jgers and
British grenadiers. The British were forced to halt and take cover a
short distance from the base of the hill. "The small arms fire was
terrible," wrote one jger, "the counter-fire from the enemy, especially
against us, was the most concentrated."
Sullivan's men hurried to take up their positions but were forced to
march "through a narrow lane," where Hessian grenadiers who had
clambered up the slope picked them off by the dozens. On this side
of the hill, the Hessian grenadiers and the Guards were to their
delight able to advance out of the line of fire of the American artillery.
Their assault threw Sullivan's men into utter confusion. Sullivan
himself was away on the right conferring with
Battle Scene
Stirling and Stephen, but Brigadier General
Preudhomme de Borr, the French
commander of the 2d Brigade who
commanded in Sullivan's absence, fled with his men (he was forced
out of the service after the battle). On the way down the hill Borr
showed Lieutenant-Colonel Samuel Smith of the 4th Maryland "some
scratches on his cheek, which he said had been done by the English
firing fish-hooks, but more probably by the briars." Sullivan had
meanwhile returned to rally his men, but "no Sooner did I form one
party but that which I had before formed would Run off."
The fight for Birmingham Hill was nevertheless far from over. Hazen's
Regiment, still in good order, formed up on Stirling's left facing the
Hessian grenadiers. The British at the base of the hill had meanwhile
brought up cannon to bombard the American artillery, but though
outgunned the American gunners returned fire as long as possible.
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"The Enemy Soon began to bend their principal force against the
Hill," Sullivan later wrote, "& the fire was Close & heavy for a Long
time & Soon became General . . . five times did the Enemy drive our
Troops from the Hill & as often was it Regained & the Summit often
Disputed almost muzzle to muzzle." Several companies of the British
1st Light Infantry, hoping to gain the east slope of the hill, attempted
to bypass the Birmingham Meeting-house, but here they were met by
a withering fire from Colonel Thomas Marshall's Virginia Regiment
stationed behind the meeting-house wall. The British infantry
sustained severe casualties before they were able to gain a blind spot
on the slope out of sight of both Marshall's men and the artillery on
the hill. At this point Howe and Cornwallis ordered a series of attacks
on the left, right and center of the hill, gradually forcing the Americans
off with substantial casualties on both sides. Hazen's regiment was all
but shattered by the Hessian grenadiers while Stirling's division
retreated in fairly good order; most of Stephen's division was
disorganized if not routed altogether, a fate that was prevented by a
gallant rearguard action of Woodford's Virginians. After an hour and
forty minutes of what General Conway called the most "Close &
Severe a fire" he ever saw, the British had possession of the hill; but
not, Sullivan claimed, "till we had almost Covered the Ground
between [the hill] and Bremingham [sic] meeting House with The
Dead Bodies of the Enemy."
After the loss of Birmingham Hill, the American priority for the rest of
the battle had to be the successful withdrawal of the remainder of the
army. There could be no question of reforming either Sullivan's or
Stephen's divisions, which were no longer effective fighting
formations. Conway was, however, able to form a second defensive
line out of his 3d Pennsylvania brigade on another small hill a short
distance southeast of Birmingham Hill. The British came on quickly,
routing in the process those remnants of Stephen's division which
had been too slow to retreat. Unfortunately for the Americans,
Conway's men initially resisted boldly but, lacking bayonets
themselves, were averse to facing the British bayonet charge and
broke very suddenly. The Marquis de Lafayette, who had come to
observe the attack and attempted to rally Conway's men, received a
British musket ball in the leg and had to be carried off the field.

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What remained of the three divisions fled a mile further east to

Dilworthtown, just north of which place Greene's division was forming
up. Washington had dispatched Greene to this place after learning of
the fall of Birmingham Hill, and he now arrived to supervise the
positioning of Greene's troops. By this time the 1st division was the
last fresh American division on the field. Knyphausen had assaulted
Wayne's and Maxwell's positions around Chad's Ford at five o'clock,
rapidly driving them back and capturing all of Procter's guns. The
position at Dilworthtown was therefore critical if the rest of the army
(including Armstrong's militia, which had not been engaged but was
busy retreating eastward) was to be preserved.
That this position held until sundown was partly because of
Washington's careful positioning, at Sullivan's suggestion, of
Brigadier Generals Peter Muhlenberg's and George Weedon's
brigades respectively on the front and flank of the British advance. As
the Hessian grenadiers marched on Dilworthtown, Captain Johann
Ewald wrote, they "received intense grapeshot and musketry fire
[apparently from Muhlenberg's men] which threw [the Hessians] into
disorder, but they recovered themselves quickly, deployed, and
attacked the village." Brigadier-General James Agnew's brigade of
redcoats, occupying at Ewald's suggestion a hill on the flank, "ran into
several American regiments" of Weedon's brigade, preparing to fall
upon the Hessians' flank. "At this point," Ewald wrote, "there was
terrible firing, and half of the Englishmen and nearly all of the officers
of these two regiments (they were the 44th and 64th regiments) were
slain." Fortunately for the British, an English artillery officer arrived
opportunely with two six-pounders on Weedon's flank, breaking up
their attack. By this time it was growing dark and Greene's men could
follow their compatriots to Chester while the British remained in
Dilworthtown, tending the wounded of both sides.

Lieutenant James McMichael of the 13th Pennsylvania Continental

Regiment wrote that "this day for a severe and successive
engagement exceeded all I ever saw." The casualties reflected the
bitterness with which it was fought. The official British casualty figure
was 89 killed and 488 wounded, but was probably slightly higher. The
American losses have never been conclusively ascertained, but are
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estimated at 1,100, including 200 killed, 500 wounded and 400

captured. The battle had clearly been an American defeat, and was to
lead to the loss of Philadelphia on September 26. Had the attack on
Birmingham Hill begun earlier, the defeat may have turned into a rout.
Howe could thank fortune, his superior intelligence gathering and the
efficacy of the British bayonet for his victory. The Americans, for their
part, were beaten but not broken; they knew very well that in general
they had stood up well to the professional British soldiers. It was not
without reason that Washington wrote John Hancock from Chester
shortly after midnight: "Notwithstanding the misfortune of the day, I
am happy to find the troops in good spirits; and I hope another time
we shall compensate for the losses now sustained."

Germantown 1777
On October 2nd, Washington conceived a bold plan of attack on
Howe's 9,000 troop garrison stationed in Germantown. It called for
the simultaneous advance of four different units of troops moving
by night. At dawn, the four columns were to converge not far from
General Howe's headquarters and catch the British by surprise.
The morning started well for the Americans who had the British
retreating. But Washington's plan went astray when one of his four
columns lost its bearings in a dense fog and thick smoke. Others
columns failed to coordinate effectively.
The British defense was particularly strong at a Germantown mansion
named Cliveden where dozens of soldiers had
taken refuge. Valuable time was lost while the
Americans under Henry Knox bombarded the
house. Those inside did not surrender because
they feared that Anthony Wayne's men, still furious over the Paoli
Massacre, would kill them anyway.
In the end, bad luck and poor timing forced Washington to retreat to
Whitemarsh with the British in pursuit.

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The Battle was an American defeat but it served to boost morale and
self-confidence. They believed the defeat was the result of bad luck,
not poor tactics.
The Americans suffered 152 losses, 521 wounded, and over 400
captured. The British casualties numbered 537 plus 14 captured.

The Battle of Saratoga 1777

Battle: SARATOGA
War: American Revolutionary War
Date: 17th October 1777

General Burgoyne surrenders to General Gates

Place: Saratoga on the Hudson River in New York State.
Combatants: British and German troops against the Americans.
Generals: Major General John Burgoyne commanded the British and German force.
Major General Horatio Gates and Brigadier Benedict Arnold commanded the
American army.
Size of the armies: The British force comprised some 5,000 British, Brunswickers,
Canadians and Indians. By the time of the surrender the American force was around

86

12,000 to 14,000 militia and troops.

Uniforms, arms and equipment: The British wore red coats and headgear of
bearskin caps, leather caps or tricorne hats depending on whether the troops were
grenadiers, light company or battalion company men. The German infantry wore
blue coats and retained the Prussian style grenadier mitre with brass front plate.
The Americans dressed as best they could. Increasingly as the war progressed
regular infantry regiments of the Continental Army wore blue uniform coats but the
militia continued in rough clothing. Both sides were armed with muskets and guns.
Many of the Pennsylvania and Virginia troops and militia, particularly Morgans
men, carried long, small calibre, rifled weapons.
Winner: The Americans forced the surrender of Burgoynes force.

British Regiments:
The senior officers were Major General
Phillips, Baron Riedesel, Brigadier Simon
Fraser and Brigadier Hamilton.

Major Lord Balcarres commanded the light

companies of the 9th, 20th, 21st, 24th, 29th,
31st, 47th, 53rd and 62nd Foot as a single
unit.
Major Acland commanded the grenadier
companies of the same regiments.
The battalion companies of the 9th, 20t,
21st, 24th, 29th, 31st, 47th, 53rd and 62nd
Foot.
Breymans Jgers.
Riedesels Regiment
Spechts Regiment
Rhetzs Regiment
Hesse Hanau Infantry

Major General Horatio Gates, the

American commander at the Battle
of Saratoga.

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Captain Pauschs Hesse Hanau Company of

artillery
Indians and Canadians.
9th Foot: later the Norfolk Regiment and now
the Royal Anglian Regiment.
20th Foot: later the Lancashire Fusiliers and
now the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers.
21st, the Royal Scots Fusiliers; now the Royal
Highland Fusiliers.
24th Foot: later the South Wales Borderers and
now the Royal Regiment of Wales.
29th Foot: later the Worcestershire Regiment
and now the Worcestershire and Sherwood
Foresters Regiment.
31st Foot: later the East Surrey Regiment, then
the Queens Regiment and now the Princess of
Waless Royal Regiment.47th Foot: later the
North Lancashire Regiment, the Loyals, and
now the Queens Lancashire Regiment.
53rd Foot: later the Kings Shropshire Light
Infantry and now the Light Infantry.
62nd Foot: later the Wiltshire Regiment, then
the Duke of Edinburghs Royal Regiment and
Lieutenant Colonel St Leger who
now the Royal Gloucestershire, Berkshire and
commanded the diversionary
Wiltshire Regiment.
raid before the Battle of
Saratoga

The American Army:

Right Wing:
Under the personal command of General
Horatio Gates:
Brigadier Glovers Continental Brigade
Colonel Nixons Continental Regiment
Brigadier Patersons Continental Brigade

Major General John Gentleman

Johnnie
Burgoyne at the Battle of Saratoga

Centre:
Brigadier Learneds Continental Brigade
Baileys Massachusetts Regiment
Jacksons Massachusetts Regiment
Wessons Massachusetts Regiment
Livingstons New York Regiment

Left Wing:
Commanded by Major General Benedict Arnold
Brigadier Poors Brigade
Cilleys 1st New Hampshire Regiment
Hales 2nd New Hampshire Regiment
Scammells 3rd New Hampshire Regiment
Van Cortlandts New York Regiment
88

Livingstons New York Regiment

Connecticut Militia
Morgans Riflemen
Dearborns Light Infantry
Account:
Over the winter of 1776/7 the British Government in London devised a plan to send a
strong army down the Lake Champlain route from Canada into the heart of the rebellious
American Colonies, isolating New England.
The British Governor of Canada, Sir Guy Carleton, with his experience of campaigning
in North America would have been a sound appointment for this command, particularly
after his determined and resourceful defence of Canada in 1775 and 1776. Instead Lord
Germaine, the minister in London with direct control of the British war policy, persuaded
King George III to appoint Major General John Burgoyne (known to the troops as
Gentleman Johnnie), Carletons subordinate during 1776. Burgoyne had taken the
precaution of returning to London during the winter and lobbied for the command.

The death of Brigadier Simon Fraser

Strong reinforcements were to be sent to Canada of British and Brunswick regiments of
foot and artillery. Burgoyne was directed to take the best regiments down Lake
Champlain, capture Fort Ticonderoga, advance to the Hudson River and progress south.

89

The Battle of Bemis Heights in the second Battle of Freeman's Farm

Lord Germaines and Burgoynes expectations were that a second British force under
Major General Clinton would move north up the Hudson River from New York and meet
Burgoyne, but no proper orders were sent to General Howe, commanding the British
forces in New York, to ensure that he complied with this expectation in full. General
Howe had his own plans to invade Pennsylvania and take Philadelphia.
Burgoyne set off from the St Lawrence River down Lake Champlain at the end of June
90

1777, reaching Fort Ticonderoga on 1st July 1777. The American commander abandoned
the fort (see the Battle of Ticonderoga 1777) as the British and Brunswickers arrived.
The British Colonel St Leger advanced down the Mohawk River from Lake Erie with a
British force in a diversionary raid.
On 10th July 1777 Burgoynes force reached Skenesboro where it concentrated on
clearing the road to the North for supplies and to the South for the advance. The forested
country, crossed by primitive tracks rather than roads, was difficult for an army wanting
to move quantities of supplies and artillery.

91

The Army's positions on the signing of the convention

General Schuyler, the American commander, withdrew to Stillwater, 30 miles north of
Albany, Burgoynes primary target. The American authorities made determined efforts to
raise the New England militia and to implement a scorched earth policy in the path of the
British advance.

92

In order to obtain additional supplies, and horses for his Brunswick dragoon regiment,
Burgoyne sent the German, Colonel Baum, with 500 men on a raid to Bennington, New
Hampshire. Simultaneously Burgoyne moved his army down the Hudson River to
Saratoga, where he built a substantial fortified camp.
Baums force was attacked by American militia and overwhelmed. A relieving force
commanded by Colonel Breymann was repelled with some loss (see the Battle of
Bennington).
St Leger found that difficulties with his Indian allies and the vigorous resistance of
Brigadier Benedict Arnold forced him to abandon his advance down the Mohawk River.
Burgoyne was in a perilous position. The presence of his army was arousing the local
militia in substantial numbers. He was perilously short of food. His imperative orders to
march south restrained him from remaining where he was, retreating northwards or
diverting to the East. It took until 13th September 1777 to assemble sufficient supplies,
dragged through the forests down rudimentary roads, to continue the advance.

The view of the British lines from the east bank of the Hudson River
On 19th September Burgoyne approached the fortified American camp on the west bank
of the Hudson River at Bemis Heights. The British force advanced on the American army,
now commanded by the ex-British officer, Major General Horatio Gates, in three
columns, one by the river under the German Colonel Riedesel, the main force in the
centre commanded by Burgoyne and the third, commanded by Brigadier Fraser making a
wide outflanking detour to the American left. The aim of the British was to take the
unfortified hill to the West of the American positions on Bemis Heights.
Arnold pressed Gates to leave his entrenchments and attack the British but he was
reluctant to take what he saw as the risk of moving out of his fortified camp.
Burgoyne deployed his battalions for the attack; the 9th, 21st, 62nd and 20th Foot. Fraser
came up on the right, with the Grenadiers, Light Companies and the 24th Foot, towards
the heights on the American left, and Riedesel began his approach along the riverbank.

93

This phase of the battalion was known as Freemans Farm and was hard fought, leaving
the British in occupation of the ground at nightfall (see The Battle of Freemans Farm).
The next day several of his senior offices urged Burgoyne to renew the attack on the
American positions. It is suggested that if he had done so he would have taken advantage
of the disarray into which the previous days hard fighting had thrown the Americans.
Although initially tempted by the proposal, Burgoyne finally rejected it and remained in
his camp by the Hudson River.
On the same day Burgoyne received word that the Americans had captured one of his
supply flotillas on Lake George. He was tempted to abandon the whole enterprise and
withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga, but information that Major General Clinton was advancing
to meet him up the Hudson River from New York caused him to remain in his camp.
By 7th October 1777, in spite of considerable success in the southern reaches, Clinton
had not make any real progress up the Hudson River. Burgoyne determined to launch the
delayed attack on the American positions on Bemis Heights. By this time Gates had been
considerably reinforced and had some 12,000 men against around 4,000 British and
Germans.
Burgoyne described the operation as a reconnaissance in strength, designed to see if he
could occupy the hill to the West of the American fortifications.
The American picquets sent word that the British had advanced and were forming up in a
wheat field near the old Freemans Farm battlefield. Morgans riflemen were committed
to the attack, quickly supported by the other regiments of Arnolds division. The
Americans far outnumbered the British reconnaissance party and the British Grenadiers
and Light Companies were pressed back.
At a critical moment in the fighting Brigadier Simon Fraser was mortally wounded by
one of Morgans riflemen. Arnold spurred the Americans to continue the attack and was
himself severely wounded. The British and Hessian troops began to give way and after
the redoubt held by Colonel Breyman and his regiment was taken, Burgoyne withdrew
his force to his fortified camp above the Hudson River.
The next day Burgoyne withdrew his army up the river to the camp they had built at
Saratoga. The American army pursued Burgoyne and enveloped the British positions.
Burgoyne let the last opportunities to retreat north to Ticonderoga go by, hoping that
Clintons army would come up the Hudson River from the South to his relief. A major
difficulty in the campaign was communications between the two British forces. Almost
all the messengers attempting to carry messages were caught and hanged by the
Americans.
Burgoyne awaited news of Clintons advance until 17th October 1777, when he was
forced to sign the convention by which his troops surrendered to Gates, who had by then
between 18,000 and 20,000 men.

94

Casualties: Of the 7,000 British and Germans who marched from Canada only 3,500
were fit for duty at the surrender.
Follow-up: The consequences of Burgoynes surrender were catastrophic. France and
Spain declared war on Britain and the American effort was galvanized.

War: American Revolutionary War

Date: 28th June 1778.
Place: New Jersey.
Combatants: The army of British and German troops against American Continental
troops and militia.

General Washington rallying Lee's retreating regiments

Generals: Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton, Major General Earl Cornwallis
and Major General Knyphausen against General George Washington and Major
General Charles Lee.
Size of the armies: 10,000 British troops against 11,000 Americans.

95

Uniforms, arms and equipment: The British wore red coats and headgear of
bearskin caps, leather caps or tricorne hats depending on whether the troops were
grenadiers, light infantry or battalion company men. The two regiments of light
dragoons serving in the army, the 16th and 17th, wore red coats and leather crested
helmets. The German infantry wore blue coats and retained the Prussian style
grenadier mitre with brass front plate.
The Americans dressed as best they could. Increasingly as the war progressed
regular infantry regiments of the Continental Army wore blue uniform coats but the
militia continued in rough clothing. Both sides were armed with muskets and guns.
Many of the American militia, particularly the Pennsylvanians carried long, small
calibre, rifled weapons.
Winner: The battle is generally taken as a draw.

Battle of Monmouth : General Lee's unsuccessful attack leading to his retreat

96

Account:
General George Washington and his army spent the winter of 1777/8 at Valley Forge in
considerably straightened circumstances. As the winter wore on the supply situation was
brought under control and something approaching a proper issue of equipment and
rations was made to the troops. Memorably the Prussian officer General Steuben trained
the American regiments in a form of European battle drill, devised and adapted to suit
American troops.
The British army spent the winter in Philadelphia. Lieutenant General Howe returned to
England, relieved of his appointment in command in America at his own request, to be
replaced by General Clinton. Clinton arrived with orders to evacuate Philadelphia and
concentrate the British forces at New York.
On 18th June 1778 the British army with artillery, supplies and the Loyalist populace of
the city left Philadelphia and began the laborious march to the North-East.

Molly Pitcher loading her husband's cannon during the Battle of Monmouth
General Washington marched east from Valley Forge seeking to intercept the slow
moving British column. He did so at Monmouth Courthouse.
Clinton had originally intended to march to New York. The first week convinced him that
his army with its train was too cumbrous to make the journey by land and it was reported
that General Gates was moving from the Hudson River valley with his army to block the
British retreat. Clinton decided to divert to the coast and take ship. At Allentown the
British and German force branched off the main route towards Monmouth to head north
east.

97

General Washington hurried his army forward to. An advanced force of some 4,000
troops was allocated to attack the marching British Army and cut it in half. Washington
offered the command of this assault to Major General Charles Lee. Initially Lee refused
the appointment, lacking confidence in the success of the plan. When the force was
increased in size to 5,000 men and given to the Marquis de Lafayette, Lee changed his
mind and insisted on the command. Lee had the task of attacking the British column in
the flank and delaying it so that the main American army could come up and give battle.
The weather was unsettled, high day-time temperatures giving way to heavy rainstorms.
Clinton suspected that Washington would attack him in strength and ordered Knyphausen
to begin his march up the Middletown road to the North at 4am on 28th June 1778.
Warned by Dickinson and his New Jersey militia that the British army was on the move,
Washington ordered Lee to attack and bring the British withdrawal to a halt until he could
bring up the main strength of the American army along the Monmouth Road.

Battle of Monmouth : General Washington rallies Lee's regiments and resists the
British attack

98

Lee lay to the west of the Middletown road and should have delivered a coordinated
attack on the slow moving column. Properly planned this could have halted the British
withdrawal to the north east and enabled the main American army under Washington to
attack from the rear. It seems that Lee gave no proper orders to his commanders and
permitted them to commit their troops as they saw fit. Skirmishes with parties of British
troops took place as Lees force moved tentatively forward towards the Middletown
Road. Confused fighting broke out with Clintons rearguard, largely composed of British
regiments. Finally Lee ordered his troops to retreat on the main American army. As he
withdrew down the road, Clinton launched his troops in pursuit.
General Washington, bringing the main American army along the Monmouth road,
encountered, not the rear of the British column, but Lees regiments, retreating in
considerable disorder with the British advancing behind them.
Memorably this is the one occasion Washington is said to have sworn. He deployed a
consignment of oaths directed at Lee, to the admiration of those listening, before ordering
Lee to the rear. Washington then galloped forward and began the task of rallying Lees
disordered troops.
Washington ordered General Wayne with the last of Lees regiments, Stewarts 13th
Pennsylvania and Ramsays 3rd Maryland, to form to the North of the road and hold the
British advance. These regiments resisted strongly but were driven back by the British
16th Light Dragoons. Their stand gave Washington the time to form the rest of the
American army, with artillery on Combs Hill to the South of the road enfilading the
attacking British foot. Fierce fighting took place as the British attempted to drive back the
American line. This was the first test of Steubens re-trained American Continental Foot
regiments and they withstood the trial well. As the evening wore on the British troops fell
back and returned to their journey north, leaving the Americans on the field.

99

Casualties:
The British suffered some 300 casualties and
the Americans 350. Up to 100 men are thought
to have died of heatstroke during the battle.

During the march from Philadelphia Clintons

army lost around 550 deserters, of whom 450
were from the Hessian regiments. This is a
striking figure. In the course of a few days
Clinton lost the equivalent of a battalion. Many of
these men will have joined American regiments.
Follow-up:
Clinton continued the march to Sandy Hook
where his army was embarked and carried by the
Royal Navy to New York. The operation to retake
Pennsylvania and New Jersey ended, leaving
British fortunes at a low ebb.

Major General Charles Lee

Regimental anecdotes and traditions:

Major General Charles Lee demanded and
received trial by court martial for his performance
at the battle. He was convicted and sentenced to
one years suspension from duty. Fortescue, the
historian of the British Army, seems convinced
that Lees conduct arose from treacherous
motives.

Some US authorities categorise Lee as a traitor. Lee is a strange and interesting character.
He first arrived in America as a captain in Halketts 44th Regiment, taking part in
Braddocks disastrous march to the Ohio River during 1755. Lee continued to serve
during the French and Indian War. He was given the nickname of Boiling Water by the
Iroquois due to his temper. He was also the subject of an assassination attempt by
members of his regiment.
After the war he left the British Army and joined the Polish Army, apparently rising to the
rank of General. Unable to obtain senior rank in the British Army, Lee returned to
America and joined the American Army, achieving his ambition of senior command. It
seems more likely that Lees flawed character caused his command failings rather than
deliberate treachery.
During the battle Molly Pitcher, the wife of an American gunner officer, is said to have
taken over the firing of her husbands cannon, when the crew became casualties.

100

Deborah Sampson's family was very poor. She was the oldest of
six children. Her father deserted his family and went to sea
on a ship. When her mother could no longer feed her family,
she sent them to live with friends and relatives.
Eventually, at the age of 8 to 10 years old, she became an
indentured * servant. She worked on a farm and worked
very hard. She learned to sew and spin. She could hunt, ride
a horse, and even do carpenter work. She loved to learn and
would get the boys in the family to teach her the lessons
they were learning in school. She learned so well that she
later became a teacher.
During the Revolutionary War she wanted to help, but they
did not allow girls to join the army. She decided she could
join the army if she pretended to be a man. She practiced
walking and talking like a man until she could even fool her
mother. She was ready. She became an enlisted * "man"
using the name Robert Shurtleff.
She was tall for a woman; 5 foot and 7 inches, so her fellow
soldiers thought she was a short man. They teased
"Robert" because he didn't have to shave, but they just
thought this "boy" was too young to grow a beard.
"Robert" was a good, brave soldier and volunteered * for
some dangerous jobs. The other soldiers were proud of
him. Deborah became the aide * , or personal helper of the
general. She served him his meals and took care of his
clothes for him.
Things were going well until she was wounded in battle.
She let the doctor treat the wound on her head, but she
removed the bullet from her leg by herself with a penknife
and a needle. Her leg never did heal properly, but her secret
was still safe. She was afraid if they found out she was a
girl, they would shoot her.
Later she developed a fever and was put in the hospital. The
doctor discovered that "Robert" was actually a woman. He
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took her to his family's home to get well. She was given an
honorable discharge * from the army.
After she left the army, she married a farmer named
Benjamin Gannett and they had three children. She taught
at a school and also would give talks or lectures about her
experiences in the war. At the end of her lectures, she would
leave the stage and then come back onstage dressed in her
uniform and go through the soldier's routine with the gun.
Paul Revere wrote a letter to Congress asking for her to be
given a pension * . She began receiving four dollars a
month.
She died at the age of sixty-six.

Battle: CAMDEN

War: American Revolutionary War

Date: 16th August 1780
Place: South Carolina, United States of America
Combatants: British and Germans against the Americans
Generals: Major General Lord Cornwallis against Major General Horatio
Gates

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Death of Baron Von Kalb at the Battle of Camden

Size of the armies: The British comprised 1,500 hundred regulars and 500 militia.
The American army comprised 1,500 Continental troops and some 1,500 militia.
Uniforms, arms and equipment: The British regulars wore red coats and as
headgear, the bearskin mitre cap for grenadiers, leather caps for light infantry and
cocked three cornered hats for battalion companies. The American Continental
troops wore similar uniforms in blue. The militia of each side wore what the men
chose. Weapons were muskets and some light field guns. The regulars of each side
were equipped with bayonets. The militia did not have bayonets.
Winner: The British

British Regiments:
23rd Foot, the Royal Welch Fusiliers
33rd Foot, now the Duke of Wellingtons Regiment
Two battalions of Frasers 71st Highlanders
Lord Rawdons Irish Volunteers
Tarletons Legion
Loyalist militia
American Regiments:
1st Maryland
2nd Maryland
Delaware regiment
103

North Carolina militia

Virginia militia.
Account:
In January 1780 Major General Clinton who had taken over as British commander-inchief in America from Major General Howe took a force from New York and captured
Charleston, the provincial capital of South Carolina. Storms caused substantial loss of
guns and horses on the journey.
Clinton returned to New York leaving to Major General Cornwallis the task of capturing
the rest of South Carolina.
On 18th May Cornwallis sent Colonel Banastre Tarleton with foot and light dragoons in
pursuit of an American force commanded by Colonel Burford. Tarleton overtook Burford
at Camden near the border with North Carolina and defeated him.
Cornwallis arrived at Camden which over the next few months became an important base
of operations for the British and in which supplies were assembled.

Battle of Camden

104

In July an American army under Major General Horatio Gates had marched from the
North and was threatening the British in South Carolina.
The British were commanded at Camden by Lord Rawdon, Cornwallis having returned to
Charleston. Rawdon advanced from Camden to meet the Americans and took a position
on a creek to the North-East of the town. On Gates approach Rawdon fell back to
Camden.
On 14th August Cornwallis joined his troops in Camden with the determination to attack
Gates. He made a night advance which collided with the Americans who were also
advancing to make an assault.
The battlefield lay between two swamps which narrowed the front and secured the flanks.
Cornwallis formed his army in two brigades, Colonel Webster on the right with the
companies of Light Infantry, the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and the 33rd Foot and on the
left Lord Rawdon on the left with the Irish Volunteers, Tarletons infantry and some
loyalist provincial units. Two battalions of Frasers 71st Highlanders provided a reserve.

The British Attack

Gates drew up his army with the regiments of the Continental Army on the right under
Gist, Kalbs 2nd Maryland and a Delaware regiment, his centre under Caswell of North
Carolina militia and his right under Stevens of Virginia militia. Smallwood commanded
the reserve of the 1st Maryland.

105

Gates ordered his left wing of militia to attack the

opposing British units. As they began to move
forward the British launched a counter attack along
the whole line. Ill-trained and largely without
bayonets with which to conduct close quarter
fighting, the American militia retreated off the field
leaving Websters regiments to turn on the flank of
the American right wing where the Continental
units were putting up a stiff fight and continued to
do so for some time. Tarletons cavalry finally
attacked the American right wing in the rear
causing the units to break. The British cavalry
pursued the retreating Americans for some twenty
miles.

Gates, the American commander appears to have left

the battlefield with the first of the militia and ridden a
considerable distance before drawing rein, leaving his
subordinate commanders to fight on with the right
flank. His reputation was destroyed. Baron Von Kalb,
a German in the American service, particularly
distinguished himself before being killed.
Casualties: The British lost 324 killed and wounded,
100 being from the 33rd. The American casualties
were 1,000 killed and wounded and 1,000 lost as
prisoners. 7 guns were taken with all the American
stores and baggage.

General Horatio Gates

Follow-up: The battle ensured the British hold on South Carolina for the time being. But
as with all the British victories in the war, Camden provided only a short respite before
the inexorable course of American success continued
Battle: COWPENS
War: American Revolutionary War
Date: 17th January 1781
Place: South Carolina on the border with North
Carolina, United States of America
Combatants: Americans against the British and
loyalist Americans
Generals: Colonel Daniel Morgan against
Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton

A British 17th Light Dragoon

106

Size of the armies: The Americans had around 1,000 men and the British around
1,100.
Uniforms, arms and equipment: The British wore red coats and headgear of
bearskin caps, leather caps or tricorne hats depending on whether the troops were
grenadiers, light infantry or battalion company men. The two regiments of light
dragoons serving in America, the 16th and 17th, wore red coats and leather crested
helmets.
Tarletons legion had a uniform of green and the cavalry wore light dragoon
helmets. The American continental regiments were largely clothed in blue.
The militia of each side wore what they
could get. The British fought with musket
and bayonet as did the American
Continental troops. Some of the militia from
the back country of Virginia, the Carolinas
and Georgia carried rifles and in many
cases the Pennsylvania small calibre long
rifle developed by the German gunsmiths of
that colony. It was these riflemen who at
the beginning of the battle shot down so
many British officers and destroyed the
proper control of the British line.

Winner: The Americans, overwhelmingly.

British Regiments:
17th Light Dragoons
7th Foot the Royal Fusiliers now the Royal
Regiment of Fusiliers
a battalion of 71st Frasers Highlanders
(disbanded after the war)
Royal Artillery with two 3 pounder guns
Tory militia
American Regiments:
William Washingtons dragoons
Maryland Continentals
Delaware Continentals
Virginia Militia
North Carolina Militia
Georgia Militia

Lieutenant Colonel Banastre

Tarleton of the 17th Light
Dragoons, British commander at
the Battle of Camden and
commander of the notorious
Tarletons Legion

Account:
The war in the southern colonies had become something of a stalemate, neither side
having sufficient strength to hazard full out offensive operations. The fighting was

107

conducted by raiding columns and guerilla activity. Both sides behaved with
unrestrained ferocity.

Battle of Cowpens
Tarleton had made his reputation in the southern colonies as a ruthless and impetuous
commander. Pursued by Tarleton, Morgan determined to make a stand by the Broad
River. He selected a simple position on two low hills in open woodland in the expectation
that Tarleton would make a headlong attack without pausing to devise a more subtle plan.
Morgan was correct in his assessment of Tarletons actions.
Morgan placed the Georgia and North Carolina militia in front of his line with a further
screen of riflemen to their front. His main line was on the first and higher hill and
Washingtons dragoons were placed behind the hill. He had no guns.
Morgans men had a nights sleep and breakfast in their positions.
Tarleton marched his force onto the battlefield and attacked immediately. His first move
was to send the 17th Light Dragoons to disperse the riflemen. The dragoons were driven
back by accurate fire.

108

Tarleton formed his infantry line

and began the advance; the
Light Infantry on the right, the
infantry of his legion in the
centre and the 7th Royal
Fusiliers on the left. Troops of
light dragoons flanked the foot.
The reserve comprised the 71st
Highlanders and the cavalry of
Tarletons legion.

Morgans riflemen opened fire on

the British line and made a point
of shooting down the epaulettes
(the officers), before falling back
behind the main American line.

Militia urged in to Battle

A troop of light dragoons pursued the riflemen and

were attacked and driven back by Washingtons
dragoons.

As the British foot attacked, the 71st Highlanders

extended the line to the left, outflanking the Americans.
The American line withdrew but in good order. The
British line lost its cohesion as it hurried to pursue the
Americans who halted and gave fire before Washingtons
dragoons again attacked, this time in the rear of the
British line.

General Nathanial Greene

The Americans went onto the offensive and the British

line was overwhelmed. The 71st continued to fight until
finally forced to surrender. Only the Royal Artillery
gunners fought until they were all killed or wounded.

Tarleton fled the field with the remnants of his column, the cavalry of his legion having
refused to charge from the reserve.

109

Colonel Washington and his dragoons attacking the British Light Dragoons
Casualties:
The British lost 39 officers and 60 soldiers killed. 829 were captured. 12 Americans were
killed and 60 wounded. The Americans captured the British baggage and the colours of
the 7th Foot.
Follow-up:
This small battle had an effect disproportionate to its size. As
seemed to be the case throughout the war British victories
achieved little in the long term while every American victory
gave encouragement to the colonies.

Tradition and anecdote:

The Americans gave Tarletons quarter to the surrendering
British and Loyalist troops- a bayonet in the stomach- until
restrained by their officers, an indication of the depths of ferocity
to which the fighting in the Carolinas descended, substantially due
to the conduct of Tarleton and his Legion.
The 3 pounder guns were known as grasshoppers.
References

Colonel "Light Horse" Harry Lee

110

The Battle of Guilford

Courthouse 1781
Battle: Guildford
Courthouse

War: American
Revolutionary War
Date: 15th March
1781
Place: North
Carolina, United
States of America
Combatants: British
against the Americans
Generals: Major
General Lord
Cornwallis against
Major General
Nathaniel Greene
Size of the armies:
Around 1,900 British
against 4,400
Americans

A Light Dragoon

Uniforms, arms and equipment: The British wore red coats

and headgear of bearskin caps, leather caps or tricorne hats
depending on whether the troops were grenadiers, light
infantry or battalion company men. Tarletons Legion wore
green uniforms and light dragoon helmets. The German
infantry wore blue coats and retained the Prussian style
grenadier mitre with brass front plate. The Americans dressed
as best they could. Increasingly as the war progressed regular
infantry regiments of the Continental Army wore blue
uniform coats but the militia continued in rough clothing.
Both sides were armed with muskets and guns. The
Pennsylvania regiments carried long, small calibre, rifled
weapons.

111

Battle of Guilford Courthouse

Winner: The British won a Pyrrhic victory.
British Regiments:
1 troop of the 17th Light Dragoons (incorporated in Tarletons
Legion)
2 composite battalions of Foot Guards (comprising men from the
1st, 2nd and 3rd Foot Guards)
23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers
33rd Foot, now the Duke of Wellingtons Regiment
71st Frasers Highlanders (disbanded at the end of the war)
Boses Hessian Regiment
Light Infantry
Royal Artillery
112

Tarletons Light Dragoons

American
Regiment
s:
1st and 5th
Maryland
Regiments
Delaware
Infantry
4th and 5th
Virginia
Regiments
Lees
Legion
Light
Infantry
North
Carolina
militia
Virginia
militia
William
Washington
s Light
Dragoons
2
companies
of artillery
with four 6
pounder
guns

American Continental Line

Account:
After two years of the toughest of campaigning in South and North
Carolina, Cornwallis pursued Greenes army in an attempt to defeat
him before launching the final and ill-fated British invasion of
Virginia.
After a headlong march in which he constantly kept ahead of the
British force, Greene halted to give battle at Guilford. He formed
his army up at the Courthouse. Cornwallis rushed to attack him on
the morning of 15th March 1781, his troops hungry and tired.

113

The British advanced up a road

through thickly wooded country to an
area cleared for grazing a half mile
short of the Courthouse. Beyond this
area the woods continued until the
road reached the Courthouse where
there was another large cleared area.

The first American line was formed

across the northern edge of the first
clearing and extended into the woods on
each side: the North Carolina militia,
Washingtons Legion, Lees Legion, and
Campbells riflemen. Lees and
Washingtons cavalry held the flanks.
While there were initially two guns in
this line, these were withdrawn as the
battle began.
Three hundred and fifty yards further
back in the woods was a second line of
Virginia Militia and at a similar distance
to the rear at the Courthouse was the
third line of two more guns and
Greenes Continental Infantry.

An American Soldier

On the advice of Major Morgan, Greene

placed parties of riflemen behind the
North Carolina militia with orders to
shoot any militiaman who left his post
before he had given the two discharges
required of him.
The Americans opened fire as the British appeared at the edge of
the first clearing. Cornwallis formed his line from the right with
Boses Regiment and the 71st commanded by Major General Leslie
and the 23rd and 33rd commanded by Lieutenant Colonel James
Webster of the 33rd. The second line comprised the two battalions
of Foot Guards, the Light Infantry and the Grenadiers commanded
by Brigadier OHara of the 2nd Coldstream Regiment of Foot
Guards. Tarletons Light Dragoons formed the final reserve.
The British line advanced across the cleared area under heavy
musket fire suffering significant casualties. They were impeded by
the fencing. The British Foot charged and the militia having
delivered the two volleys ordered hurried away through the woods.

114

The British were however

still under fire from the
American units in the
woods on their flanks. The
British line turned to deal
with the menace and the
grenadiers and one
battalion of Foot Guards
moved into the center to
fill the gap.

The British Attack

The British line now

attacked the second line of
Virginians who had been
reinforced by Washingtons
and Lees men and some of
the North Carolina militia.
Webster pushed hard at the
right flank of the American
second line and forced it
back. His men then
immediately attacked the
Continental troops in the
third line. A heavy fire and
a charge repelled Websters
33rd and OHaras Jaegers
and Foot Guards.
Following their charge the
Continental regiments
returned to their positions.
The British left flank was
reinforced with the 23rd
and the 71st and the British
attack was renewed. The
American infantry gave
ground but Washingtons
charged the Foot Guards in
the rear and an American
counter attack led to a
savage and confused melee.
At this crisis Cornwallis
ordered his three guns to
fire grape shot into the
struggling mass. American
and Briton were struck
down indiscriminately by

115

this fire but the American

assault was repelled.
Tarleton then charged the
American right flank.
At this juncture Greene withdrew leaving his guns to the British.
There was no pursuit. Cornwallis was left on the field, but his army
was in a sad state. He had suffered heavy casualties which could
not be replaced. He had no supplies and it began to rain heavily.
Webster on whom he relied had been killed and OHara was
wounded.
Casualties:
British casualties were 550 dead and wounded. The Foot Guards
had lost 11 officers of 19 and 200 soldiers of 450.
The American casualties were 250. In addition the North Carolina
militia who left the field did not return
Follow-up:
Following the battle Cornwallis began his move into Virginia
which led finally to Yorktown and his surrender.
References:
History of the British Army by Sir John Fortescue
The War of the Revolution by Christopher Ward

Cornwalliss Road to Yorktown

The road that led the British to defeat at Yorktown had begun with great
promise in the previous year. Operating under the belief that the majority of
the population of the south were actually loyalists, held down by a rebel
minority, the British abandoned their attempts to win the war in the north,
and switched to a southern strategy. There had been little activity in the
south during the early years of the war, but the British still held Florida,
from where they could threaten Georgia. In March 1778 a British expedition
had managed to capture Savannah, and briefly threatened to return the entire
state of Georgia to British rule. At the end of 1779 a more serious attempt
was made to win the war in the south. The British commander in chief in
North America, General Henry Clinton, sailed from New York with an army
some 8,000 strong. Their target was Charleston, capital of South Carolina,
and the fourth largest city in the United States. In a siege that lasted from 1
April to 12 May 1780, Clinton captured the city. The southern strategy
appeared to be working. A proclamation of clemency looked as if it might
116

restore British rule in South Carolina, making it the first state to return to
loyalty after the rebellion. However, a second proclamation requiring those
on parole to agree to support all British measures was too much and many
men who might otherwise have stayed at home instead returned to the fray.
At the end of June news reached Clinton of a possible French attack on New
York, and he left the south, taking with him 4,000 of his best men and
leaving Charles Cornwallis in charge. Cornwallis had served well in a series
of subordinate roles, and was eager to take command, but his experience of
independent command was not to be pleasant. South Carolina rapidly
descended into chaos. A significant number of loyalists did now appear, but
so did as many rebels. Moreover, the actions of the loyalists were often
indistinguishable from banditry, and forced many ex-rebels back into the
field. Cornwallis was forced to establish bases across the state, each one a
drain on British resources. One of the British bases, at Camden, attracted the
attention of the newly appointed American commander in the south, Horatio
Gates. Cornwallis was able to reach Camden before Gates, and on 16 August
1780 inflicted a crushing defeat on the Americans (Battle of Camden).
This was the high point of Cornwalliss campaign. In September he launched
an invasion of North Carolina, which never achieved any momentum and
had to be abandoned after the force guarding his left flank was destroyed at
the battle of Kings Mountain (7 October 1780). The following year
Cornwallis launched another invasion of North Carolina. Once again, his
campaign was crippled by the lost of a major detachment, this time at the
battle of Cowpens (17 January 1781), where Tarletons Legion was badly
mauled by Daniel Morgan. After a futile attempt to chase down Morgan,
Cornwallis decided to retreat south. The new American commander,
Nathanael Greene, followed south with a force that outnumbered Cornwallis.
On 15 March 1781 Greene decided he was ready to offer battle, but despite
outnumbering the British two to one the battle of Guilford Court House was
a British victory. The problem for Cornwallis was that he could not afford
the loses he had suffered in victory. It was clear that the expected loyalist
risings in North Carolina were not happening. Cornwallis looked for a new
strategy, and his mind moved to Virginia and the Chesapeake. Early in 1781
a British army commanded by Benedict Arnold had established itself on the
coast of Virginia. Cornwallis proposed a British concentration in Virginia,
supported by troops from New York. With a large army at his disposal,
Cornwallis could then attempt to win a decisive victory. He had not learnt
from his time in the Carolinas that battlefield victories would not lead to a
117

restoration of British control over the colonies. If Camden had not restored
British control over South Carolina, then why should a victory in Virginia be
any different?
Abandoning his command in the Carolinas, Cornwallis and a weary band of
just 1,000 men made their way north to Virginia. They finally reached
Petersburg, Virginia, at the end of May. He arrived to find his friend William
Phillips had died five days earlier. The 5,000 British troops in Virginian were
now under the command of Benedict Arnold, with orders to establish a base
on the Chesapeake but not to undertake any major action. Clinton received
news of Cornwalliss move at about the same time he arrived in Virginia. He
had no interest in the idea of a major campaign on the Chesapeake, and was
obsessed with the possibility of a French led attack on New York. His orders
to Cornwallis were for him to establish a naval base on the Chesapeake,
capable of sheltering ships of the line. If this base had been established, the
British would have had a line of strongholds from New York to Charleston
that would have allowed them to strike at will along most of the American
coast. Clinton also ordered Cornwallis to prepare to return some of his
troops to New York to prepare for a planned expedition into Pennsylvania.
Cornwallis was free to act almost at will in Virginia. The Marquis de
Lafayette had command of the small American army present to face him, but
only agile manoeuvring on his part kept his army safe. One mistake could
have been fatal. On 6 July Anthony Wayne came close to disaster when he
was ambushed by Cornwallis at Greenspring and was only extracted with
difficulty. The disaster to come was not inevitable. At any point before midSeptember Cornwallis could simply have marched away south. After
receiving a series of contradictory orders over the summer, Cornwallis
finally decided to fortify Yorktown with his entire force, taking advantage of
Clintons orders to return any troops he could spare. On 2 August, the British
forces began to dig in at their new base.
Opportunity Spotted
While Cornwallis threatened Virginia, the Americans were still based around
New York. The French army, commanded by the Comte de Rochambeau,
was based at Newport, Rhode Island, while their fleet received a new
commander, the Comte de Barras, in May. Rochambeau held the unusual
attitude for a French officer that he was subordinate to Washington,
something that was to prove vital in 1781. In the spring of 1781 Washington
was determined to attack New York. His aim was not the capture of the city,
118

which contained the biggest British army in America, but to force Clinton to
recall troops from other theatres of the war. Rochambeau agreed to support
this plan, but little came of it. The British were well dug-in on Manhattan
Island, and the Franco-American armies had great trouble getting into
positions from where they could launch attacks.
In June news reached Washington of another French fleet heading to
American waters. Admiral Grasse had managed to evade the Royal Navy at
Brest, and was heading for the West Indies. It was possible that the
combined French fleets would be able to gain temporary control of the seas
around the United States, but for two months nobody knew where Grasse
would sail, or in what strength. On 14 August, the news finally arrived.
Admiral Grasse, with twenty nine ships and 3,000 men, was heading for
Chesapeake Bay and a collision with Cornwallis.
Washington leapt at the chance to win a major victory. If he could transport
the American and French armies from New York and Newport down to
Yorktown and persuade Admiral Barras to join Admiral Grasse, then
Cornwallis would have little chance of escape. The key was naval control. If
the French fleet lost control of the seas then Clinton could rush troops from
New York, and it would be the British seeking a decisive battle. Washington
decided to take the risk, and was able to gain French support. Now all he had
to do was move the combined armies 450 miles from New York to
Yorktown.
The Trap Closes
First on the scene was Admiral Grasse. His fleet reached Chesapeake Bay at
the end of August, and was anchored inside the Bay by 31 August. Admiral
Thomas Graves, the new British naval commander, took his fleet of nineteen
ships of the line to find and attack the French, and on 5 September managed
to find his battle off the Chesapeake. However, the British were
outnumbered from the start, and for unclear reasons part of the British fleet
did not enter the battle. Despite that, the battle ended with only a slight
French advantage. Graves remained in the area, and was considering another
attack on the French when the second French fleet under Admiral Barras
sailed into the bay. This gave the French a two to one advantage in ships of
the line. On 13 September Graves returned to New York. This is often
considered to be the decisive moment, leaving Cornwallis hopelessly
trapped at Yorktown, but that is to overstate the case. If Graves had won,
then the British position at Yorktown would have been saved, but he sailed
119

back to New York before the main American and French armies had arrived.
Cornwallis could still have escaped back into the south.
That freedom did not last much longer. The march south began on 19
August. This was a dangerous moment if Clinton had realised what was
happening, he could have launched an attack on the American armies as they
marched. To fool him, Washington feinted towards New York, before turning
his armies south. Clinton in New York was uncertain about Washingtons
destination until 2 September, when the American armies had already
reached Philadelphia. The essence of Washingtons plan was speed.
Benjamin Lincoln, in command of the march, managed to get his
Continentals 450 miles south in remarkably good condition. On 28
September the allied armies moved into camp two miles from Yorktown.
Cornwallis was now trapped.
Besieged!
The defences of Yorktown were not strong. The town backed up against the
York River. Opposite Yorktown was the town of Gloucester, also held by the
British. An inner line of defence ran 500 yards from the edge of the town,
but this line was incomplete when the siege began. The outer defences were
even less impressive. About 1200 yards north west of the town was the Star
or Fusiliers redoubt, while 1200 yards south west of the town was the
Pigeon Quarter, a low hill, where Cornwallis had built three redoubts. While
the allied army prepared for the siege, Cornwallis was largely passive,
perhaps in the expectation of relief from New York. His only action was to
abandon the defences in the Pigeon Quarter. These defences may well have
been very vulnerable to allied attack, but by surrendering them Cornwallis
gave the French and Americans a good position for their own artillery.
Cornwallis was badly outnumbered. He had 6,000 regular troops, with
another 1,500 drawn from the fleet for a total of around 7,500 men. Facing
him were 7,000 American regulars, 4,000 militia, 5,000 French regulars and
3,100 French marines (a total of 19,000 men, of whom 12,000 were
professional soldiers). The allies had at least as big an advantage in artillery.
His only hope was that Clinton would send a relief force from New York. If
that was to happen, then it would have to happen quickly. Yorktown could
not hold for long.
Siege warfare at this period was highly formalised. The French and
Americans had the strength to follow the rules. A series of parallels would be
120

build fortifications parallel to the defences, from where a devastating

artillery bombardment could be sent against the defenders. The first parallel,
600 yards from the British line, was started on 6 October. By 9 October they
were ready to open fire. The bombardment was devastating. At such short
range the French artillery was depressingly accurate, with the American
artillery not far behind. On the second day of the bombardment, the British
were forced to stop firing at day to preserve their guns.
Conditions within Yorktown were awful. Nowhere in the town was out of
range of the allied guns even Cornwallis was forced to live underground.
Having had time to prepare, there was no shortage of food in the town, and
the siege was too short for supplies to start to run low. The allies continued
to tighten the siege. A second parallel, only 300 yards from the defences,
was begun on 11 October. This parallel was very vulnerable at first.
Cornwallis had saved his ammunition for just this moment and now ordered
unrestricted firing, but over the next week the allied artillery battered down
the British resistance. On 14 October a successful joint attack was launched
on two British redoubts, which were quickly integrated into the second
parallel. The allies were now in position to launch an assault on Yorktown.
At this late stage, Cornwallis finally took some action. On 15 October a
raiding party broke into the second parallel and managed to spike six guns
before retreating back to their lines. The next day, Cornwallis attempted to
escape. The French and American forces besieging Gloucester were not as
strong or as well dug in as those around Yorktown, so Cornwallis attempted
to ship as many men as possible across the river to attempt a breakout. The
weather intervened, making it impossible for enough troops to be ferried
across quickly enough to gain surprise. Cornwallis had played his last card,
and now prepared to negotiate.
Surrender
On 17 October, Cornwallis sent an officer to Washington with surrender
terms. Two days of negotiations followed. The Americans insisted on the
same terms that the British had imposed at the siege of Charleston. All of the
defenders of Yorktown were to march out and surrender their arms, before
going into captivity. The surrender was signed just before noon on 19
October. Cornwallis could not face the prospect of leading his army out into
surrender, and passed the task onto his second in command. Washington
refused to take the surrender if Cornwallis did not lead it, and so Benjamin

121

Lincoln, Washingtons second in command, accepted the surrender of the

last active British army in North America.
The defeat at Yorktown broke the political will of Britain to continue the
fight. No-one could see any route to eventual victory. Lord Norths
government fell in March 1782. He was replaced by Lord Rockingham, who
was determined to make peace, and restore good relations between Britain
and the colonies. Although the fighting did not end immediately, the issue
was no longer at doubt. A combination of French naval and land power, the
American Continental army and Washingtons determination to strike a blow
against the British had won one of the most decisive of all military victories.

Battle
Lexington
Concord
Fort Ticonderoga
Bunker Hill
Dorchester
Heights
Brooklyn Heights
New York
Fort Washington
Trenton
Princeton
Bennington
Brandywine
Bemis Heights
Germantown
Freeman's Farm
Saratoga

Date
4/18/1775
4/18/1775
5/10/1775
6/17/1775

Who
won?
B
A
A
B

1-3/1776
8/26/1776
9/15/1776
11/16/1776
12/26/1776
1/3/1777
8/1777
9/11/1777
9/19/1777
10/2/1777
10/7/1777
10/17/1777

A
B
B
B
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
A

Howe
Howe
Howe
Howe
Rall
Cornwallis
Baum
Howe
Burgoyne
Howe

Monmouth

6/28/1778

Clinton

B-leaders
Pitcairn
Smith
Delaplace
Gage

Burgoyne

Bstrength
240
1000
42
2200

BCaptureddesertions

5000
32,000

1000
5500

26
42

Bkilled
0
73
0

Bwounded
1
174
0

Bcasualties
1
247
42
1054

5000

5000

18

21
300
974

488

577

868

15,000

106

89

9000

14

5000
10,000

550

122

A-leaders
Parker
militia leaders
Allen/Arnold
Prescott

5000

Washington
Washington
Washington
Greene
Washington
Washington
Warner
Washington
Gates/Arnold
Washington
Stark
Gates/Arnold

850

Washington

551

Charleston
Camden
Cowpens
Guilford Court
House

Yorktown
Treaty of Paris

1/1780
8/16/1780
1/17/1781

B
B
A

Clinton
Cornwallis
Tarleton

2000
1100

324
928

Lincoln
Gates
Morgan

3/15/1781
910/17/1781
1783

Cornwallis

1900

544

Greene

A
A

Cornwallis

7500

7500

99

Political
leaders B
Lord George
Germaine
Lord
North

British commanders

Gage

Howe
Clinton
Cornwallis
Burgoyne
Admiral Howe
Admiral Graves
German commanders
Rall
Baum

Battle
Lexington
Concord
Fort
Ticonderoga
Bunker Hill
Dorchester
Heights
Brooklyn
Heights

829

Washington
Franklin/Adams

Pol leaders A
John Hancock
John Adams
Sam Adams
Ben Franklin

ACapture
AdAAStrengt desertio Awounde Casualti
h
ns
killed d
es
Significance
77
0
8
10
18 A cause
1000?
5
49
39
93 pride
250
850

5000

0 cannon+2 forts
449 pride
0 forced British out of Boston
Lost again at NY

123

New York
Fort
Washington
Trenton
Princeton
Bennington
Brandywine
Bemis
Heights
Germantow
n
Freeman's
Farm
Saratoga
Monmouth
Charleston
Camden
Cowpens
Guilford
Court House
Yorktown
Treaty of
Paris

American
Leaders
Washington
Greene
Charles Lee
Lord Stirling
John Sullivan
Benedict Arnold
Horatio Gates
Daniel Morgan
Francis Marion

10,000

300

2858
4900
3600

2858

16,000

400

15

30

200

500

345 Lost again at NY

2858 Americans lose NY and opens

2 New Jersey may yet be salvag
New Jersey free from British/pr
Maybe a chance in the north fo
1100 Got beat by the British lost Phi

Increasing chance for victory i

400

152

521

13,000
11,000
3000
1000
4400
19,000

12

60

1050

79

182

1073 Good plan, bad luck, pride

Devestation for the British?

Turning point in the War French
350 Hottest day of war, Washingto
Loss of the South?
2000 Loss of South Carolina?
72 Hope for the South; guerilla wa

1311 Race to the Dan, waiting for th

End of the War

American Independence recog

Ambassadors
Adams J.
Franklin

French commanders
Marquis de Lafayette
General Rochambeau
Admiral De Grasse
German
Baron von Steuben

124

Whatever happened to the signers of the Declaration of Independence?

Author unknown
Have you ever wondered what happened to the 56 men who signed the
Declaration of Independence? The history books never told you a lot of what
happened in the Revolutionary War. We didn't just fight the British.
Five signers were captured by the British as traitors, and tortured before
they died.
Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned.
Two lost their sons serving in the Revolutionary Army, another had two
sons captured.
Nine of the 56 fought and died from wounds or hardships of the
Revolutionary War.
They signed and they pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred
honor.
What kind of men were they?
Twenty-four were lawyers and jurists.
Eleven were merchants.
Nine were farmers and large plantation owners.
They were men of means and well educated. But they signed the Declaration
of Independence knowing full well that the penalty would be death if they
were captured.

125

Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships swept
from the seas by the British Navy. He sold his home and properties to pay
his debts, and died in rags.
Thomas McKeam was so hounded by the British that he was forced to move
his family almost constantly. He served in the Congress without pay, and his
family was kept in hiding. His possessions were taken from him, and
poverty was his reward.
Vandals or soldiers looted the properties of Dillery, Hall, Clymer, Walton,
Gwinnett, Heyward, Ruttledge, and Middleton.
At the battle of Yorktown, Thomas Nelson, Jr., noted that the British General
Cornwallis had taken over the Nelson home for his headquarters. He quietly
urged General George Washington to open fire. The home was destroyed,
and Nelson died bankrupt.
Francis Lewis had his home and properties destroyed. The enemy jailed his
wife, and she died within a few months.
John Hart was driven from his wife's bedside as she was dying. Their 13
children fled for their lives. His fields and his gristmill were laid to waste.
For more than a year he lived in forests and caves, returning home to find his
wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later he died from
exhaustion and a broken heart. Norris and Livingston suffered similar fates.
Such were the stories and sacrifices of the American Revolution. These were
not wild-eyed, rabble-rousing ruffians. They were soft-spoken men of means
and education. They had security, but they valued liberty more. Standing tall,
straight, and unwavering, they pledged: "For the support of this declaration,
with firm reliance on the protection of the divine providence, we mutually
pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor."
They gave you and me a free and independent America. We were British
subjects at that time and we fought our own government! Some of us take
these liberties so much for granted...We shouldn't. So, take a couple of
minutes while enjoying your 4th of July holiday and silently thank these
patriots. It's not much to ask for the price they paid.

126

Government during the Revolution and after: Articles of

Confederation, Constitution and Bill of Rights.

Second Continental Congress

A. Took Charge of National Affairs, at times reluctantly, because it
was a poor substitute for a legally constituted government
B. The separate states could not possibly deal with the range of issues
that confronted the American people.
C. If independence meant a world of sovereign actions, it implied the
creation of a central authority capable of conducting war, borrowing
money, regulating trade and negotiating treaties.
John Dickinson's Plan
A. 1776-he shocked delegates, who assumed that the constitution
would authorize a loose confederation of states.
B. His plan placed western territories, land claimed by the separate
states, under congressional control.
1. His plan called for equal state representation in Congress.
2. He also stated that taxes be paid to Congress on the basis of
a states total white and black population.
a. Southerners were not pleased with this part of the plan
in particular.
The rationale behind the Articles of Confederation
A. These articles bore little of the Dickinson plan.
B. These articles jealously guarded the sovereignty of the states.
1. Power is inherently dangerous when so far removed from
the people. The only way to preserve liberty was to place as
many constraints on the federal government as possible.
The details of the Articles of Confederation
A. A single legislative body-unicameral
1. Representatives were elected annually
2. Each state possessed a single vote in Congress.
The # of delegates could range from 2-7 from each state.

127

If the delegates divided evenly the state lost its vote.

There was NO independent executive.
Hence, there was no legislative veto.
C. It denied Congress the power to tax.
This was a serious problem during an ongoing war with Great
Britain.
It could only ask states for contributions called requisitions.
Amendments could be made to this constitution only by
unanimous assent by all thirteen states.
They expected a powerless national government to handle
foreign relations, military matters, Native American affairs and
interstate disputes.
They did not award Congress ownership of land west of the
Appalachian Mountains.
VI
Reception from the states for ratification was greeted with a mixture
of apathy and hostility
When a British army marched through a state creating a need
for immediate military aid, people spoke positively about a
stronger central government, but as soon as the threat passed,
they changed their minds.
Even the slightest encroachment upon state sovereignty rankled
the extreme republicans.
Who owns the West? (1775-1781)
Virginia and Georgia had wide claims to the West
Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina also
announced intentions to seize blocks of western land.
Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey had no such claims.
These "landless" states refused to ratify the Articles of Confederation
Maryland was particularly obstinate.
The people of Maryland threatened to abandon that state and leave it a
wasteland and settle some of Virginia's claimed territory if Virginia
did not disclaim some of this land.
Virginia knew that Maryland had a number of speculators of land,
wanting to make a buck. These private land companies had sprung up
before the Revolution and purchased new tracts of land from the Native
128

Americans in areas claimed by Virginia. Virginia asked legislators to

legitimize these claims.
These efforts failed due to staunch supporters from the illustrious Ben
Franklin, Robert Morris, and Thomas Johnson, Governor of Maryland.
Virginia did not care about these arguments, and they remained firm.
Delaware and New Jersey joined the union, but Maryland held out for five
years.
Virginia agreed to nullify their claims north of the Ohio River to the
Confederation on the condition that Congress nullify the land companies
claims from the Native Americans.
Virginia feared that others would look at them like the colonies
looked at Great Britain, the people west of the mountains as a colonial
power insensitive to their needs. Thomas Jefferson played a major part in
this philosophy.
Maryland grumbled over the loss of their dreamed fortunes, however
when a British garrison appeared on their border, they accepted the Articles
of Confederation March 1, 1781.
Setting up the New government
No one greeted the ratification of the Articles of Confederation with
jubilation. The people were still occupied with winning independence
and not worrying so much about their new government.
The new government set up a bureaucracy.
The Department of War, Foreign Affairs and Finance were all
created.
Robert Morris was appointed the first superintendent of finance. He was
from Philadelphia, and his critics called him the most dangerous man in
America. They believed him to be a dictator. The critics also thought he
would undermine the power of the states, and seize the power of taxation.
He was by far the most influential man in this time period under this
government.

129

The Articles Major Achievements

The Articles of Confederation did bring order to western settlement,
especially in the Northwest Territory and incorporated frontier Americans
into an expanding federal system.
Thomas Jefferson, in 1784, then serving as a member of Congress, drafted
an ordinance that became the basis for later more enduring legislation.
Jefferson recommended carving ten new states out of the western lands
located north of the Ohio River and recently ceded to the United States by
Virginia.
When the population of a territory equaled that of the smallest state already
in the Confederation, the region could apply for statehood. In the meantime
free adults could participate in local government.
This idea was too radical for his contemporaries. The idea was a little too
much of a democratic guarantee for them.
A second ordinance passed in 1785 called the Land Ordinance of 1785,
marked off townships by the work of surveyors from east to west.
1) These units, 6 miles square, were subdivided into 36
separate sections of 640 acres (1 square mile each).
2) The units were sold for $1 an acre, with a minimum
purchase of 640 acres.
3) The land could only be sold in specie. (hard money such as
gold and silver, no paper money)
4) Section 16 was set aside for public education.
5) The government set aside four other sections for its own use.
The fear of the uncultured little better than savage settlers of the
west image helped to shape the next ordinance of 1787.

130

The Northwest Ordinance of 1787.

1) This authorized the creation of between 3 and 5 territories each
to be ruled by a governor, a secretary, and 3 judges appointed
by Congress.
2) When the population reached 5000 voters who owned property
the territory could elect an assembly, but its decisions were
subject to the governor's absolute veto.
3) Once the population hit sixty thousand they could write a
constitution and petition for full statehood.
4) A bill of rights to this constitution should guarantee due
process of law.
5) These territories outlawed slavery in the future states of Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin.
Population overload
South of the Ohio River was settled in a very chaotic fashion.
In 1775, the population of Kentucky was approximately one
hundred. By 1784, the population had jumped to thirty
thousand.
Many cross claims for these lands allowed for many lawsuits for years to
come.
One group of settlers tried to make a state of present day Tennessee using the
name Franklin, however North Carolina already had claims to this land.
By 1790, the entire region south of the Ohio River, had been transformed
into a crazy quilt of claims and counterclaims for a long time.
Weakness of the Articles of Confederation
Economic frustration after the war was unexpected and harsh.
Recovery was slow. However, being deprived so long from the finer things
in life allowed for some misgivings. The new country was already trading
with Great Britain before the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783.
131

These merchants were offering easy credit, and it hurt the consumers greatly.
Transactions were flowing across the Atlantic at such a large pace that it
didn't allow for hard currency to back the paper money here in the United
States.
When British merchants called for their debts- thriftless Americans fell into
bankruptcy.
James Wilson a strong national government advocate said, "We seemed to
have forgot that to pay was as necessary in trade as to purchase."
One cannot blame the new government's problems all on the Articles of
Confederation. Although a stronger national government would have
helped.
The Articles of Confederation could not regulate trade.
Since one vote could block any action this constitution was soon seen as
useless.
If the north needed regulation on trade the south with their
booming tobacco, rice and cotton industries would fear
regulation on them from foreign countries, so they would veto
any regulation.
The problem of currency.
During the war Congress printed over $200 million in paper
currency, but because of an extraordinary high rate of inflation, the
rate of exchange for Continental bills soon declined to a fraction of
their face value.
Congress asked the states for their money back.
The states not only did not give it back, but they began
circulating it.
The states then started printing their own worthless currency.
Soldiers who fought in the Revolutionary War had yet to be
paid.
Citizens who had loaned the government money now wanted
reimbursement.

132

Foreign creditors demanded interest on funds advanced to the

new government during the Revolution. (France, Spain and the
Netherlands.)
The Articles could not tax the American people.
The young government was about to default if something was
not done quickly.
The nationalists people like James Madison, Alexander
Hamilton and Robert Morris called for major constitutional
reforms.
The chief reform was to be able to collect a 5% tax on annual
earnings to help pay off the national debt.
Rhode Island would not cooperate and since only one
vote was necessary to block the taxing plan; it was dead.
Morris tried to create a national bank. Samuel Adams and
Richard Henry Lee moved to dissuade others of the idea.
They felt Morris would keep it all in his pocket.
The Newburgh Conspiracy of 1783 started because the army
was not being paid and they were afraid they were going to be
disbanded without their pensions. They threatened to pressure
the weak government. However a visit from Washington made
them teary eyed and they went home.
In April of 1783, the opponents of this taxation amendment
said, "If permanent funds are given to Congress, the
Aristrocratic Influence, which predominates in more than a
major part of the United States will fully establish an arbitrary
government." With this defeat Robert Morris resigned from
government and Madison returned to Virginia utterly depressed.
Diplomacy Problems
1. In foreign affairs, Congress could not even enforce the
provisions of their own peace treaty.

133

American negotiators promised Great Britain that they could

collect pre-war claims. However some states dragged their heels
on agreeing to this and others outright blocked it.
The British refused to leave their Northwest posts until the matter
was cleared up.
The weak national government could not even drive the British out
because they lacked funding to do so and without the support of all
the states they could not raise the army to do such a mission.
Spain claimed land between Georgia and the Mississippi River.
Spain closed the Mississippi River to free use to all American
merchants.
a. This crushed the farmer looking for future opportunities here.
They needed national intervention.
John Jay spoke with a Spanish official Don Diego de Gardoquitalks went nowhere. Jay had little support from Congress.
By the mid-1780's Congress had squandered whatever respect it
may once have enjoyed. It met irregularly, and some states didn't
even send delegates.
a.Pressing issues often had to be postponed for lack of a
quorum.
The nation even lacked a permanent Capitol and Congress
drifted from Philadelphia to Princeton, to Annapolis, to New
York City.
Restructuring the Republic
Thoughtful Americans agreed something had to be done. By 1785, the
country seemed to have lost direction.
Montesquieu's theories on a republican government.
A republican government could not flourish in a large territory.
The reasons were clear.
1) If the people lost direct control over their representatives
they would fall prey to tyrants.
134

2) Large distances allowed rulers to hide their corruption.

3) Physical separation presented aristocrats with
opportunities to seize power.
These ideas were held as self-evident truths by most Americans.
James Madison rejected these claims and helped Americans to think of
republican government in exciting new ways.

Te
xt
B

Conventi
on

members

William
Robert

Paterson
Yates

Roger

Sherman

Oliver
Luther

Ellsworth
Martin

James
John

Wilson
Dickinson

State
New
Jersey
New York
Connectic
ut
Connectic
ut
Maryland
Pennsylv
ania
Delaware

James

Madison

Virginia

George
Gouvene
ur
Edmund

Washington

Charles

Pinckney

Ben
Alexande
r

Franklin

Virginia
Pennsylv
ania
Virginia
South
Carolina
Pennsylv
ania

Robert
Major
William
John

Morris

John
George
General
Charles

Rutledge
Mason
Cotesworth
Pinckney

Elbridge
William

Gerry
Leigh Pierce

Morris
Randolph

Hamilton

Jackson
Lansing Jr.

New York
Pennsylv
ania
South
Carolina
New York
South
Carolina
Virginia
South
Carolina
Massach
usetts
Georgia

Major Role
Presented New Jersey
Plan
Presented Great
Compromise

Known as the Father of the

Constitution
President of the
Constitutional Convention

Known as Constitution
Charlie
elder statesman

Secretary

135

Student

John
James

Langdon
McHenry

David
James

Brearley
McClurg

New
Hampshir
e
Maryland
New
Jersey
Virginia

Sometimes meetings are very chaotic when making group decisions.

Everyone talks at once, trying to sway others to a different point of view.
A basic knowledge of parliamentary procedure can make the group
decision process more orderly. It is an important skill youth can use
throughout life. Parliamentary procedure is used by most groups as they
conduct their meetings. A few examples where parliamentary procedure
is practiced include Congress, county commissioners, school boards,
local fair boards and county 4-H clubs and committees.
What Is Parliamentary Procedure?
It is an organized method for a group to accomplish their goals in an
effective, fair, and efficient manner. It is effective by providing an
orderly way to conduct the group's business and make decisions. It is fair
because it is a democratic process for making a decision. It is efficient by
keeping the group focused. One item of business is disposed of before
going on to another. Most parliamentary procedure is based on Robert's
Rules of Order which describes procedures on how to conduct items of
business.
4-H meetings are often the first exposure young people will have to
parliamentary procedure. There are volumes of material written on the
fine points of parliamentary procedure, but only the basics are necessary
for 90% of the business conducted at a local 4-H club meeting. Start with
the basics of parliamentary procedure in this fact sheet, then continue to
"learn by doing".
The Motion

136

One of the basics of parliamentary procedure is how to move and dispose

of a motion. Here are the steps to follow:
1. Recognition by the chair. A member seeks permission to speak to
initiate a motion by simply raising his/her hand or standing and
saying "Mister/Madam President..." When the president
recognizes the member, that member has the floor and may speak.
2. The motion. A member should say, "I move that we buy a 4-H
flag." It is not correct to say, "I make a motion that ..."
3. Second. The motion must receive a second before any discussion
begins. A member does not need to be recognized to second a
motion but just states, "I second the motion" or simply "Second".
Obtaining a second indicates that at least two people favor
discussing the motion. If there is no second, the motion is dropped.
4. Discussion. Once the motion has been moved and seconded, its
merits can then be discussed. A member of the group must first be
recognized by the president. The member gives reasons for or
against the motion to the group.
5. Vote. Discussion on a motion may end in three ways: (1) No one
says anything; (2) A member says "I call for the question" which
means that the member wants the motion brought to a vote, or (3)
The president decides that there has been adequate discussion.
Some methods of voting include: voice vote (aye/nay) , a show of
hands, standing, roll call, or by secret ballot. The president should
always call for both sides of the vote even if the vote appears to be
unanimous. The president announces the result of the vote. "The
motion passes/fails." A majority is needed to pass a motion. A
majority is more than half of the members present and voting.
Amendments
There are times when members of the group will want to change the
motion while it is in the discussion phase. This is called an amendment.
It is recommended that only one amendment be permitted per motion. An
amendment generally strikes out, adds, or substitutes words in the main
motion. A motion has been moved and seconded and is being discussed.
To amend a motion:
1. A group member is recognized by the president to speak, then

137

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

says, "I move to amend the motion to buy a 4-H flag by adding the
words 3 ft. x 5 ft."
A second to this amendment is required.
Discussion follows and is for only the amendment, not the original
motion. In the example, members may discuss the merits of a 3 ft.
x 5 ft. size of 4-H flag, not if they are to purchase a flag (original
motion).
When it is time to vote, the president conducts a vote to determine
if the amendment passes. A majority is needed.
If the amendment passed, discussion follows on the motion as
amended. In our example, "I move that we buy a 3 ft. x 5 ft. 4-H
flag".
After discussion, a vote is taken on the motion as amended. A
majority is needed.
If the amendment did not pass, discussion on the original motion
continues, which in our example, is "to buy a 4-H flag."
After discussion, a vote is taken on the motion. A majority vote is
needed.

Tip: For less formal meetings, such as 4-H club meetings, it may be best
to introduce complicated ideas by discussion before the motion is made.
This eliminates the need for most amendments.
To Lay On Or Take From The Table
There are times when there is a reason to delay the decision on a motion.
Perhaps there is not enough information to make a decision. The
procedure to do this is called "laying on the table". This delays a decision
until another time.
1. During discussion of a motion, a member is recognized by the
president and says, "I move to lay the motion on the table".
2. Once again, a second is required.
3. There is no discussion permitted. The group proceeds directly to
vote whether to table the motion or not. A majority is needed.

Virginia Plan
See also the Text of the Plan in the Notes on Debates in the

138

Federal Convention of 1787 Reported by James Madison

[Quoted from Hunt, Gaillard, and Scott, James B., ed. Debates in
the Federal Convention of 1787 Reported by James
Madison. (New York, 1920), pp. 23-26.]
1. Resolved that the Articles of Confederation ought to be so corrected &
enlarged as to accomplish the objects proposed by their institution; namely,
"common defence, security of liberty and general welfare."
2. Resd therefore that the rights of suffrage in the National Legislature ought
to be proportioned to the Quotas of contribution, or to the number of free
inhabitants, as the one or the other rule may seem best in different cases.
3. Resd that the National Legislature ought to consist of two branches.
4. Resd that the members of the first branch of the National Legislature ought
to be elected by the people of the several States every _______ for the term
of ______ ; to be of the age of years at least, to receive liberal stipends by
which they may be compensated for the devotion of their time to(1) public
service; to be ineligible to any office established by a particular State, or
under the authority of the United States, except those peculiarly belonging to
the functions of the first branch, during the term of service, and for the space
of after its expiration; to be incapable of reelection for the space of after the
expiration of their term of service, and to be subject to recall.
5. Resold that the members of the second branch of the National Legislature
ought to be elected by those of the first, out of a proper number of persons
nominated by the individual Legislatures, to be of the age of _____ years at
least; to hold their offices for a term sufficient to ensure their independency;
(2) to receive liberal stipends, by which they may be compensated for the
devotion of their time to(3) public service; and to be ineligible to any office
established by a particular State, or under the authority of the United States,
except those peculiarly belonging to the functions of the second branch,
during the term of service, and for the space of _____ after the expiration
thereof.
6. Resolved that each branch ought to possess the right of originating Acts;
that the National Legislature ought to be impowered to enjoy the Legislative
Rights vested in Congress bar the Confederation & moreover to legislate in
all cases to which the separate States are incompetent, or in which the
139

harmony of the United States may be interrupted by the exercise of

individual Legislation; to negative all laws passed by the several States,
contravening in the opinion of the National Legislature the articles of Union;
(4) and to call forth the force of the Union agst any member of the Union
failing to fulfill its duty under the articles thereof.
7. Resd that a National Executive be instituted; to be chosen by the National
Legislature for the term of years,(5) to receive punctually at stated times, a
fixed compensation for the services rendered, in which no increase or(6)
diminution shall be made so as to affect the Magistracy, existing at the time
of increase or diminution, and to be ineligible a second time; and that
besides a general authority to execute the National laws, it ought to enjoy the
Executive rights vested in Congress by the Confederation.
8. Resd that the Executive and a convenient number of the National
Judiciary, ought to compose a Council of revision with authority to examine
every act of the National Legislature before it shall operate, & every act of a
particular Legislature before a Negative thereon shall be final; and that the
dissent of the said Council shall amount to a rejection, unless the Act of the
National Legislature be again passed, or that of a particular Legislature be
again negatived by of the members of each branch.
9. Resd that a National Judiciary be established to consist of one or more
supreme tribunals, and of inferior tribunals to be chosen by the National
Legislature, to hold their offices during good behaviour; and to receive
punctually at stated times fixed compensation for their services, in which no
increase or diminution shall be made so as to affect the persons actually in
office at the time of such increase or diminution. that the jurisdiction of the
inferior tribunals shall be to hear & determine in the first instance, and of the
supreme tribunal to hear and determine in the dernier resort, all piracies &
felonies on the high seas, captures from an enemy; cases in which foreigners
or citizens of other States applying to such jurisdictions may be interested,
or which respect the collection of the National revenue; impeachments of
any National officers, and questions which may involve the national peace
and harmony.
10. Resolvd that provision ought to be made for the admission of States
lawfully arising within the limits of the United States, whether from a
voluntary junction of Government & Territory on otherwise, with the
consent of a number of voices in the National legislature less than the whole.

140

11. Resd that a Republican Government & the territory of each State, except
in the instance of a voluntary junction of Government & territory, ought to
be guarantied by the United States to each State
12. Resd that provision ought to be made for the continuance of Congress
and their authorities and privileges, until a given day after the reform of the
articles of Union shall be adopted, and for the completion of all their
engagements.
13. Resd that provision ought to be made for the amendment of the Articles
of Union whensoever it shall seem necessary, and that the assent of the
National Legislature ought not to be required thereto.
14. Resd that the Legislative Executive & Judiciary powers within the
several States ought to be bound by oath to support the articles of Union.
15. Resd that the amendments which shall be offered to the Confederation,
by the Convention ought at a proper time, or times, after the approbation of
Congress to be submitted to an assembly or assemblies of Representatives,
recommended by the several Legislatures to be expressly chosen by the
people, to consider & decide thereon.(7)

(1) The word "the" is here inserted in the transcript. Back

(2) The word "independency" is changed to "independence" in the transcript.
Back
(3) The word "the " is here inserted in the transcript. Back
(4) The phrase "or any treaty subsisting under the authority of the Union " is
here added inthe transcript. Back
(5) The word "years" is omitted in the transcript. Back
(6) The word "or" is changed to "nor" in the transcript. Back
(7) The fifteen resolutions. constituting the "Virginia Plan," are in Madison's
handwriting. Back

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Charles Pinckneys Plan

1. A Confederation between the free and independent States of N. H. etc. is
hereby solemnly made uniting them together under one general
superintending Government for their common Benefit and for their Defense
and Security against all Designs and Leagues that may be injurious to their
Interests and against all Forc[e] [?](1) and Attacks offered to or made upon
them or any of them.
2. The Stile
3. Mutual Intercourse-Community of Privileges-Surrender of CriminalsFaith to Proceedings etc.
4. Two Branches of the Legislature-Senate-- House of Delegates-together the
U. S. in Congress assembled
H. D. to consist of one Member for every thousand Inhabitants 3/5 of Blacks
included
Senate to be elected from four Districts-to serve by Rotation of four years-to
be elected by the H. D. either from among themselves or the People at large
5. The Senate and H. D. shall by joint Ballot annually chuse the Presidt U. S.
from among themselves or the People at large.-In the Presdt the executive
authority of the U. S. shall be vested.- His Powers and Duties-He shall have
a Right to advise with the Heads of the different Departments as his Council
6. Council of Revision, consisting of the Presidt S. for for. Affairs, S. of War,
Heads of the Departments of Treasury and Admiralty or any two of them
togr wt the Presidt.
7. The Members of S. and H. D. shall each have one Vote, and shall be paid
out of the common Treasury.
8. The Time of the Election of the Members of the H. D. and of the Meeting
of U. S. in C. assembled.

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9. No State to make Treaties-lay interfering Duties-keep a naval or land

Force Militia excepted to be disciplined etc. according to the Regulations of
the U. S.
10. Each State retains its Rights not expressly delegated-But no Bill of the
Legislature of any State shall become a law till it shall have been laid before
S. and H. D. in C. assembled and received their Approbation.
11. The exclusive Power of S. and H. D. in C. Assembled.
12. The S. and H. D. in C. ass. shall have exclusive Power of regulating
trade and levying Imposts-Each State may lay Embargoes in Times of
Scarcity.
13.-of establishing Post-Offices
14. S. and H. D. in C. ass. shall be the last Resort on Appeal in Disputes
between two or more States; which Authority shall be exercised in the
following Manner etc
15. S. and H. D. in C. ass. shall institute offices and appoint officers for the
Departments of for. Affairs, War, Treasury and Admiralty.
They shall have the exclusive Power of declaring what shall be Treason and
Misp. of Treason agt U. S.-and of instituting a federal judicial Court, to
which an Appeal shall be allowed from the judicial Courts of the several
States in all Causes wherein Questions shall arise on the Construction of
Treaties made by U. S.-or on the Laws of Nations-or on the Regulations of
U. S. concerning Trade and Revenue-or wherein U. S. shall be a Party-The
Court shall consist of Judges to be appointed during good Behaviour-S and
H. D. in C. ass. shall have the exclusive Right of instituting in each State a
Court of Admiralty and appointing the Judges etc of the same for all
maritime Causes which may arise therein respectively.
16. S and H. D. in C. Ass shall have the exclusive Right of coining Moneyregulating its Alloy and Value-fixing the Standard of Weights and Measures
throughout U. S.
I7. Points in which the Assent of more than a bare Majority shall be
necessary.

143

18. Impeachments shall be by the H. D. before the Senate and the Judges of
the Federeal judicial Court.
19. S. and H. D. in C. ass. shall regulate the Militia thro' the U.S.
20. Means of enforcing and compelling the Payment of the Quota of each
State.
21. Manner and Conditions of admitting new States.
22. Power of dividing annexing and consolidating States, on the Consent and
Petition of such States.
23. The assent of the Legislature of States shall be sufficient to invest future
additional Powers in U. S. in C. ass. and shall bind the whole Confederacy.
24. The Articles of Confederation shall be inviolably observed, and the
Union shall be perpetual: unless altered as before directed
25. The said States of N. H. etc guarrantee mutually each other and their
Rights against all other Powers and against all Rebellion etc.
(1) Or Foes. Back
William Patersons Plan or the New Jersey Plan
1 . Resd that the articles of Confederation ought to be so revised, corrected
& enlarged, as to render the federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies
of Government, & the preservation of the Union.
2. Resd that in addition to the powers vested in the U. States in Congress, by
the present existing articles of Confederation, they be authorized to pass acts
for raising a revenue, by levying a duty or duties on all goods or
merchandises of foreign growth or manufacture, imported into any part of
the U. States, by Stamps on paper, vellum or parchment, and by a postage on
all letters or packages passing through the general post-office, to be applied
to such federal purposes as they shall deem proper & expedient; to make
rules & regulations for the collection thereof; and the same from time to
time, to alter & amend in such manner as they shall think proper: to pass
Acts for the regulation of trade & commerce as well with foreign nations as
with each other: provided that all punishments, fines, forfeitures & penalties
144

to be incurred for contravening such acts rules and regulations shall be

adjudged by the Common law Judiciaries of the State in which any offense
contrary to the true intent & meaning of such Acts rules & regulations shall
have been committed or perpetrated, with liberty of commencing in the first
instance all suits & prosecutions for that purpose in the superior common
law Judiciary in such State, subject nevertheless, for the correction of all
errors, both in law & fact in rendering Judgment, to an appeal to the
Judiciary of the U. States.
3. Resd that whenever requisitions shall be necessary, instead of the rule for
making requisitions mentioned in the articles of Confederation, the United
States in Congs be authorized to make such requisitions in proportion to the
whole number of white & other free citizens & inhabitants of every age sex
and condition including those bound to servitude for a term of years & three
fifths of all other persons not comprehended in the foregoing description,
except Indians not paying taxes; that if such requisitions be not complied
with, in the time specified therein, to direct the collection thereof in the non
complying States & for that purpose to devise and pass acts directing &
authorizing the same; provided that none of the powers hereby vested in the
U. States in Congs shall be exercised without the consent of at least States,
and in that proportion if the number of Confederated States should hereafter
be increased or diminished.
4. Resd that the U. States in Congs be authorized to elect a federal Executive
to consist of persons, to continue in office for the term of years, to receive
punctually at stated times a fixed compensation for their services, in which
no increase or diminution shall be made so as to affect the persons
composing the Executive at the time of such increase or diminution, to be
paid out of the federal treasury; to be incapable of holding any other office
or appointment during their time of service and for years thereafter; to be
ineligible a second time, & removeable by Congs on application by a
majority of the Executives of the several States; that the Executives (1)
besides their general authority to execute the federal acts ought to appoint all
federal officers not otherwise provided for, & to direct all military
operations; provided that none of the persons composing the federal
Executive shall on any occasion take command of any troops, so as
personally to conduct any (2) enterprise as General or in other capacity.
5. Resd that a federal Judiciary be established to consist of a supreme
Tribunal the Judges of which to be appointed by the Executive, & to hold
145

their offices during good behaviour, to receive punctually at stated times a

fixed compensation for their services in which no increase or diminution
shall be made, so as to affect the persons actually in office at the time of
such increase or diminution; that the Judiciary so established shall have
authority to hear & determine in the first instance on all impeachments of
federal officers, & by way of appeal in the dernier resort in all cases
touchung the rights of Ambassadors, in all cases of captures from an enemy,
in all cases of piracies & felonies on the high Seas, in all cases in which
foreigners may be interested, in the construction of any treaty or treaties, or
which may arise on any of the Acts for (3) regulation of trade, or the
collection of the federal Revenue: that none of the Judiciary shall during the
time they remain in office be capable of receiving or holding any other
office or appointment during their time (4) of service, or for thereafter.
6. Resd that all Acts of the U. States in Congs made by virtue & in
pursuance of the powers hereby & by the articles of Confederation vested in
them, and all Treaties made & ratified under the authority of the U. States
shall be the supreme law of the respective States so far forth as those Acts or
Treaties shall relate to the said States or their Citizens, and that the Judiciary
of the several States shall be bound thereby in their decisions, any thing in
the respective laws of the Individual States to the contrary notwithstanding;
and that if any State, or any body of men in any State shall oppose or
prevent ye carrying into execution such acts or treaties, the federal Executive
shall be authorized to call forth ye power of the Confederated States, or so
much thereof as may be necessary to enforce and compel an obedience to
such Acts, or an observance of such Treaties.
7. Resd that provision be made for the admission of new States into the
Union.
8. Resd(5) the rule for naturalization ought to be the same in every State.
9. Rest a Citizen of one State committing an offense in another State of the
Union, shall be deemed guilty of the same offense as if it had been
committed by a Citizen of the State in which the offense was committed.(6)

(1) The transcript uses the word "executives" in the singular. Back
146

(2) The word "military" is here inserted in the transcript. Back

(3) The word "the" is here inserted in the transcript. Back
(4) The word "term" is substituted in the transcript for "time." Back
(5) The word "that" is here inserted in the transcript. Back
(6) This copy of Mr. Patterson's propositions varies in a few clauses from
that in the printed Journal furnished from the papers of Mr. Brearley a
Colleague of Mr. Patterson. A confidence is felt, notwithstanding, in its
accuracy. That the copy in the Journal is not entirely correct is shewn by the
ensuing speech of Mr. Wilson [June 16] in which he refers to the mode of
removing the Executive by impeachment & conviction as a feature in the
Virga plan forming one of its contrasts to that of Mr. Patterson, which
proposed a removal on the application of a majority of the Executives of the
States. In the copy printed in the Journal, the two modes are combined in the
same clause; whether through inadvertence, or as a contemplated
amendment does not appear. Back

Alexander Hamiltons Plan

I. "The Supreme Legislative power of the United States of America to be
vested in two different bodies of men; the one to be called the Assembly, the
other the Senate who together shall form the Legislature of the United States
with power to pass all laws whatsoever subject to the Negative hereafter
mentioned.
II. The Assembly to consist of persons elected by the people to serve for
three years.
III. The Senate to consist of persons elected to serve during good behaviour;
their election to be made by electors chosen for that purpose by the people:
in order to this the States to be divided into election districts. On the death,
removal or resignation of any Senator his place to be filled out of the district
from which he came.

147

IV. The supreme Executive authority of the United States to be vested in a

Governour to be elected to serve during good behaviour-the election to be
made by Electors chosen by the people in the Election Districts aforesaidThe authorities & functions of the Executive to be as follows: to have a
negative on all laws about to be passed, and the execution of all laws passed;
to have the direction of war when authorized or begun; to have with the
advice and approbation of the Senate the power of making all treaties; to
have the sole appointment of the heads or chief officers of the departments
of Finance, War and Foreign Affairs; to have the nomination of all other
officers (Ambassadors to foreign Nations included) subject to the
approbation or rejection of the Senate; to have the power of pardoning all
offenses except Treason; which he shall not pardon without the approbation
of the Senate.
V. On the death resignation or removal of the Governour his authorities to be
exercised by the President of the Senate till a Successor be appointed.
VI. The Senate to have the sole power of declaring war, the power of
advising and approving all Treaties, the power of approving or rejecting all
appointments of officers except the heads or chiefs of the departments of
Finance War and foreign affairs.
VII. The supreme Judicial authority to be vested in ___________ Judges to
hold their offices during good behaviour with adequate and permanent
salaries. This Court to have original jurisdiction in all causes of capture, and
an appellative jurisdiction in all causes in which the revenues of the general
Government or the Citizens of foreign Nations are concerned.
VIII. The Legislature of the United States to have power to institute Courts
in each State for the determination of all matters of general concern.
IX. The Governour Senators and all officers of the United States to be liable
to impeachment for mal- and corrupt conduct; and upon conviction to be
removed from office, & disqualified for holding any place of trust or profitAll impeachments to be tried by a Court to consist of the Chief ______ or
Judge of the superior Court of Law of each State, provided such Judge shall
hold his place during good behavior, and have a permanent salary.
X. All laws of the particular States contrary to the Constitution or laws of the
United States to be utterly void; and the better to prevent such laws being
passed, the Governour or president of each State shall be appointed by the
148

General Government and shall have a negative upon the laws about to be
passed in the State of which he is (1) Governour or President.
XI. No State to have any forces land or Naval; and the Militia of all the
States to be under the sole and exclusive direction of the United States. the
officers of which to be appointed and commissioned by them.
(1)The word "the" is here inserted in the transcript. Back
I. "The Supreme Legislative power of the United States of America to be
vested in two different bodies of men; the one to be called the Assembly, the
other the Senate who together shall form the Legislature of the United States
with power to pass all laws whatsoever subject to the Negative hereafter
mentioned.
II. The Assembly to consist of persons elected by the people to serve for
three years.
III. The Senate to consist of persons elected to serve during good behaviour;
their election to be made by electors chosen for that purpose by the people:
in order to this the States to be divided into election districts. On the death,
removal or resignation of any Senator his place to be filled out of the district
from which he came.
IV. The supreme Executive authority of the United States to be vested in a
Governour to be elected to serve during good behaviour-the election to be
made by Electors chosen by the people in the Election Districts aforesaidThe authorities & functions of the Executive to be as follows: to have a
negative on all laws about to be passed, and the execution of all laws passed;
to have the direction of war when authorized or begun; to have with the
advice and approbation of the Senate the power of making all treaties; to
have the sole appointment of the heads or chief officers of the departments
of Finance, War and Foreign Affairs; to have the nomination of all other
officers (Ambassadors to foreign Nations included) subject to the
approbation or rejection of the Senate; to have the power of pardoning all
offenses except Treason; which he shall not pardon without the approbation
of the Senate.
V. On the death resignation or removal of the Governour his authorities to be
exercised by the President of the Senate till a Successor be appointed.

149

VI. The Senate to have the sole power of declaring war, the power of
advising and approving all Treaties, the power of approving or rejecting all
appointments of officers except the heads or chiefs of the departments of
Finance War and foreign affairs.
VII. The supreme Judicial authority to be vested in ___________ Judges to
hold their offices during good behaviour with adequate and permanent
salaries. This Court to have original jurisdiction in all causes of capture, and
an appellative jurisdiction in all causes in which the revenues of the general
Government or the Citizens of foreign Nations are concerned.
VIII. The Legislature of the United States to have power to institute Courts
in each State for the determination of all matters of general concern.
IX. The Governour Senators and all officers of the United States to be liable
to impeachment for mal- and corrupt conduct; and upon conviction to be
removed from office, & disqualified for holding any place of trust or profitAll impeachments to be tried by a Court to consist of the Chief ______ or
Judge of the superior Court of Law of each State, provided such Judge shall
hold his place during good behavior, and have a permanent salary.
X. All laws of the particular States contrary to the Constitution or laws of the
United States to be utterly void; and the better to prevent such laws being
passed, the Governour or president of each State shall be appointed by the
General Government and shall have a negative upon the laws about to be
passed in the State of which he is (1) Governour or President.
XI. No State to have any forces land or Naval; and the Militia of all the
States to be under the sole and exclusive direction of the United States. the
officers of which to be appointed and commissioned by them.
(1)The word "the" is here inserted in the transcript. Back

The three compromises of the Constitutional Convention are as follows:

1. Known as the Great Compromise, the Connecticut Compromise and
also Roger Shermans compromise, it combined the New Jersey and
the Virginia Plan allowing for equal representation in the Senate for

150

each of the states and representation based upon population in the

House of Representatives.
2. The second big compromise of the Convention was known as the
3/5ths compromise, in which for representation and taxation purposes
every 5 slaves count as 3 freeman.
The third big compromise was that the issue of the slave trade had become
so divisive that both the north and the south agreed to table the issue for 20
years, making the first time it was eligible to be discussed in Congress to be
the year 1807. In January of 1808, Jefferson, by executive decree,
suspended the slave trade indefinitely in all the states
Checks and Balances Chart

Terms and Qualifications Chart

Federalism Chart

Executive = enforces the law

Judicial=interprets the law
Legislative=makes the law

151

The electoral college is a selected body by each of the states to award their
electoral votes to the party that led the popular voting in the presidential
election for the president and the vice-president.
Each state has the same number of electoral votes as they do
Senators+Representatives. For instance Ohio has 18 congressmen and
women and 2 senators-hence they have 20 electoral votes.
In the country if you add all of the electoral votes up you would receive a
total of the same number in the House (435) and the Senate (100) +3
electoral votes for those who live in Washington D.C.
The winner must have a majority of the votes cast (270 is +1 of 538)
A candidate may have a plurality (the most votes of any candidate, but still
not win a majority of the votes especially if there are more than 2 viable
candidates in the election) say like 42% of the electoral votes cast, but no
one receives 51% of the votes cast.
In this case no one wins the election. The election is then thrown in the
House of Representatives for the Presidential election and the top 3 vote
getters have a chance of being elected by the House of Representatives. The
Vice-Presidential Election will then be decided in the Senate.
Any elector has the right to vote for whomever they would like to vote for in
the election, but they are usually accountable to vote for the party that won
the popular vote otherwise they may be fined, or lose their job. Not all
states punish them though.
The idea behind the electoral college is to protect the citizens from electing a
corrupt or immoral public figure.

I want you to think of a situation at home, school or in the lives of relatives, friends or
acquaintances that have been effected by the following amendments. Write a two page
paper on one of the following amendments. Write another 2 pages on a different
amendment. These will be due for discussion. Remember to include how the particular

152

amendment is applicable to your life, how you may want to change the amendment if at
all, or is it applicable to these times-or should it be repealed?
Finally rank the importance of the following amendments. Which one would you get rid
of if you had to repeal one of them. Which one would you definitely keep?
Amendment 1 Freedom of religion, speech, and the press; right of assembly and petition.
Congress shall make no law respecting and establishment of religion, or prohibiting the
free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or the press, or the right of the
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
Amendment 2: Right to keep and Bear Arms A well regulated militia, being necessary
to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
infringed.
Amendment 4: Regulation of the right of search and seizure. The right of the people to
be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and
seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause,
supported by oat or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and
the persons or things to be seized.
Amendment 5: Protection for people and their property
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime unless on
presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval
forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger, nor shall
any person be subject to the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor
shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived
of life, liberty or property without due process of law, nor shall private property be taken
for public use without just compensation.
Amendment 8: Protection from excessive bail and punishment. Excessive bail shall not
be required, not excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

A New Republic Washington and Adams 1789-1800

153

For the years 1789-1800, you will be creating political cartoons with a
partner of your choice. You may work alone if you so desire. You will be
judged on covering the topic assigned with some wit and neatness.
Content-50 points
Wit-25 points
Artwork/Neatness-10 points
Peer evaluation-15 points
Topics to choose from:
Precedents of Washington
XYZ Affair
Whiskey Rebellion
Pinckney's Treaty
Battle of Fallen Timbers
Proclamation Of Neutrality
Jay's Treaty
Revolution of 1800
Election of 1796
Alien and Sedition Acts
Logan Act 1799
Midnight Appointments
Edmund Genet
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Beginning of Political Parties-Democratic-Republican/Federalists
Federalists/Anti-Federalists
Farewell Address 1796
Federalists split
Hamilton's 3 Great Plans
12th Amendment

154

Federalists v Anti-Federalists
Federalists-Stood for a confederation of states rather than for the
creation of a supreme national authority. Some notorious
Federalists were James Madison, John Jay, and Alexander
Hamilton. *Note James Madison becomes a DemocraticRepublican once the constitution was adopted. The Federalists
were made up of more experienced public speakers, more polished
if you will in front of groups, with higher education, so naturally
the Constitution was eventually adopted.
Anti-Federalists-These were people who were critics of the newly
proposed constitution who were usually poorer, less educated,
more agrarian. Famous Anti-Federalists were Patrick Henry,
George Mason and Samuel Chase.
The Federalists Papers were written by Madison, Hamilton and
Jay to convince (sway) the public opinion toward accepting the
stronger national government proposed by the Federalists (though
it was portrayed more as a confederation of states to appease those
who were suspicious of losing their state sovereignty.)
State
Date Adopted
Delaware
12/8/87
Pennsylvania 12/12/87
New Jersey
12/18/87
Georgia
1/2/88
Connecticut
1/9/89
Massachusetts 2/16/89
Maryland
4/26/88
South Carolina 5/23/88
New Hampshire 6/21/88
Virginia
6/25/88
New York
7/26/88
North Carolina 11/21/89
Rhode Island 5/29/90

Votes for
30
46
38
26
128
187
63
149
57
89
30
194
34
155

Votes against
0
23
0
0
40
168
11
73
47
79
27
77
32

*Note this is where the U.S. Mint is getting the order for minting
the state quarters, i.e. the date the state is admitted into the union or
accepted the constitution chronologically.
The Anti-Federalists argued that public officials, however selected,
would be constantly scheming to expand their authority. In so
extensive, a republic the officers of government would soon
become above the control of the people and abuse their power.
Their plan was to have selected officials mirror their constituents
beliefs. Constituents (people that are represented) should mingle
with common folk as much as possible in order to accurately
depict their beliefs. Samuel Chase warned that distance would be
too great for the plan of the Federalists. They would only pick rich
gentry folk to represent the common folk more resembling an
aristocracy than a republic.
Federalists believed that aristocrats possess greater insights, skills,
and training than did the average citizen. They wouldnt be tied to
the selfish needs of local communities.
The anti-federalists are most responsible for the Bill of Rights.
The absence of a Bill of Rights troubled many Americans.
Opponents to the Constitution at the state conventions argued
greater protection of individual liberties.
When the Constitution was threatened to be turned down in many
states, the Federalists promised (Madison primarily) a Bill of
Rights after the Constitution passed. This was to persuade those
opposed to the Constitution to vote for its passage.
By 1791, the Bill of Rights was passed by all the existing states.

156

Washingtons Precedents
1. He chose a cabinet. He didnt believe he could accomplish
all that was asked of the office without assistance. He chose
Thomas Jefferson as his Secretary of State, Alexander
Hamilton as his Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Knox as his
Secretary of War and Edmund Randolph as his Attorney
General.
2. He served two terms and then resigned. He didnt serve until
he died, like a king would have done. That would have been
disastrous for the new republic.
3. He gave a farewell address which most presidents have done
that served two terms.
Two political parties
Issue
Federalists
Democratic-Republicans
Leader
Alexander Hamilton Thomas Jefferson
Constitution Loose Interpretation Strict Interpretation
Power vested Strong Central Govt Strong State Govt
Admired system
British
French
Supported by Merchants, bankers,
farmers, common folk
Affluent society
Agrarian society
Newspaper
Gazette of the U.S.
National Gazette
Editor
John Fenno
Philip Freneau
Hamiltons Three Great Plans
Hamiltons report on Public credit to Congress as Secretary of the
Treasury came on January 14, 1790. He declared that our national
debt was 54 million dollars. This sum represented various
obligations that the U.S. government had incurred during the
Revolutionary War. In addition, foreign loans, the figure included
loan certificates that the government had issued to its own citizens
and soldiers. Also the states still owed 25 million dollars for a total
of 79 million dollars of debt.
157

During the 1780s, Americans desperate for cash had been forced
to sell the government certificates to speculators (Hamiltons
friends) at greatly discounted rates.
40 million dollars were owed to 20,000 people and only 20% were
the original owners of the land certificates.
Hamiltons report on public credit gave two recommendations.
First the United States would pay all foreign domestic obligations
at full face value. Current holders of certificates could exchange
the old certificates for new ones with a moderate interest given to
them. Secondly, the United States Federal Government would pay
for the remaining state debts.
This would significantly reduce the power of the individual states
in shaping national economic policy. This was imperative to
maintaining a strong federal government. Moreover, the creation
of a fully funded national debt signaled to investors throughout the
world that the United States was now solvent, that its bonds
represented a good risk. Hamilton invited the countrys wealthiest
citizens to invest in the future of the United States. Critics claimed
that the only people who stood to profit from the scheme were
Hamiltons friends. Some of these friends sat in Congress and who
had purchased great numbers of public securities at low prices.
Hamiltons Second Report
The United States government would charter a national bank, like
the Bank of England. The banks would own millions of dollars of
new US bonds, its financial stability was tied directly to the
strength of the federal government. Hamilton argued that a
growing financial community required a central bank to facilitate
increasingly complex commercial transactions. The institution not
only would serve as the main depository of the U.S. government,
158

but also would issue currency acceptable in payment of federal

taxes. This would guarantee the money would maintain its value
while in circulation.
Critics like Madison and Jefferson, said that a national bank might
perpetuate a large monied interest in this country. And what about
the constitution??? There is nothing in this document that requires
or allows for the creation of a national bank. If you stretch the
constitution as such it sets a dangerous precedent that any president
could then expand the parameters of the Constitution.
Hamilton predicted This is the first symptom of a spirit, which
must either be killed, or will kill the Constitution of the United
States.
Hamiltons Third Report on Manufacturing came in Dec. 1791
Hamilton revealed the final details of his grand design for the
economic future of the United States. This document suggested
ways by which the Federal Government might stimulate
manufacturing. If the country wanted to free itself from depending
on European imports, Hamilton observed, then it had to develop its
own industry, textile mills for example. This process would take
decades without government intervention. Protective tariffs and
special industrial bounties would greatly accelerate the growth of a
balanced economy, and with proper planning, the United States
would soon hold its own with England and France.
Whiskey Rebellion 1794
The farmers of Western Pennsylvania regularly distilled their grain
into whiskey. Many of the locally settled Scottish and Irish
enjoyed this hard liquor. They also claimed that it was easier to
transport than were sacks of wheat. In 1791, an excise tax was
placed on whiskey. A small tax revolt occurred in Pittsburgh in
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1794 and they threatened some excise tax collectors harm. In

response to this Washington raised an army of 13,000-15,000
troops, but they could only find 20-25 troublemakers after two
weeks of searching. Washington called their two leaders-one an
idiot and the other insane. He set another important precedent of
mercy and he pardoned them both.
Native American Affairs
Before Great Britain finally withdrew their troops from the
northwestern territory, they encouraged the Shawnee, the
Chippewa, and Miami to attack the settlers and traders from the
United States. In 1790, Josiah Harmar led his soldiers into an
ambush. In a second attempt from the U.S. government to halt
their advances and terror on the frontier, in 1791, General Arthur
St. Claire had nine hundred casualties near the Wabash River. In
1794, General Mad Anthony Wayne was put in charge and they
were sent out to crush the Indian resistance at the Battle of Fallen
Timbers near Toledo, Ohio. The Native Americans thought the
British would support them with armed resistance, but they
received no aid from them in the form of armies or supplies. The
Treaty of Greenville was forced upon the native Americans ending
the formal resistance and ceding the present day state of Ohio to
the U.S. government.
Proclamation of Neutrality 1793
While Washington didnt use the word neutrality, his intentions
were clear when he said that we would not get involved in a
European conflict. Many were confused over which side to
support in the war that Great Britain and France was currently
involved. While the British, talked like us and held many of our
traditions for the most part, their stuffy aristocratic and at times
snobbish look at Americans annoyed some of the people.
Whereas, across the English Channel, France was in the midst of
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the Reign of Terror, which had claimed thousands of lives at the

hands of the guillotine. Anyone who had monarchist tendencies
was not spared including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.
Even though she really didnt say it, it summed up the conflict
between the peasants and the aristocrats, Let them Eat Cake!
Many people believed that we were obliged to help our old friends
the French from the reciprocal treaty we signed in 1778 which said
we would support them against the British if a war resulted from
their siding with the United States.
Jays Treaty (the British Reaction to the proclamation), 1795. In
1794, there were approximately 1000 British soldiers on U.S. soil
in forts they refused to vacate. In 1783, at the Treaty of Paris, the
British agreed to leave these posts. The British closed French ports
to neutral shipping in 1793. Also, the U.S. was not allowed to
trade with the West Indies any more. Without warning, the British
captured several hundred merchant ships traveling to the French
West Indies. They also started impressing sailors. Impressing is
the concept of once an Englishman always an Englishman. British
warships would board American merchant ships search the ship
and anyone who looked like a British citizen was then taken
prisoner to fight the battles against the French aboard a British
frigate. These actions outraged members of Congress and the
Democratic-Republicans wanted war or an embargo to protect
shipping, or at least to stop paying our debt payments to the
British. John Jay, chief justice of the supreme court of the United
States was sent to London to negotiate. His objectives were: 1)
removal of the British from the Northwest Territory. 2) Payment
for ships taken in the West Indies. 3) Acceptance of neutral rights
by the American definition.
The British were losing the war so most of the Americans expected
a favorable treaty. However, Hamilton had secretly informed the
British that we would compromise on most issues. Therefore, the
results were extremely disappointing. The British would not
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respect neutral shipping rights, they would continue the policy of

impressment, there would be no compensation for the ships seized
in 1793 until the British merchants were paid for debts incurred
before the American Revolution. He did get the British to agree to
leave their posts in American forts. (they did by 1796) and to
allow small merchant ships to sail to the British West Indies.
The American reaction to Jays treaty was outrage! John Jay said
that if he wanted to walk across the countryside at night he could
find his way by the fires that were torching his effigy. Jays treaty
passed Congress in order to preserve the peace but it wasnt a
pleasant argument in Congress.
Pinckneys Treaty 1795 (the Spanish Reaction)
Thomas Pinckney was the special envoy to Spain when the war
between France and England waged. At the time that Jays Treaty
was passed, Spains empire was in decline and they were paranoid
that they would lose some of their possessions in the new world.
When they had heard that their was a treaty between England and
the U.S. they were afraid they were being ganged up on and that
they would lose Florida and many southwestern possessions in
America. They called Pinckney in to discuss previous grievances.
They agreed to give us a more southern border of Georgia, cutting
into Spanish Florida. They also agreed to give us access to the
Mississippi River and access to the port of New Orleans to trade
goods into the Caribbean. Pinckney came home a hero and almost
became President of the United States!
XYZ Affair
In 1797, French privateers began seizing American ships, within a
year, they captured more than 300 ships. This was due to their
reaction to Jays Treaty with Great Britain. They felt that they
allowed Great Britain to define their own conditions of neutrality
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which in turn sided them with Great Britain and therefore their
enemy. The friend of my enemy is also my enemy. Thus, the
Quasi-War with France began. Hamilton and his friends welcomed
a chance to go to war with France. It could only help his own
personal vendetta against Jefferson and his pro-French backing.
The High Federalists (Hamiltons wing of the party) counseled the
President to prepare for all-out war, hoping that war would purge
the United States of French influence. Adams dispatched Charles
Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry to obtain
compensation for the ships seized by French privateers as well as
release from the treaties of 1778. In exchange, the commission
offered France the same commercial privileges granted to Great
Britain in Jays treaty. While the diplomats negotiated for peace,
Adams talked of strengthening American defenses, rhetoric that
pleased the militant members (the high Federalists).
The commission was outraged by the treatment it received in
France. They werent allowed to deal directly with Talleyrand, the
minister of Foreign Relations, they met with obscure
intermediaries who demanded a huge bribe. The commission
stated that Talleyrand would not open negotiations unless he was
given $250,000. The Americans refused to play this insulting
game. Marshall said, Millions for defense, but not one cent for
tribute.
Diplomatic humiliation set off a domestic political explosion.
When Adams presented the commissions official correspondence
before Congress, the names of the agents of Talleyrand were
referred to as agents X, Y and Z. Hence the name XYZ Affair.
The Federalists pushed harder for war.
Adams threatened to resign when pressure became too much for
him which would have made Jefferson president.
Election of 1796
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Jefferson ran for president from the Democratic-Republicans and

the Federalists ran Thomas Pinckney and John Adams. The person
with the most votes would become president, the second most
would become Vice-President. Hamilton tried to manipulate the
electors and give Adams the second most votes in order to better
control the president which would be Pinckney. Rumors circulated
amongst the electors and many people did not vote for Pinckney
producing the unique position of having Adams a Federalist as
President and Jefferson a Democratic-Republican as VicePresident. Election results: Adams 71, Jefferson 68, Pinckney
59.
Federalist Party splits 1798
This backstabbing plot for power by Hamilton combined with his
desire for war against France caused a break in the party of the
Federalists. Adams got sick of his politicking and Hamilton got
sick of Adams passive views. Hamilton took his supporters to
form the High Federalists Party and Adams party retained the
original name Federalists.
Alien and Sedition Acts
Adams, contrary to Hamiltons wishes, never asked for a
declaration of war from Congress against France. At the pressure
of his colleagues, he did succumb to forming a provisional army.
Washington agreed to lead it as long as Hamilton was second in
command. Hamilton and Secretary of War McHenry made sure
that only Federalists received commissions. The army was more of
a source of threat for the Democratic-Republicans than for the
French. The army was meant to intimidate the Jeffersons party.
What was not accomplished for intimidation against the
Republicans in military strength was accomplished by law.

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During the summer of 1798, Congress passed the Alien and

Sedition Acts which were as follows:
1) Alien Enemies Law-This gave the President the power to
detain or deport foreigners who behaved in a manner he
thought suspicious. This was never enacted as Adams never
asked for a declaration of war.
2) Alien Law- The President was allowed to expel any
foreigners by executive decree. This was in place from
1798-1800. Adams never used this authority, but the mere
threat of it caused many Frenchmen to leave the country.
3) Naturalization Act-Normally the naturalization process
took 5 years. This act changed the waiting period to 14
years to become a citizen. This kept Irishmen and the
French from voting in the polls at the next presidential
election. This was intended to discriminate against them
because the French and Irish usually voted DemocraticRepublican.
4) Sedition Law-One was not allowed criticize the United
States government. It became the same as criminal libel.
Citizens found guilty were subject to fines and
imprisonment.
Madison and Jeffersons response
Madison and Jefferson wrote anonymously to avoid the sedition
law something called the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
respectfully. In these resolutions, they criticized the government
for these collective acts. They both thought that these acts were
unconstitutional. Jefferson was a bit more radical calling for
nullification of a federal law by a state legislative body. Madison
simply urged for Americans to defend their rights.
Peace with France

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France explained that the XYZ Affair was a simple

misunderstanding and offered the United States to send a diplomat
to discuss the matters at hand. This could have been due to the
building of a U.S. Navy under the direction of Adams. However,
by the time that the diplomats arrived, Napoleon was now in
charge, and so the compensation which they may have expected
was now gone. They didnt receive any funds for the lost ships
during the quasi-war. With peace at hand, the taxpayers at home
began to complain about a full-time army, thwarting the efforts of
Hamilton. This paved the way to harmony with France for when it
came time to purchase the port of New Orleans, the French
government led by Napoleon sold them all of the Louisiana
Territory.
Revolution (election) of 1800
Jefferson defeated Adams in effect a peaceful change from one
political party to another for the first time and without bloodshed.
Before Adams left and after he was defeated, in a moment of
bitterness toward his old friend Jefferson, Adams appointed many
Federalists judges to ensure that if the Federalists couldnt be in
control of the Presidency than they could be in charge of the
Judicial Branch. He also appointed his Secretary of State John
Marshall as Chief Justice (see midnight appointments, Marbury v
Madison).
In the election of 1800, Jefferson and his vice-presidential
candidate, Aaron Burr tied in the electoral college. One of the
electors was supposed to not vote for Burr, but he failed to do so.
Being a tie in the electoral college, the election was sent to the
House of Representatives to be decided. After 36 ballots, the
Federalists in the House realized that Jefferson and of his faults
were more responsible than Aaron Burrs alleged shiftiness.
Hamilton called Burr, The most dangerous man in the
community. Ironic???
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Twelfth Amendment
In response to the election of 1800, the twelfth amendment was
ratified in 1804. The electoral college would cast separate ballots
for President and Vice-President, forcing the candidates to declare
for one office or another as their intended end.

Jeffersonian Democracy 1800-1828

For your next assignment, you will be responsible for presenting one of the
following topics via song, poem or through art.
The topics to choose from are listed below:
1. Marbury vs. Madison
2. Lewis and Clark expedition
3. War with Tripoli
4. Executive Privilege
5. Burr vs. Hamilton Duel
6. Louisiana Purchase
7. War of 1812
8. Battle of Tippecanoe
9. Battle of Thames
10.Violation of Neutral Rights
11.Embargo Act
12.War Hawks
13.Burr Conspiracy
The requirements for this project include

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1.
2.
a.
b.
c.

Creativity
Topic covered
Presentation of topic
Peer Evaluation
Background Music included
school appropriate

____25 points
____25 points
___15 points
___25 points
___10 points *Note this should be

1800-1816

The War with Tripoli and the Barbary Pirates

Tunis, Algeria, Tripoli and Morocco make up the city/states
collectively known as the Barbary Pirates. Ships from these
city/states called xebecs which were made for boarding other ships
raised havoc among the Mediterranean Sea. These city/states were
made up of Muslims who believed it was their duty to make war
on Christians, and any son of Muhammad who fell in what is
called jihad (holy war) against the infidels would go straight to
paradise. By the 1700s capturing white Christians and holding
them for ransom from their prospective countries or selling them
into servitude was the major industry of these city/states.
Slaves-Any slave who died in prison waiting to be sold added to
the price of those who survived to make up for that potential loss.
Any woman captured was sold as a concubine, some privileged
few were given as a gift to the Sultan of Turkey.
Punishments
Bastinado-This is the beating of the bare feet with a stick for
showing disrespect to a palace official.
Thievery-Your right hand would be cut off and hung around your
neck while you were paraded around the streets riding backwards
on a donkey while townspeople threw stones at you.
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Escaping from prison-Ringleaders were beheaded and the

followers were given 500 strokes of the bastinado.
Trying to date a Muslim woman if you were Christian-if caught he
was beheaded and she was taken out to sea where she was tied to a
weighted sack and thrown overboard.
Blaspheming the Koran-you were either roasted alive, impaled, or
crucified.
Treason or if a Christian killed a Muslim-The culprit was hung by
his flesh on huge iron hooks imbedded in the palace wall so that
the birds might devour him alive. If he writhed in agony and
twisted free his fall on the jagged rocks below was a blessing
delivering him from the fate of the birds.
Any Christian who died was thrown on to these same jagged rocks
and his body would be carried out to sea.
New prisoners- if they were Christian they were usually led out to
view their comrades, and there they were impaled, sometimes after
having to eat their own noses or ears.
Declaring war-A bashaw(leader) of these city/states may declare
war on a country by chopping down the flag pole of the opposing
countrys embassy.
Fear-The fear of falling into enemy hands led many who wanted to
trade goods in the Mediterranean Sea to make deals with these
city/states. After all it was their waters These deals were called
paying tribute, but it was more like bribery. In 1646, the mighty
British were the first to pay the tribute. An emissary was sent to
Algiers to ransom hundreds of British enslaved there. This led to a
regular system of payments to protect British shipping in the
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Mediterranean. Other European powers followed this precedent.

This system for the most part worked, but there were times when a
bashaw would make too much of a demand for tribute. A country
would then find its pride and sent down a navy to escort merchant
ships to teach the Barbary Pirates a lesson, but always, without fail
a European war took place and forced a recall of the warships to
deal with the rival European powers. This again would leave the
pirates to do as they wished and the tribute was re-established.
Why go to the Mediterranean anyway? The goods were very much
in demand and to allow other countries the pride of being able to
get them and your country was unable to obtain these goods was a
mockery of your countrys defense system and honor. Who were
the countries that paid tribute by the end of the 1700s? Great
Britain 250,000 annually. France 100,000 annually. Denmark,
Sweden, and Venice 30,000 a year and yes eventually the United
States.
Why the U.S. too? Annually we sent 100 ships carrying a total of
around 1200 seamen carrying 20,000 tons of flour, lumber, sugar,
and salted fish in exchange for fruit, olive oil and opium. In 1784,
the Boston brig Betsey was captured by Moroccans. In a very rare
day, this ruler emperor Sidi Mahomet was more interested in trade
than piracy, and he was proud of being one of the first heads of
state to recognize the United States as a new country. He freed the
crew and invited a U.S. envoy for formal diplomatic relations.
However Dey Mahomet of Algeria was not so friendly. Three
months later his pirate ships captured the American ships Maria
and Dauphin. The crew was forced to undress to their underwear
and hand over everything they owned. They were then taken to
Algiers where the half-naked prisoners were paraded through the
winding narrow streets. Flung into prisons and auctioned off to the
highest bidder and the one woman was the first American given as
a gift to the Sultan in Constantinople. By 1793, the number
imprisoned and slaved held were at 119 men. The Congress could
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do little as the Bey demanded $3000 per head, which was twice the
going rate. The pressure became so great on Congress that they
relented and started building a navy.
The navy-the birthday of the U.S. navy and marines was March 27,
1794, when Washington signed the bill that allowed for the
building of 3 44 gun ships called the United States, Constitution
and President. The smaller ships were 36 gun vessels called
Constellation, Chesapeake and Congress.
Meanwhile in Algiers, The Dey Ali Hassan was aware of the
building of the fleet in the United States. His own fleet numbered
12 xebecs and four oared galleys which could not match the U.S.
fleet began to look for peace. He began to fear an American
blockade of his port which would starve him out. He asked for
$2.5 million for the prisoners and two frigates. A negotiator from
the United States was sent into help facilitate the release of the
prisoners. Whereupon the U.S. agreed to pay $642,000 for the
prisoners, and to pay annual tribute of $21,600. Tripoli and Tunis
then agreed to $58,000 annually for the right to pass through the
Mediterranean Sea peacefully.
Tripoli declares war!
Jefferson considers 3 options 1) Tribute 2) Ransom 3) Force
Tribute was too expensive for the American fledgling nation.
Ransom would only lead to more and more prisoners being taken
and higher demands. A naval force was the only acceptable option.
Jefferson takes office on March 4, 1801. Five days later he
discusses the two million dollars already paid in ransom to the
Barbary States with his cabinet. When Jefferson decided to cease
paying the tribute, he sent a squadron to the Mediterranean Sea.
Bashaw Yusuf of Tripoli then cut down the U.S. Consulates
flagpole.

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Commodore Richard Dale set off on his mission, which was to

blockade the port of Tripoli on June 2nd, 1801. He sailed with the
44 gun President and two other frigates the 38 gun Philadelphia
and the 32 gun Essex. He also had the sloop Enterprise with 12
guns. On board he had 120 marines who constantly squabbled
with the Navy men. They each had independent commands, which
at times demanded satisfaction from the injured party.
Dales orders: This should be a defensive war based upon
blockading the port of Tripoli. If he captured any vessels or
seamen of the pirate powers, the ships were to be returned and his
prisoners were to be treated with humanity and attention to return
to somewhere on the Barbary shore. If battle could not be avoided,
suppress your passion, but accept no insult, or permit no officer of
another power to board any of his ships.
The situation in Tripoli. (history) In 1714, The Turkish sultans
rule ended when Hamet Karamanli seized power by massacring the
Turkish garrison. Hamet then raised an army and extended his
kingdom to Egypt. Hamets second son Mohammad came to
power in 1745. For 21 years there was peace and harmony. Ali,
Mohammads son killed Mohammads brothers as to not rival the
throne. Alis son, Hassan was designated the successor, however
the second born son Hamet quarreled with him for the rights to the
throne. Yusuf the third son, invited Hassan to his mothers
apartment where Hassan was shot, and stabbed about 100 times.
Hamet was sent on an errand by Yusuf as a favor. Upon his return
the gates were closed to him. This left Yusuf in charge in 1796.
Murar Reis, formerly Peter Lisle, a Scotsman, who came to Tripoli
when captured aboard the Betsey. When he was in prison he
Turned Turk (meaning he converted to Islam). He was elevated
to sea captain and married Yusufs eldest daughter. He changed
the name of the Betsey to the Meshouda. The Enterprise being
faster than the rest of the fleet was ahead of the remaining U.S.
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ships and reached the Straits of Gibralter first. This is where, on

June 29th, 1801, the first encounter between the U.S. and Tripoli
took place. The Meshouda had 28 guns and she had another ship
with her that had 14 guns. Because they were in a neutral harbor,
the Enterprise was unable to attack, so they lied in wait for them to
leave the harbor. Reis, figuring the game was up with six ships
awaiting his departure decided to bribe some local men to ferry his
366 men to Malta, where he then sailed to Tripoli. He escaped!
Dale then blockaded Tripoli with the President and Enterprise. The
pirates of Tripoli were unable to capture a single American ship in
1801. The Enterprise was then sent for supplies to Malta. When
he let August 1st 1801, he spotted the Tripoli commanded by
Admiral Rais Mohamat Rais. Lieutenant Sterrett commanding the
Enterprise raised the Union Jack, to which Rais responded to the
hailing with Looking for American ships to which Sterrett
responded with lowering the Union Jack and raising the Stars and
Stripes and he started firing on the Tripoli. This 3 hour battle was
notorious because it displayed the trickery and deceit
commonplace from the Pirates. It showed the discipline from the
United States navy. As the Enterprise, barraged the badly
outgunned, outmatched Tripoli, Rais tried to allow to be boarded
by the larger Enterprise. He hid his men on deck in order to
surprise board the Americans, but the U.S. marines were ready for
them and defeated them with a round of gunfire. They did this on
3 separate occasions!! As if Skerrett, would believe he would ever
surrender. Only after Rais fell to his knees did Skerrett risk
boarding the Tripoli. He found 30 dead, 30 wounded including
Rais. Only 20 men were unharmed. All guns were thrown
overboard, as well as his weaponry found. Admiral Rais was made
to sail home with his wreck in disgrace. Bashaw Yusuf, was not
happy, he took away his command and had Rais ride backward on
a donkey with a sheeps entrails around his neck to a jeering
crowd. He also was given 500 stripes of the bastinado.
Commodore Dale then went to Malta for food supplies, and
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captured 41 people from Tripoli. Commodore Dale tried to ransom

them, but Yusuf said to keep them until he caught 41 Americans
that they could swap. Commodore Dale then requested to be made
an Admiral. This rank was not yet used in the United States.
Congress said no and Commodore Dale retired to private life on
April 14, 1802.
February 6th, 1802, Congress passed a law that gave Jefferson
permission to employ the United States Navy to protect American
commerce and seamen on the Atlantic and Mediterranean. In it, he
was given specific latitude to subdue, seize, and make prize of all
vessels, goods and effects belonging to the Bey of Tripoli and his
subjects.
The Constellation, Chesapeake, New York, Adams, and John
Adams (all frigates) to join the Essex and Philadelphia still on duty
off the harbor of Tripoli. The Enterprise also joined the other
ships, as it had finished escorting the President and Commodore
Dale home. Captain Richard Morris was sent in to command along
with his wife!! The Commodoress takes over!
Commodore Morris was the son of Lewis Morris, one of the
signers of the Declaration of Independence. He owed his position
more to pedigree than ability or nautical skill. Maybe more
important to this favor from Jefferson would be that his brother
Lewis Robert Morris a Representative from Vermont broke the 36
vote tie for the Presidential election in 1800 to secure his victory
over Aaron Burr. His wife, son and nurse all came aboard with
him. His orders from Jefferson were to blockade the port of
Tripoli so that Yusuf would be forced to the negotiating table.
Commodore Morris interpreted his orders as to escort merchant
ships from seaport to seaport. This it seemed was a vacation fro he
and his wife to see the beauty of the Mediterranean. There were
times they would stay in port for up to 5 months at a time!! After
Morris failed campaign of 1802, he got a bit ambitious in the
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spring of 1803, with a strong showing of 3 of his ships to blockade

the port of Tripoli. However, a fire was started in a magazine
room, which burned for an hour and a half and threatened to blow
up the ship. Fire on board was to be hoisted, but the wrong flag
was hoisted and it said mutiny on board, which brought the other
ships closer! Fortunately, the fire was put out before it blew up our
navy. Morris had to go back to port for repairs. On May 27th, the
plan to blockade Tripoli was finally enacted. The Enterprise, now
commanded by Isaac Hull found a xebec and caused her to run
aground and be deserted. He did send 50 marines on an
amphibious assault to set on fire about 9 flotillas and some grain.
He did lose some men, but it did make the Bashaw eager for peace.
He said peace could be bought for $200,000 per person held
captive, and $20,000 annually. Morris was ordered home aboard
the John Adams and removed from command.
Commodore Edward Preble, a fighting Commodore, was sent with
Tobias Lear, the former personal secretary of Washington, to
negotiate peace as a diplomat if force could not prevail. Preble had
the following frigates: Constitution, Philadelphia, John Adams,
and the New York. He also had the following sloops: Nautilus,
Vixen, Siren, Argus, and Enterprise.
The problem with Morocco: Morocco had been harassing ships on
the Atlantic because many American vessels had failed to submit
themselves to the risk of sailing to the Mediterranean Sea.
Morocco had been paid modestly by the United States, but with
this news, Preble thought it prudent to make sure that his rear was
protected, before proceeding toward Tripoli, his objective. He took
the Constitution, John Adams and New York along with the
Nautilus to hail the American Consulate in Tangiers. The
Consulate did not respond to his signal, so he requested an
audience with Muley Soliman. He was convinced it was
appropriate to meet him with all guns ready to fire at his city. This
immediately freed the U.S. consulate in Tangiers and replied that
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there was a misunderstanding between his captains orders and

their actions. The city/state of Morocco would always recognize
the United States as a nation and reward her with safe passage.
The New York and John Adams were sent home for repairs,
leaving Preble, the Constitution, the Philadelphia and the smaller
vessels the Argus, Vixen and Nautilus. Even with this smaller
fleet, Preble promised peace by the Spring of 1804. After this
boast, he then found out that the Philadelphia had run aboard the
Kaliusa Reef and was then captured by Tripolitans.
The Philadelphia had been chasing a xebec, when it ran into a
reef or sandbar. This reef was in deeper water and the locals
knew about it, but Captain Bainbridge was not aware of it. The
Philadelphia and Vixen had set sail to blockade Tripoli
simultaneously with Prebles run in with Morocco. Bainbridge had
heard that two warships from Tripoli were near, he sent the Vixen
to find them. It was the Philadelphia that first made contact with
any xebecs. The xebec they were chasing was very close to shore,
and the Kaliusa Reef was parallel to the shore. Traveling at 8
knots the Philadelphia ran aground. Captain Bainbridge did
everything he could to get off and so he threw all of his
unnecessary equipment overboard to lighten the ship. This
eventually led to all of their artillery and their cannon, and
weapons. This marked their effective surrender. The xebec
noticing that they were not in danger anymore came back and
waited for the inevitable. They took the men to prison, and the
depths of the water wasnt deep enough for them to lose their
cannon. The Tripolitans restored the cannon and other weapons to
the Philadelphia. When strong winds occurred two days later, they
were freed from the Reef (sandbar) and the Philadelphia was taken
back to Tripoli as a prize.
WE MUST BURN HER!!

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Captain Bainbridge, though captured, he was made a clerk for the

Bashaw and he wrote in invisible ink using lemon juice that would
appear under heat that there was a chance the Philadelphia could
be burned. The Mastico was captured by the Enterprise shortly
after the incident. The Mastico was then used to sneak into the
harbor of Tripoli. They renamed the Mastico to the Intrepid. They
stuffed it full of flammables and explosives along with a raiding
party. Preble had just met the acquaintance and hired the crafty
Salvadore Catalano, who was from the area and spoke Arabic. It
was determined that Stephen Decatur would lead this mission. On
February 16, 1804, Decatur led the expedition party aboard their
disguised ship. It had taken 12 days through perilous seas in
cramped conditions that made most men sick, before they reached
their prey. They lied to the guard of the harbor that they had lost
their anchor at sea, and they needed to tie up to another ship. They
chose the majestic Philadelphia. They probably could have snuck
on board and escaped with the ship, but he was under strict orders
not to try to do this. Once on board the Philadelphia, the crew set
extremely flammable materials around the boat and set their
explosions to go off. They were discovered when someone saw
their anchor still attached to the Intrepid. They were greeted with
many men rushing to save their prize. Decatur was stuck on the
boat with explosions ready to go off and many men rushing after
him. Six fires occurred simultaneously, while Decatur met his
challenge. Twenty men were killed when the inferno reached its
height. The guns that protected the city fired a salvo at the Intrepid
as they made their escape. The Philadelphia had all of her portals
loaded with cannon and double shot, so when the ship was
exploding the cannon was actually aimed at the city. In response,
to the harbor guns the Philadelphia fired back at them!! To which
they prayed to Allah for mercy. The next morning the sky was still
flame colored. Only one man was injured on the American side.
It was determined by Bainbridge through his secret correspondence
that with 3-4000 men that Tripoli could fall. Preble decided to go
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to Sicily who was already at war with Tripoli to see if they could
combine forces. He received several gunboats and ketches (which
bombard the city). He arrived outside the harbor of Tripoli where
Reis was awaiting as well as the shore batteries. Preble let loose
with his ketches sending spectators to safer areas. He divided his
fleet where Stephen Decatur was again masterful capturing 3 ships
and sinking 3 others. He was almost killed in hand to hand combat
by a big Turk who had a knife in a wrestling match that Decatur
was losing, but he was able to pull a revolver and shoot him in the
back while he was wrestling with him. Following the big Turks
death the rest of the crew surrendered. The other divisions didnt
fare as well. There was confusion as a wrong signal was hoisted
and called back many ships to the Constellation, while the battle
was still engaged. The battle was over in about 10 minutes , so
they were thus out of this action. The Americans were able to
make their retreat into safer harbors. One interesting note,
Decaturs brother fell prey to the classic fake surrender in which he
was lured into boarding while the enemy lied in wait. His brother
was promptly shot in the head. Stephen heard of the demise of his
brother and sought out that captain and killed him and forced yet
another boat to surrender. In total Decatur and his men killed 44
men and wounded 26 more and took 52 prisoners. The Americans
had 14 wounded. A Frenchman who was in the harbor during the
attack informed Preble that most of Tripolis gunboats were
damaged or sunk. He was given 14 wounded Tripolitan sailors as
a humane gesture and he offered $50,000 for all of the American
prisoners. The next day the ketches and gunboats went into action
again. The ketches fire was so accurate and deadly that the enemy
made an attempt to sink her. The Constitution quickly reminded
the xebec of this being a bad idea. That night the Americans
withdrew to avoid being grounded by an adverse wind.
Removed from command??? Preble was removed from command
effective upon Samuel Barrons arrival. Preble was upset and
confused. Nevertheless, he decided to see what affect he had had
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on Yusuf, so he offered $80,000+$10,000 for the Bashaw to use in

his personal fund. This was rejected and a demand for $150,000
was made. Preble countered with $100,000 + $10,000 for the use
of the Bashaw. This too was rejected. Preble decided while he
was still in command, he could still attack. So he did a night time
barrage that unleashed 300 rounds not including grape shot, or
canister shot. This effectively sent the townspeople to the desert
scared and it knocked out all shore batteries as well as the castle
guns. The barrage was not limited to the city. It was also
unleashed on the harbor. This attack lasted from 10:00 pm until
6:00 am. Two days later, on August 27th 1804 Preble brought his
navy back. He wanted to give the people time to relax, and to
think it was over. He did the same thing only this time he brought
his flagship in on the action. The Constitution poured 225 rounds
of ammunition into the city. On September 2nd he attacked a 3rd
time doing even more damage, killing many people and silencing
all guns from the shore and harbor. He next concentrated on an
attack by fireship. This mission failed due to an unknown factor to
this day. The 10 men on board didnt make it out and though it did
explode it did very little damage if any to the Tripolitan navy. On
September 9th, Commodore Samuel Barron replaced Preble.
Samuel Barron, Sick Bay Sam. His liver crippled the American
fleet. Fortunately, William Eaton was a passenger on Barrons
flagship President. Eaton had a plan to replace Yusuf with his
older brother Hamet. There was a following of Hamet amongst the
people and if they could be inspired into helping the cause of the
Americans then so be it. Eaton and Hamet would travel from
Egypt to Derna mustering up support. They would then attack
Tripoli by land, from the rear while Commodore Barron would
blockade the port from escape and support from other Barbary
States. 7 marines led by Presley OBannon were to train Eatons
army.

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A crazy expedition To the Shores of Tripoli. February 5th, 1805,

Hamet was brought to meet Eaton by an unsavory character who
was paid $50 to rescue him from a defeat in battle. His army had
3000 men. His enemy had 8000 men. Hamet wasnt very bright
and he didnt have a great deal of passion. He was a pawn in this
endeavor. OBannon and Eaton recruited soldiers of fortune. 70
Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Germans, British, which were dubbed
the name Christian Army. These 70 men were drilled by
OBannons men. The cost to Eaton was $100,000. With that it
was 400 miles across the desert to Alexandria, it was then another
100 miles to Derna. There the ships would barrage the city while
they took control on the land. On March 8th, 1805, the march to
Derna began. The first 7 days were what was expected of a desert,
sand in the eyes, parched and wanting mommy. The next 10 days
were a bit weird it rained. This caused the sand to be a bog. The
camel drivers stopped and bickered over money until $673 was
given to them as an advance for their work for passing the hat.
They then rested for 3 days. The next day 80 Arabian horsemen
were added to the army from a large nomad encampment. Two
days later 150 more Arab foot soldiers joined the army. The army
stood at close 600 men strong. There were times when water was
scarce. One 24 hour period, and then a 47 hour period in which
they went without water. The horses went without water for 3 days
at one interval. The food was in bad supply. They went 20 days
on roots and some rice. On April 8th, Bashaw Hamet mutinied and
Eaton instructed OBannon and his men to be ready to fight them.
The standoff caused Hamet to backdown and join the march once
again. Two days later, it was the Christian Army, that rebelled.
They had not had water in two days and there was no more food.
They just laid on the sand and asked to be shot. OBannon gave an
endearing speech which allowed them to march for two more days.
They made it to Bomba where the Argus sent supplies, water, food
and money to them. On April 25th the army arrived at Derna. The
600 men were 200 feet above the sea. They learned that they were
misinformed that the Dey at Derna had not been reinforced. He
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still only had 800 men. Eaton sent an envoy for negotiations
asking for the Deys surrender to which the Dey said My head or
yours. This meant that if he surrendered alive Bashaw Yusuf
would have his head. The Nautilus, Argus, Hornet pounded the
city with cannon. One cannon was smuggled off the ship and was
placed above the city and pounded them from the land. Hamets
cavalry cut off any escape to Tripoli and blockaded off any
reinforcements too. OBannons 70 men Christian Army
attacked the city and overtook one of the guns and turned it on the
city. Yusuf sent reinforcements to Derna after hearing of its fall to
this makeshift army. OBannon and Hamet repulsed their attack.
On July 2nd, Yusuf was defeated.
Tobias Lear the negotiator. He interpreted the 5 frigates that were
outside Tripoli as a measure for buying peace. He couldnt do so
under Preble, but under Barrons rule who was soft and often sick,
he was able to work better magic. Lear had hoped for Eatons
failure and for withdrawing Barrons support at Derna. However,
Barrons health was good at this time and held to his word and
helped Eaton. After the victory at Derna, Lear saw an opportunity
to renew negotiations after Barrons health went south again. Lear
convinced Barron it was the right timing for negotiations. The
pounding by Preble, the blockade by Rodgers (2nd in command),
the victory at Derna led Yusuf to be desperate for peace. Yusuf had
only demanded $200,000 for all of the prisoners. Lear said
$60,000. Yusufs countered with $130,000. Lear held his
positionand said $60,000 again. Yusuf accepted this offer. On
June 10th, 1805, the treaty was ratified and the crew of the
Philadelphia was freed.
Eaton and OBannon felt betrayed when they heard the news at
Derna. Hamet never got the throne and he was given $200 a year
from the American government. A couple years later, some rogue
captains harassed shipping, but it never came to war again.

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Eventually all tributes ceased to be paid from 1815 on by the

United States and the rest of the world. This was mainly due to
peace around the world following the War of 1812 (Napoleonic
Wars in Europe), and a stubbornness that if the tiny U.S. can do it,
so can France and Great Britain. This pride put the Barbary Pirates
out of business.
Midnight Appointments

Upon learning of Adams defeat in his bid for re-election, and learning that
the Congress was also controlled by Democratic-Republicans, he decided to
control 1/3 of the government by creating 16 new federal circuit judgeships.
In this legislation that passed after Adams defeat, and before he left office,
the authority was given to him to create as many justices of the peace for the
District of Columbia as he saw fit.
The Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth had started feeling his age and decided to
resign upon Jeffersons election, which left Adams the responsibility for
appointing a new member to the court and selecting a new chief justice.
Adams replaced him with John Marshall. Marshall was formerly Adams
Secretary of State and a staunch Federalists and follower of George
Washington. Marshall accepted because he thought it would give him time
to write a biography on George Washington.
Together, as Marshall had not resigned his post as Secretary of State, Adams
and Marshall, after he was confirmed Jan. 27th 1801, worked to secure the
judicial branch as a Federalists stronghold. Why was this considered
necessary by Adams and his followers? Many believed that Jeffersonian
ideas would lead to a French Revolution that spills over to the United States.
Jefferson was the one that had said the tree of liberty must be fertilized with
blood from time to time.
The new courts were officially passed by Congress on February 13th, which
gave Adams two weeks to submit staunch Federalists to their judicial posts.
All of the 42 justices had been confirmed by the Federalists Senate within
that time period and now were awaiting Adams signature. Adams had
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finished signing all of these appointments by 9:00 pm and the papers were
sent to the State Department for John Marshall to put the seal of the United
States on each and see to it that the commissions were delivered to their
respective justices. Marshall, assumed that his successor could take care of
this one last detail and all would be right with the world.
Marbury vs. Madison
Madison was being sued because he held the office of Secretary of state the
same office that John Marshall had held when he had failed to deliver the
commissions to the justices. Because he was appointed to this position his
name appears on the suit, even though it wasnt his fault he was being sued.
He had come into his office and saw what Adams and Marshall had done
and reported it to the new President Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson refused to
send out any that had not been already dispatched.
The circuit justices had received their commissions and most of the justices
from the District of Columbia had also received their notification of
confirmation by the Senate with a signature from the President. There were
only a few that were misplaced/lost/ or secretly not delivered. One of these
was to a justice by the name of William Marbury.
When Jefferson heard of all the names that had been appointed, his most
vigorous enemies (politically), he was infuriated. Jefferson responded by
appointing Captain Meriwet
her Lewis as personal secretary and he cut the army into shreds to save
money. He only cut the names of the people in the military that were
dubbed federalists by Captain Lewis. This allowed Jefferson control of the
new congress, the presidency and the military. This left the court to deal
with for a clean sweep.
He cut the number of justices from 42 for the District of Columbia to 30. 15
judges for each of the two counties in the District of Columbia. He only
submitted 7 of his own justices and picked the remaining 23 from the list of
43 that were originally submitted by Adams.
As Jefferson deliberated, he made a case for the lack of a need for all these
new justices and he moved within the year to abolish the new circuit justices
based upon a lack of work. This abolished the jobs of the new circuit judges.
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The Federalists were outraged, as the justices were supposed to be

appointed for life. How can a bill abolish their posts, so Jefferson amended
to meet in two years time to see if there was a need. By this time Jefferson
hoped to have the old system dead beyond resurrection. Though Jefferson
and Marshall were both from Virginia and distant cousins, they did detest
one anothers political beliefs.
William Marbury was a staunch Federalists that earned him his appointment.
He was one of the few who did not receive their commissions. Marbury first
had to prove that he was issued a commission, which he would have trouble
doing, because so many had been delivered and could be called upon to do
so, and there were no records in the state department that confirmed his
appointment it appeared as though the case would collapse at the first hurdle.
After literally years of testimony, to get the facts of what happened during
the nights of March 3rd (Adams last day in office) and Jeffersons actions
following to prove that Marbury had a claim finally took place to allow for
his day in court Feb. 14th 1803.
Marshall had to weigh several decisions in his mind to see how they would
play out. If he ruled in favor of Marburys claim, Madison and thus Jefferson
would most probably ignore the ruling and then it would leave the power of
the court as a lackey to the presidency and to the Congress.
If he ruled in favor of Jefferson/Madison, he also would have the court lose
power/sovereignty in the eyes of the other branches of government, because
then it would look like he was there to please the presidency and not as an
independent nature.
He also had to consider that Marbury didnt receive his commission due to
his mistake as Secretary of State, and therefore he had felt some
considerable guilt over the plight of these justices, including Marbury.
Judgement came on February 24th, 1803. Marshall ruled that there was a
conflict between the Court and the President. He said that Marbury and the
other justices were entitled to their commissions legally. Madison acted in
clear violation of the law of the land. However, the Supreme Court was
powerless to stop him from doing so as they could not authorize a writ of
mandamus because the provision of the Judiciary Act of 1789, authorizing
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the Court to issue such writs was unconstitutional. In other words, Congress
didnt have the legal right to give that power to the court.
Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789, stated that the Supreme Court could
issue the writ to persons holding office under the authority of the United
States. He said, even though other cases had been handled by this
procedure that it was not constitutional. The only way that the Supreme
Court could issue a Mandamus is on appeal from a lower court. The
Supreme Court could only originate jurisdiction on the appointment of
ambassadors, public ministers and consuls and conflicts between states.
Since it didnt involve a diplomat or a state, any law that the court was given
to decide was not constitutional.
He also said that the Constitution gives the court the right to declare any law
contrary to its interests unconstitutional. Section 13 of the Act of 1789 was
declared unconstitutional, so the court could not issue the writ of mandamus
that would entitle Marbury to his job.
Marshall sacrificed a pawn (Marbury) in order to declare a law
unconstitutional that sided with Jefferson so that he could get what he
wanted and not defy the courts power. Marshall would stabilize the courts
power to declare the laws passed by Congress unconstitutional, Jefferson
wouldnt have to give Marbury his claim and so it made Jefferson happy.
This set a precedent that the court could then rule laws and actions
unconstitutional. By establishing this concept of judicial review future
generations would be able to trust the government/courts to keep the
executive and legislative branches in check from too much power.
Lewis and Clark 1804-1806
Captain Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were chosen to lead the
expedition to the unchartered territory in the newly purchased land of
Louisiana. The idea for an expedition germinated before the Louisiana
Purchase of 1803, but it quickly became what did we buy, as opposed to
whats out there?
Captain Lewis was the personal private secretary for Thomas Jefferson in
the Executive Mansion. They spent many hours/dinners together discussing
how to categorize flora and fauna. How to make friends with the Indians
and speculating whether or not there was a waterway to the Pacific Ocean.
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They also wanted someone to map the territory that was out there so that
future settlers could have a better idea where they were in relation to the
United States proper.
It became quickly apparent that Lewis was the man for this job and the
expedition which consisted of about 40 men who were trained
hunters/trappers and experienced boatmen that would allow for them the
security of passage through these potentially hazardous areas. Lewis wanted
a soldier who could jointly command with him in case of incident that may
cause him harm, or the expedition needed to split up.
Through this arduous journey Lewis battled a grizzly bear, killed a couple of
indians and brought his entire party back safely, save one. Sgt. Floyd died
early in the trip probably due to appendicitis. This was beyond his medical
expertise to fix. Captain Lewis was able to overcome falling off a cliff and
facing hostile indians by making friends with Sacojaweah, who was a
relative of the hostile indian chief. When he saw her, he welcomed the white
men.
Clark and Lewis were able to accomplish many of the goals. They made
friends with the indians through a speech, ceremony and the gift of medals.
He let them know that they were know longer under the control of the
French, but now they were underneath the power of the Presidency and they
were invited to attend a gathering at the executive mansion. They were also
able to categorize many new species in both the plant and animal kingdom
and they were able to map the new territory. They were unable to find a
waterway to the Pacific Ocean because there wasnt one to be found. The
map that they made didnt get published until well after other maps were
published.
Lewis appeared overwhelmed with the task and he was unable to complete it
due to his joint duties as Governor of the Lousiana Territory. The fur trade
regulations were out of control and Capt. Lewis decided to go away for a
little vacation. He ended up dying it was ruled a suicide. Most experts
today considered him to be manic/depressive, and the suicide is plausible.
However, there were two gun shot wounds, one to his head and then to his
misection. He then crawled 50 yards outside of a house searching for
someone to dress his wounds, which kind of implies he was murdered.
Believe whichever story you like.

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Louisiana Purchase of 1803

There were two reasons that Napoleon sold us the Louisiana Territory. He
didnt know that the territory was so vast that it doubled the size of the
United States. The first reason-there was a revolt in Haiti which the French
had to put down. They sent 20,000 troops to squash this rebellion. The
troops contracted yellow fever and died. Napoleon felt as though that all
America was cursed and he decided to sell all of his possessions. He also
thought that if he could get money for this than he could fund the war he was
currently engaged with Great Britain. Jefferson had originally had been
authorized $10 million to buy the port of New Orleans. Congress had not
given him permission to spend more than this, but he did it anyway for fear
Napoleon would change his mind. Did he do the right thing????
Aaron Burrs silly pride
In 1800, the electoral college had not established which candidate was
running for which office. Burrs tie with Jefferson in the electoral college
due to a flaw in the system and the subsequent ties in the House of
Representatives caused Burr to fall out of favor with Jefferson. Jefferson
dumped him as a Vice-Presidential candidate in the election of 1804. Burr
knew this so he ran for governor of New York. He lost in large part (in
Burrs mind) to the rumors that were circulated about an indiscretion that
had allegedly occurred. This clouded public opinion against Burr causing
him to lose the election. The indiscretion was circulated by Alexander
Hamilton. Burr asked him to apologize for making the comments and
Hamilton would not apologize for characterizing Burr in such a fashion.
Hamilton thought his assessment fair and could not be true to himself if he
were to apologize for what he said. Burr challenged him to a duel, to which
Hamilton accepted.
They picked out a famous dueling place in Weehawken, New Jersey. It was
a narrow strip of land on top of a cliff to which no witnesses could testify to
what happened. We only know what we can surmise from their seconds.
Apparently, Hamilton had not intended to fire (he had recently developed
sense of morality), but upon being hit by Burrs bullet he inadvertently
discharged his weapon 10 feet above Burr. Hamilton had let his second
know when he was conscious to be careful with the weapon as he had not
fired it, but in fact he had fired and was unaware that he had.
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Hamilton suffered a mortal physical wound, and Burr suffered a mortal

political wound. Burr could not show his face in public from his detractors.
He went out west to which he then duped people into investing in some
scheme to allegedly attack Mexico in the supposed name of the United
States, and the former vice-president had many investors such Blennerhasset
and Andrew Jackson.
Also, after attacking Spanish Mexico, Burr would then set himself up as
emperor of the newly purchased land of Louisiana. Since Burr couldnt
realistically become President of the United States with his latest political
wound, he decided to take his ambition elsewhere.
John Marshall was then sent charges to bring Burr up on treason against the
United States. Marshall said that he couldnt convict without paperwork to
document his treasonous activity or two witnesses to testify to the same
crime. The former Jefferson was unwilling to do as he was afraid of
upsetting the public sentiment that a former Vice-President could be capable
of such a plot. The latter, couldnt be proved because Burr and General
Wilkinson didnt really tell the same story twice to anyone. Wilkinson was
eventually the one that turned Burr into Jefferson when it appeared as
though the plot was going to unravel before they were ready to unleash the
plan.
When Jefferson failed to produce the proper paperwork he cited what has
been used since by later presidents something called executive privilege.
This was one of the major precedents that Jefferson set for others to follow.
Causes to the War of 1812
The policies of Orders in Council from Great Britain, and the Berlin and
Milan Decrees from France were essentially the same thing. They stated
that if you traded with the enemy than you were feeding the enemy and
therefore my enemy.
These respective policies were used to justify the sinking of ships, the
seizing of goods and the impressment of sailors thus violating our neutral
rights.

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The War Hawks felt as though that our national pride was at stake and that
we must defend it with all of our might. They also felt that the British were
behind the attacks in the western settlements by the Native Americans.
Although the British had done some talking to the Native Americans in the
1790s they had long since left and were no longer a factor in the west.
However, to the settlers perception was their reality and therefore they
blamed the British for the raids on their settlements.
Madison finally succumbed to the Congressmen in the House of
Representatives drumming for war (War Hawks) in June of 1812.
Unfortunately war was declared on the same day that the British policy of
Orders in council had been officially suspended. But communication being
what it was war was fought anyway.
How did they get to this point? When the United States was having their
neutral rights violated, Jefferson started a policy of embargo. This embargo
Act stated that we were unable to trade with any other country. After a year
of this failed policy, it was replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act which
stated that we could trade with any country but England and France. This
policy was replaced with macon's Bill #2 which stated that we would
continue trade with both countries, but the country that would stop
sinking/seizing our goods/impressment would then receive our goods, and
then we would stop trading with their enemy (napoleonic wars)
Embargo Act 1807-1809
Non-Intercourse Act 1809-1810
Macons Bill # 2 1810-1812
War of 1812- 1812-1815
Treaty of Ghent 1814 Dec.
Last battle was in 1815 Battle of New Orleans in January of 1815.
Battle of Tippecanoe-William henry Harrison vs. Tecumseh part I.
The United States felt as though that the British (in Canada) were
encouraging riots on the western frontier by the native americans. This was
not the case as the Canadians were afraid that the British and Americans
were going to be fighting in another war, so they wanted to conserve the
native americans for when they were already at war.

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The Americans wanted to conquer Canada and make it another state. They
also wanted the Native Americans to become civilized farmers. Harrison,
governor of the Indiana territory would support one indian tribe against
another because they had killed a white man. Then they would force that
tribe from the rich ohio valley. He would then do the same thing against
another tribe which would then cause distrust of the white mans
agreements/treaties. Shawnee Chief Tecumseh organized the surrounding
tribes of the Ohio Valley from Wisconsin to Florida to join forces with him.
His brother, the Prophet, inspired them to give up white ways, white clothes
and white liquor to reinvigorate their own culture.
Nov. 7, 1811. Harrison marched without regard to his troops safety right
into the heart of Prophetstown. The Whites held their ground, and it
discouraged the native americans to retreat. The casualties were a draw, but
the whites had broken their spirit.
Many Americans believed the British were behind this attack.
The War of 1812
The first sea battles were disasters for the British. They lost 3 quick
skirmishes where the Constitution (Old Ironsides) defeated the Guerriere.
The United States defeated the Macedonian in the West Indies and the
Constitution then defeated the Java off the coast of Brazil. We only had 7
frigates compared with 34 frigates for the British. They also had the ships of
the line which numbered 7. When they became deployed in bottled up our
navy to ineffectiveness.
The privateers were very effective capturing more than 1300 smaller British
vessels and causing millions in damage.
In Canada, the British had approximately 2250 regulars ready to defend
from Detroit to Montreal. Many of the Canadians were American
sympathizers at the very least as many were born in the United States.
William Hull with 2200 men tried to disperse Canadian militia, when they
didnt he retreated as he was threatened by Tecumsehs men from the rear.
When the British general Brock chased him he surrendered without even
firing one round.

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The New York regiment failed to cross into Canada as they only wanted to
fight within the states borders.
Another regiment, failed to launch into Montreal and settled at Plattesburg,
New York.
The British captured Fort Michilimackinac and the native americans took
Fort Dearborn which is near present day Chicago.
On Lake Erie, Oliver Hazard Perry defeated the British at Put-In Bay in
Sept. of 1813. Perry destroyed the British vessels in a bloody battle that
claimed 85 of the 103 men on Perrys flagship.
With the fall of Lake Erie, the British had to retreat from Detroit. Harrison
chased them down and defeated them at the Thames River. Tecumseh
perished in this battle and with his death the heart of the native americans
left the battlefield.
The British blockaded the American ports in 1813, and waited for the fall of
France before fully committing to the war in the United States.
In 1814, the British were able to divert their attention because France
surrendered. 11,000 men were to march from Montreal. The same route
that Burgoyne had taken in the Revolutionary War.
A second army was to invade the chespeake bay around Washington DC.
And Baltimore. A third army was to invade New Orleans. The British
troops were surprised to find little defenses near the capital and they waltzed
into the countryside burning Washington D.C. and bombarding Fort
McHenry at Baltimore from where Francis Scott Key wrote the StarSpangled Banner. The British were finally stopped by militia in Baltimore.
During the bombardment of Fort McHenry 1800 shells were dropped in 25
hours over Sept. 13th and 14th 1814.
The first army from the North failed to march further than Plattesburg as the
loss of control of the Great Lakes appeared too much for the 11,000 men to
bear, and they withdrew without much of a fight.
The final army in New Orleans, the best that the British had to offer came up
against Andrew Jackson and his combined forces of former slaves, creoles,
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indians and tennessee frontiersman. Jackson had already defeated the

Creeks in a series of battles in Alabama. He had taken a bullet while trying
to break up a disagreement among his men and he was as tough as nails.
On Dec. 23rd the British had landed in New Orleans. Jackson took
Packenham (British) by surprise and held their own against British regulars.
He then retreated 5 miles and dug in. The Mississippi River was on his
right. On his left was a swamp that could not be utilized, and to the front an
open field. By this time the Treaty of Ghent was signed and the war was
over, but nobody told the people in New Orleans.
The Americans erected a earthen parapet 10 yards behind a dry canal bed.
While Packenham tried to find where Jackson was weak, jackson
strengthened his defenses. On Jan. 8th Packenham ordered an all-out frontal
assault. His patience had gotten the better of him, and he had felt that after
defeating Napoleon he could defeat Jackson. Packenham thought that
Jacksons men 4500, would retreat upon seeing them charge. Jackson had
his men fire in groups of 3 rows. One would fire duck down reload and
another would fire, the second would fire duck down and the third would
fire. They had waited until they were 150 yards away to fire. When the
final retreat was sounded 2100 British casualties were the losses compared
with the Americans 13 killed and 58 missing. It made the Americans feels
as though that they had won the war.
During this jubilation, the Hartford Convention sick of the useless war had
talked openly about secession. The New England states leading Federalists
were the cause of this talk and when everyone was cheering they were
talking about seceding. It became very unpopular to be labeled a federalists,
and they eventually died out.
The Marshall Court:1801-1835
Dartmouth College vs Woodward 1819- This ruling by John Marshall led to
an established contract cannot be broken unless it is mutual. The State of
New Hampshire wanted to make the private college of Dartmouth public.
Daniel Webster argued for Dartmouth and said that they had an agreement,
or contract with the state since 1769, why should it be broken now?
Marshall concurred and Dartmouth remained private. The far reaching
elements to the case allowed for power to the big business industry and less

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power for the states to dictate to the businesses regulations or threatening to

withdraw some privileges.
McCulloch vs Maryland 1819-Maryland levied a state tax on a branch of the
federal bank. The issues to be resolved: 1) Did Congress have the right to
establish a national bank 2) Did a state have the power to tax the or
regulate an institution created by Congress. Marshall decided that the
government even though the constitution didn't set a provision for a national
bank, they could do so under their implied powers clause. He also ruled the
state of Maryland had no right to tax a national government agency. That
would be inverse to the logic of how the U.S. government was mandated.
Gibbons vs. Ogden 1824-New York had granted a steamboat company a
monopoly over the waters that were between New York and New Jersey.
Marshall ruled that interstate commerce must be regulated by Congress not
the individual states. Therefore, the New York agreement for a monopoly
was null and void.
Overall Marshall gave far reaching powers to the national government,
increasing privatization of businesses thus encouraging investments and a
national market economy while limiting state power.
The Monroe Doctrine and the Era of Good Feeling
Following the Napoleonic Wars there was a time of world peace. In addition
to the single party system which had occurred in the United States, the name
Era of Good Feeling coined by a contemporary paper, was used to
demonstrate that the world was at peace. However, due to the Panic of 1819
caused by a national bank president that gave out loans too generously,
followed by a president that gave out loans too harshly and recalling all
loans the nation went into a deep recession. Secretary of the Treasury
William H. Crawford, helped to rectify the problem by giving farmers more
time to pay off their loans, without foreclosing and helping to get Nicholas
Biddle into the position of president of the 2nd national bank. Biddle was a
child prodigy that happened to finally publish the Lewis and Clark journals
and maps. He also was a brilliant bank leader. However with his brilliance
came arrogance which we will deal with a decade later.
During this peace time, many nations wanted to turn back the clock to
imperialism and conquering new territories for their own respective country.
Austria, Prussia, Russia and Great Britain were on this same page. The
United States was being pressured by Henry Clay in congress as well as
some other congressmen to recognize the independence of some Latin
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American nations which had broken away from Spain. Monroe finally did
surrender to this position, when John Quincy Adams Secretary of the State
convinced Monroe that Britain would back up whatever words we say to the
world that further colonization would not be tolerated. Great Britain came
to this position because their own interest.
The United States heard claims by Czar Alexander I of Russia that he owned
the Oregon Country, and was willing to back up those claims. Britain came
on board with the United States because the merchants of Britain stood more
to gain from independent Latin American nations through trade than through
trading with their former enemies France and Spain. It was advantageous
not to money into the pocket of their sworn enemies. Therefore when the
Monroe Doctrine was made public, Great Britain supported it.
In 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was issued from the United States to make
ourselves look more powerful than we were, because we knew we had the
support of the British navy to back it up. The Doctrine is as follows:
The United States opposed any further colonization of the Americas
by Europe
The United States would not interfere in European affairs
Partisan politics grows and the end of a single party. Many people would
run for president in 1824.
The Election of 1824
The election of 1824 was kind of an educational one in that it reminded us
all on how the electoral college operated. With no party delegations to each
of the candidates they are as follows complete with the number of electoral
votes:
J.Q. Adams 84 113,122 popular votes
A. Jackson 99 151, 271 popular votes
Crawford 41 40, 856 popular votes
Clay
37 47, 531 popular votes
In order to win the election you needed one over half of the electoral votes
261. A majority of the electoral votes would be 131 electoral votes. No one
received that so the three top receivers of votes in the electoral college
would have a run-off in the House of Representatives. This removed Clay
from the possibility of being president. However, as Speaker of the House,
his opinion mattered. In what came to be known as the corrupt bargain, he
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swung his support for John Quincy Adams, and a few weeks later after
Adams was president, Adams made Clay his Secretary of State. The
significance is that Washington's Secretary of State was Jefferson, our 3rd
president. Jefferson's Secretary of State was Madison. Madison's Secretary
of State was Monroe. Monroe's Secretary of State was JQ Adams.
Obviously a stepping stone to the presidency. Jackson's followers called
foul "corrupt bargain" and launched a 4 year campaign that ruined any
chance of a successful presidency by Adams. His term was over in 4 years
and Jackson was elected president in 1828.
The Era of Good Feelings or was it?
Second National Bank
Chartered in 1816
Supported by President Madison (1808-1816)
Nicholas Biddle was the President of the bank.
Did a good job of managing the bank
However, he was criticized by many (Andrew Jackson and state
banks) as being too powerful and acting in the best interests of the
commercial classes in the East.
Provided larger loans to businesses that werent able to get funding from
smaller investors.
Bank had the power to establish a national currency
Helped to strengthen the economic independence of the nation
First National Bank received first charter in 1791 opposed by
Democratic-Republicans who felt that Congress had no authority to make
such a bank. Supported by Federalists view of national economic
development.
That charter expired in 1811.
Era of Good Feelings 1817-1824
Phrase that became associated with the Monroe Administration after
appearing in the Boston Columbian Centinel to describe the euphoria
surrounding President Monroes triumphant tour of New England.
Single party, Democratic-Republican, commanded almost all segments of
society.
The War of 1812 had helped eliminate the Federalist party (think
Hartford Convention)
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The world was at peace during this time.

Monroe decisively beat the opposition in the election of 1816.
During the Election of 1820, Monroe was elected with no opposition
whatsoever. (No one ran against him)
Industrial Revolution was doing well.
Hence, the time period was coined the era of good feelings.
Panic of 1819
First severe economic depression
Second National Bank forced its loan holders to re-pay their debts
immediately which led to financial ruin for many farmers and business
people in the South and West.
This made the farmers and other people greatly dislike and distrust
the bank.
Renewed competition from European imports following War of 1812.
Land dropped from $69 an acre to $2 an acre
Monroe administration attempted to help by relaxing mortgage terms on
land purchased from the government.
Depression lasted until 1821.
Panic left a bitter taste in the mouth of America concerning the Bank
which was largely blamed for the hard times.
Missouri Compromise, 1820
In 1818, Missourians asked Congress to make their territory a state.
This posed a question as to whether Missouri would be a free or slave
state.
Plan proposed by Henry Clay to keep the number of slave and free states
equal. Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state.
Also stated that the land acquired through the Louisiana Purchase north
of latitude 3630 was to be free, south of that to be slave.
This maintained a balance of free and slave states in the Union.
President Monroe considered vetoing the bill because he felt Congress
lacked Constitutional authority to ban slavery in the territories. However,
he decided to sign the bill into law for the fear that vetoing it might have
precipitated a civil war.
Sectionalism: the practice of holding ones own section of the country
higher than other sections, or even than the country as a whole; loyalty to
ones region.
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Could be referred to as contradictory to nationalism.

This agreement was widely seen as a southern victory.
Missouri was controversial about slavery and they became slave.
Maine wasnt controversial, they would have been a free state
anyway.

Marshall Court (1801-1835)

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)
Issue: Dartmouth had a charter stating they would be a private
institution. However, the state of New Hampshire wanted to make the
college public.
Ruling: Charters are legal contract and therefore, unchallengeable
Result: Dartmouth remains a private institution (protection of private
charters by federal
government and the honoring of all contracts. The
only way out of a contract is if both parties want to withdrawal mutually.)
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Issue: Southern and Western states try to destroy and/or limit the
power of the National Bank. Maryland wants to tax and destroy the bank.
Ruling: The bank is constitutional; necessary and proper clause; the
power to tax is the power to destroy
Result: Bank is constitutional; states cannot tax federal institutions;
South/West very unhappy with the bank
This ruling caused much controversy because it placed the
bank, a federal institution beyond the regulatory power of any
state government.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Issue: State of New York gives Ogden monopoly over ferry travel on
the Hudson River; Congress gives Gibbons license to ferry on the
Hudson River; New York court rules Gibbons in violation of state
law.
Ruling: State monopolies over interstate commerce are null and void;
Interstate commerce must be regulated by Congress not the states
Result: New York agreement with Ogden for monopoly was null and
void; Free enterprise promoted; State power to grant monopolies
limited

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Popular decision of the court, especially in the view of the

Democratic-Republicans
Sturges v. Crowninshield (1819)
- The law cannot be retroactively enforced.
- Marshall found a New York bankruptcy law unconstitutionalstates could make such laws but could not apply them to debts
from before those laws were passed
**** Overall, Marshall gave far reaching powers to the national
government, increasing privatization of businesses thus encouraging
investments and a national market economy, while limiting state power.
Monroe Doctrine, 1823
Policy statement of President James Monroe on December 2, 1823.
Warned European nations not to interfere with the newly independent
nations of Latin America.
Monroe said that the United States would not allow European countries
to set up new colonies in the Western Hemisphere.
The message contained three key principles:
Unless American interests were involved, US policy was to stay
away from European wars
American continents were not subjects for future colonization by
any European power
The United States would construe any attempt at European
colonization in the New World as an unfriendly act
In 1823, we did not have the military power to enforce the Monroe
Doctrine. But it was a good example of us expressing our nationalistic
feelings.
Britain did support this policy and their powerful navy was able to
keep other European nations from trying to build new colonies in
the Americas.
Election of 1824
Candidates:
William H. Crawford (Georgia)
Called for a limited federal government and strong state
powers
Defended slavery
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Poor health
Helped to alleviate the pains of the Panic of 1819 as Sec. of
Treasury
Andrew Jackson (Tennessee)
Victory in Battle of New Orleans = War hero
Claimed to speak for the Americans who had been left out of
politics
Supporters included:
Farmers in the South
Settlers in the West
Struggling labors in the East
Henry Clay (Kentucky)
Speaker of the House
Fought for:
Internal improvements
High tariffs
Stronger National Bank
John Quincy Adams (Massachusetts)
Son of former President John Adams
Supported by merchants in the Northeast
Believed that the federal government should actively help
the nation shift from an economy based on farming to one
based on manufacturing.
Election:
Jackson received the largest number of popular votes
Jackson 151,271 popular votes
99 electoral votes
Adams 113,122 popular votes
84 electoral votes
Crawford 40,856 popular votes
41 electoral votes
Clay 47, 531 popular votes
37 electoral votes
However, no candidate received the majority, (only a plurality) half
or more (131+), of the 261 electoral votes.
This led to the House of Representatives selecting the
President
The Corrupt Bargain
While the House was preparing to vote on the new president, John
Q. Adams met with Henry Clay. Clay agreed to use his position as
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Speaker of the House to influence the vote enough to elect Adams

as President in return for being appointed Secretary of State.
This plan worked and John Q. Adams became President in 1824
and he, then, appointed Henry Clay as his Secretary of State.

Industrial Revolution
The change from an agrarian society to one based on industry which
began in Great Britain and spread to the United States around 1800.
Life in the cities:
What were the living conditions like? Good or bad?
Buildings close together
What happens when there is a fire?
No real form of sewage or sanitation.
Dirt roads
No electric = no air conditioning in factories or anywhere else, no
efficient way of heating buildings
Capital: money for investment
Patent: gives an investor the sole legal right to the invention and its
profits for a certain period of time.
Cotton gin: a simple machine that quickly and efficiently removed the
cotton seeds from the fiber.
Invented by Eli Whitney in 1793
Enabled one worker to clean cotton as fast as 50 people working
by hand.
This was meant to lessen the hard work on the slaves. It had
the adverse effect. Cotton became an indispensable crop in the
south to which the economic survival of the South was tied.
Because of the necessity, the slaves were not going to be freed
anytime soon.
Interchangeable parts: parts that would be able to replace other
identical parts
Eli Whitney devised a way to make interchangeable parts in 1798.
Steamboat: allowed for more efficient way of transporting goods from
one place to another
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Invented by John Fitch in 1787

Steam engine: helped make production in factories and other places
more efficient
Invented by Oliver Evans 1802

Jacksonian Democracy:1828-1848
GAMES, GAMES, GAMES
The board games which you will be charged with creating should include the
following:
1)
2)
3)
4)

An object to the game 20 points

Typed clear directions 15 points
Proper materials 15 points
Information from which to learn about your specific topic, clearly
utilized, and feasible to learn: 20 points
5) Playability 10 points
6) Peer Ranking 20 points
You and your partner will be responsible for one of the following topics
during Jacksonian Democracy 1828-1848.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.

Nullification Crisis
Peggy Eaton Affair
Kitchen Cabinet
Trail of Tears
Maysville Road
Caroline Affair
Aroostook War
Princeton Explosion
Acting President John Tyler
Tippecanoe and Tyler too
Panic of 1837
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l. Webster-Ashburton Treaty
m. War for Texas Independence
n. Mexican War
o. 5440 or fight
p. Oregon Trail
q. Bank War
r. Spoils System
s. Assassination attempt
t. Panic of 1837

Election of 1828
Andrew Jackson vs. John Quincy Adams
Jackson = Democratic-Republican
Favored states rights and mistrusted a strong central
government
Individualists from the frontier, immigrants, and laborers in big
cities
JQ Adams = National Republican
Favored a strong central government
Supported Bank of the United States and road building in hopes
of shaping the nations economy
Merchants or successful farmers
It was a bitter and nasty campaign that lowered itself to mudslinging
(attempts to ruin the opponents reputation with insults)
Jackson won the election in a landslide victory: 56% of the popular vote
and 178 electoral votes
3 Strikes and youre out, Calhoun!
Nullification Crisis: due to the events following the Tariff of 1828 being
passed, a crisis ensued causing an increase in states rights advocates and
pressures in the South for Southern states to secede from the Union. South
Carolinas state legislature passed the Nullification Act, declaring that it
would not pay the illegal tariffs. They also threatened to secede from the
Union if the federal government tried to interfere with their actions. The
crisis ended and the south was appeased by compromising with the Tariff of
1833.
Tariff of Abominations
Also known as the Tariff of 1828
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Imposed a very high tariff on imported goods from Europe

Manufacturers in the US mostly welcomed this tariff because it
made European items more expensive, therefore, Americans
would buy American-made products
Southerners hated this tariff
The south traded cotton to Europe for manufactured
goods
The tariff made these items more expensive
Congress attempted to pass a new, lower tariff in 1832, but the
South was still unhappy
South Carolina Exposition
Written anonymously by John C. Calhoun in 1828
A protest against the Tariff of Abominations (Tariff of 1828)
Stated that the state has the right to reject federal law
Force Bill
Passed by Congress in 1833
The bill allowed the President to use the United States military
to enforce acts of Congress.
Jackson was threatening South Carolina with facing the Army.
Peggy Eaton Affair
The gossip going around was that Mrs. Peggy oNeale Timberlake
was having an affair with John Eaton, when her husband died at sea in
1828. Soon after she married Eaton, who two months later became
Jacksons Secretary of War.
Washington society, most notably Mrs. Calhoun, ostracized Mrs.
Eaton. The president felt a parallel between how they were treating
her and how people had treated his late wife, Rachel.
Jackson met Rachel while he was living with her family in
Tennessee. She was married at the time, but her husband had
sent her away in a jealous rage accusing her of having affairs
with other men. A few years later Jackson ends up marrying
Rachel, who thought she was divorced from her former
husband, but she really wasnt. Their marriage in 1791 was not
legally binding. They remarried in 1794 after her divorce was
final, but that caused much heartache for Rachel. People
attacked her character and her reputation for the scandalous
situation she had involved herself in. Due to her anguish and
her history of heart trouble, she suddenly grew ill and died on
December 22, 1828. President Jackson forever blamed his
political opponents for her death.
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Jackson demanded the cabinet wives treat her with due courtesy and
respect. They refused. Only Martin Van Buren socialized with her.
The situation escalated to the point that several of the Cabinet
members resigned, including John Eaton.
This elevated Martin Van Buren to Jacksons favorite and helped him
to become Jacksons running mate in the next election.
The Toast
Jackson was invited to speak at a dinner in April 1830
He, as well as Calhoun were invited there by supporters of states
rights
Jackson finally rose and spoke directly to Calhoun, Our federal
union must be preserved! In response, Calhoun raised his glass
and said, The Union next to our liberty, most dear. Meaning the
fate of the Union must take second place to a states liberty to make its
own laws.
This was the last straw for Calhoun. In December 1832, Calhoun won
election to the Senate, and two weeks after that, he resigned the vice
presidency.
Kitchen Cabinet
President Jackson was very unhappy with his official cabinet members
(mostly because of the events of the Peggy Eaton Affair)
He began skipping regular cabinet meetings and instead started discussing
and formulating policy with an informal group of his own advisors at the
White House
This group of men became known as Jacksons Kitchen Cabinet
Some of those men include: Secretary of War John H. Eaton, Secretary of
State Martin Van Buren, and Jacksons nephew Andrew Jackson Donelson.
Spoils System
President Jackson fired many federal workers and replaced them with his
supporters
To the victor belongs the spoils or the benefits of the victory
This had been going on long before Jackson, however, he made such an
abrupt change that his actions caused the opposition to voice their opinions.
In actuality, Jackson only ended up replacing 15% of the federal work force
during his two terms.
Assassination Attempt
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January 30, 1835:

Richard Lawrence, 32, a mentally disturbed house painter approached the
President to within a distance of 13 feet.
Shot 1: Fired a single-shot derringer--the gunpowder failed to ignite
Shot 2: Jackson lunged forward to strike his attacker with his cane when
Lawrence shot another single-shot derringer at point blank range the gun
did not fire
At his trial, Lawrence was found not-guilty because of insanity
He was admitted into a mental institution where he stayed until his death in
1861.
The odds of two weapons of that sort malfunctioning in succession were put
at one in 125,000
Internal Improvements
Maysville Road Bill
In 1830, Jackson vetoed this bill which would have authorized federal
funds for the construction of a highway wholly within Kentucky.
He vetoed it because he said it only benefited one state, and not the
nation as a whole, making it unconstitutional.
National Road Extension
Supported by Jackson
Started in 1811 in Cumberland, Maryland and was
supposed to end in Jefferson City, Missouri. However, it
never made it that far, funding ran out in 1839 in
Vandalia, Illinois. The Bank War

The bank was not up for re-chartering until 1836 because it was on
a 20 year charter, and it was established in 1816. However,
because Jackson had declared his utter contempt for the National
Bank, the pro-bank people tried to apply political pressure toward
Jackson by forcing the issue in 1832, an election year. Jackson
was a very stubborn man. He believed that it was the fault of
mismanagement of bank officials that were responsible for some of
the mishaps which occurred to himself and his friends which made
him declare bankruptcy earlier in his life.
The reason many people in the west and the south blamed the bank
for their problems goes back to the Panic of 1819. When the banks
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recalled all loans, it forced a serious recession which they would

not come out of until they had someone at the bank who could run
it effectively. Nicholas Biddle, a child prodigy was that man. He
established the bank in many peoples eyes. He understood the
mysteries of banking better than anyone in the age in which he
lived. His faults were his own arrogance and vanity. He didnt
trust anyone elses judgment and refused to admit any mistakes he
may have made. He helped to avert the boom and bust cycle in cy
1825 and 1828 by curbing an overextension of credit by state
banks.
The actual performance of the bank was irrelevant for some of the
Old line Jeffersonians because they opposed it on principle. It was
unconstitutional and because it placed too much power in the
hands of a small privileged group. Robert Remini says that the
Bank was a financial colossus, entrenched in the nations
economy, possessing the means of draining specie from state banks
at will and regulating the currency according to its own estimate of
the nations needs. It was all too easy to blame the nations
economic problems on an all-powerful bank.
Biddle feeling paranoid found a friend in Henry Clay and together
they pushed a bill through Congress which passed and went onto
the President just before the election. Jackson vetoed it and in
essence killed the National Bank. After he vetoed the bank he took
all of the federal money in the bank and put them in pet state
banks. Jackson was a little different from Van Buren. Van Buren
saw politics as a game to be won with honor. Jackson believed that
his competitors were evil and must be destroyed and after his reelection he viewed that his constituents viewed politics the same
way. Jackson put the money in 23 pet banks and the bank
responded by calling in outstanding loans and instituting a policy
of credit contraction that helped bring on economic recession. The
bank was seen as evil for doing this and Biddle lost respect and the
bank never regained its charter.
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The emergence of the Whigs with Clay and Daniel Webster at the
helm. They were founded on the principles of the Constitution and
that Jackson had overstepped his bounds of the Constitution
repeatedly. Even Calhoun saw this as an attractive party for a time
period. The name was chosen for those people who were against a
monarchy. The Whigs called Andrew Jackson King Andrew I.
The anti-Masons also joined this camp in response to the murder of
a freemason who threatened to reveal the secrets of the masons.
The rising fear of secret societies caused more people to join this
party. The Anti-Masons were concerned with the decadent
behavior of society that was allowed to go on under Jacksons
administrations. People drank, gambled and found other things to
do on Sundays other than go to church. This bothered the AntiMasons.
In 1836, Jackson passed the Specie-Circular Act which required
only gold and silver to be accepted in payment for public lands.
This action served to curb inflation and land speculation but did so
in such a quick fashion that it contributed to the Panic of 1837.
Van Buren who was the greatest master of practical politics in the
Democratic Party ran for president in 1836 against 3 different
regional Whig Party members. William Henry Harrison from
Ohio, Daniel Webster from the East and Hugh Lawson White of
Tennessee. The Whigs hoped to get the election thrown into the
House of Representatives by not securing a majority of electoral
votes. However, Van Buren was successful winning 15 of 26 states
and securing an electoral majority.
Van Burens administration was thrown immediately into the fire
when cotton fell by 50% banks all over the nation suspended
specie payments and many businesses went bankrupt and
unemployed persons were up. This was as a result of the economic
upheaval that Jackson created by destroying the Bank and the
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Specie Circular Act as well as a fact in international scope and

reflected some complex changes in the world economy that were
beyond the control of American policymakers.
Van Buren was blamed as well as Jacksons fiscal policies. Van
Burens laissez-faire response did little to improve the economy as
he thought it would fix itself. He did try to establish a pubic
depository r government funds with no connections to commercial
banking. This did not pass until 1840, under cries of a return to a
national bank by the Whigs. Meanwhile the economy rebounded
in 1838 to only seek deeper in depression in 1839.
Harrison defeated Van Buren in the same way that Jackson
defeated John Quincy Adams in 1828. Only this time the Whigs
portrayed the Democrats as out of touch with the people. Of being
an aristocrat, with a silver spoon in his mouth. Harrison portrayed
himself as a man of the people a self-made man and champion of
the log cabin and hard cider campaign. Harrison didnt even have
a platform. He used the slogan Tippecanoe and Tyler too as a
catchy phrase to remember at the polls. They tried to broaden the
Ohioans appeal by choosing a Virginian as his running mate, a
converted states rights Democrat. They used parades, posters,
campaign hats and emblems, special songs, and even movable log
cabins filled with coonskin caps and barrels of cider for those who
followed.
The election of 1840 gave birth to the two-party system, and this
time it was called the Whigs and the Democrats.
Whigs stood for a positive liberal state whereas, the Democrats
offered a negative liberal state. Whigs meant that the government
had the right and the duty to subsidize or protect enterprises that
could contribute to general prosperity and economic growth.

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The Democrats believed in a government that should keep their

hands off the economy. Only by doing nothing could it avoid
favoring special interest groups and interfering with a free market
economy.
The Whigs were made up of primarily of merchants and
industrialists.
The Democrats appealed to the small farmer, workers and
emerging entrepreneurs. It was the rich vs. the poor to an extent.
Most Catholics, Episcopal, and Lutherans or those who didnt go
to church were primarily Democrats. Whereas the evangelical
protestants were primarily Whigs.
James K. Polks support came from a group identified as the
Young Americans. These young Americans believed the nation
was adolescent and it was awakening into maturity. They believed
in an aggressive foreign policy, territorial acquisitions, and
economic growth. They wanted Texas in the Union, all of the
Oregon Territory and they wanted to buy land from Mexico in the
southwest.
The telegraph and the railroad brought this nation together and it
symbolized the capability of a nation to grow as large as they could
dream. This gave birth to the Imperialistic idea of Manifest
Destiny. The United States would in time control all land from sea
to sea as God has ordained it so.
This young America extended to literature as well giving us Walt
Whitman (Leaves of Grass)and Herman Melville (Moby Dick). It
appeared for a time that our boundaries would reach into British
Canada. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty set the present day with
Canada all the way from Maine to just short of the Oregon
Territory. Adams and Jackson tried to buy Texas at the invitation
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of the Mexican government. The Mexican government even gave

Moses and Steven Austin land enough for 300 families from
America to settle. Within a year the population grew to over 2000
people.
In 1829, the Mexican government outlawed slavery. The Texans
ignored this and brought slaves in any way they could trying to
extend the Cotton Kingdom. Because the Americans would not
accept the Catholic Church, or stop the usage of slavery and they
would not pay duties brought in from the United States and they
were also the bulk of the Texan population, the Mexican
government put an end to the colonization fiasco.
Stephen Austin went to air out their grievances and was awarded
the immigration restrictions lifted, but as far as tariff relief, none
was awarded. He wrote a letter asking Texas to see about
declaring their independence, and he was promptly arrested. This
sparked the war for Texas Independence.
During the Revolution, the Texans offered grievances of long harsh
rule by the Mexicans, which was simply not true. Santa Anna
made himself dictator of Mexico in 1834, and he abolished the
Federal system of government. When Santa Anna learned that the
Texans were resisting customs collections he sent troops in 1835.
Stephen Austin captured San Antonio with five hundred men and
after six weeks forced the bulk of the Mexican force in Texas the
time to surrender.
Americans voted to recognize the Republic of Texas in 1836.
After their recognition, 4000 Mexican soldiers assaulted the Alamo
in San Antonio. There were only 187 Texan defenders. The
allegedly fought to the last man and the gave the rallying cry
Remember the Alamo! In addition 350 Texans were caught in
the town of Goliad and were executed. This massacre provoked
the Texans even further.
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The main Texas army under Sam Houston moved quickly to

avenge these defeats. The Texans had 700 men and they killed 630
and captured 730 more including Santa Anna at the San Jacinto
River. The Texans only lost a handful of men. Santa Anna was
marched to Velasco where he was forced to accept the terms of the
Texans which included Independence for Texas, and its claim to
the Rio Grande River. Sam Houston became President of Texas
and he then moved toward uniting with the United States of
America.
It wasnt until the wee hours of Tylers Presidency that Texas
would be accepted into the union due to fear of war with Mexico if
the U.S. annexed Texas. Tyler advocated it because he thought it
was his only chance of being elected in 1844, when both parties
would not support his presidential campaign, even though he was
the current President.
Polk swore to only serve one term and it was a very close election
between Clay and Polk, separated by only 5000 votes.
Manifest Destiny!
In 1845 and 1846, the United States came dangerously close to
another war with Great Britain. Many Americans were willing to
go to war to the extent that a rallying cry could be heard, 5440
or Fight!. These coordinates include present day British
Columbia. Polk settled the question of the border of the Oregon
Territory because he was prompted with a war with Mexico so he
settled on the border of the 49th parallel with temporary rights to
navigation of the Columbia River.
War with Mexico!
The War with Mexico was fought on the premise that Texas
believed that their border extended to the Rio Grande River, while
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the Mexicans believed it only went as far as the Nueces River. The
Mexicans broke off all diplomatic relations once Texas was
admitted into the Union and they prepared for battle. Polk
responded by placing troops in Louisiana. He also sent John
Slidell to Mexico to negotiate the border as well as purchasing
New Mexico and California. While Slidell was in Mexico City,
Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to advance beyond the
Nueces River and proceed toward the Rio Grande River. In
essence invading Mexican Territory (from the Mexican
perspective) Congress declared war on May 13, 1846. John C.
Fremont stirred up Anti-Mexican sentiments in California and Polk
sent Colonel Stephen Kearny to Santa Fe to take possession of
New Mexico.
Taylor won two decisive victories at Matamoros and Monterrey,
however the Mexicans did not surrender. Taylors decision to
allow the Mexicans to go free and his unwillingness to go into
Mexico City caused great concern to James K. Polk. He turned to
General Winfield Scott who was ordered to prepare an amphibious
assault on Vera Cruz. This would place him within striking
distance of Mexico City. Taylor was supposed to hold his position
in Northern Mexico. He interpreted his orders differently and
advanced on Buena Vista. At Buena Vista, in February 1847 he
defeated a large Mexican Army. He became a national hero and a
presidential candidate for the campaign of 1848.
The Kearny expedition captured Santa Fe and also in California the
uprising that ensued at the urging of Fremont defeated Mexican
outposts and announced themselves independent from Mexico as
the Bear Flag Republic.
General Winfield Scott laid siege to Vera Cruz and won after only
18 days and from there he defeated Santa Anna at Cerro Gordo.
He then captured Mexico City on Sept. 14.

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Nicholas Trist was sent to negotiate the surrender. The Mexicans

had too much pride to surrender at this point so Trist returned
home. Polk was then tempted to take all of Mexico.
The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ended the Mexican War. It
ceded the present day states of New Mexico and California to the
United States for $15 million. It established the Rio Grande River
as the border between Texas and Mexico. The United States
gained half a million square miles of territory. It enlarged the
United States by 20%, adding to it the present day states of
California,
Railroad growth
By 1840, railroads had 2818 miles of track, which equaled the
length of canals existing at that time. However, canals still carried
more goods. Trains were now traveling at a rate of 20-30 mph.
However the rates of the canals were still lower than the trains so
most shippers stayed with canals.
By 1850, the railroads had laid ground in areas where the canals
could not go and reached 9000 miles of track.
By 1860, All the states east of the Mississippi River had railroad
services. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, the railroad
continually found ways they could make it cheaper, which
eventually drove many canals out of business. By 1860, there was
now 30,636 miles of track laid.
Continued Industrial Revolution really takes off!
By 1860, the largest textile mills in the country were producing
wool cloth.

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In 1850, iron was being forged and rolled in factories. Also

catching the factory craze was the shoe industry, the firearms,
clocks and sewing machines.
Americans began to specialize in precision tool making. For
example, in 1851, an extremely accurate measuring device called
the vernier caliper. Also in 1854, the turret lathes were signs of a
special aptitude that was essential to industrialization.
John Deere was mass producing his steel plow in the 1850s
Cyrus McCormick offered the labor saving mechanical reaper
which harvested grain
Seed drills, cultivators, and threshing machines were in widespread
use before 1860.
Despite these advances in industry, the agrarian society still ruled
60-40 in 1860.
An extraordinary time that they lived in which advances were
made in the areas of transportation, industry, and agriculture gave
great strength to the economy to the northern states in the 1850s.
It wasnt until the Civil War years that they kept copious notes
regarding the medical procedures and patients that Europe
recognized any advances in medicine by the United States. For
example for stitches, they used horse hair from the tail. However
they found it too course to use effectively so they boiled it. In
essence, they found less infection with the boiled horse hair,
accidentally discovering the killing of germs by boiling.
Also they discovered that using maggots to eat away dead flesh in
gangrene patients allowed for a better survival rate and less spread
of the disease then those that didnt have the maggots. (the
maggots only ate the dead skin and left the good skin to grow
back) Maggots are nice bugs.

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Bank War
Andrew Jackson vs. Nicholas Biddle
Jackson prided himself on being a self-made man. Biddle represented
everything Jackson disliked. Biddle came from a wealthy family, had a
good education and social standing.
For years, Jackson attacked the Bank for being an organization of wealthy
Easterners over which ordinary citizens had no control.
The Bank of the United States was a very powerful institution.
It held the federal governments money and controlled much of the
countrys money supply.
He felt congress lacked the authority to create it.
In 1832, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster planned to use the Bank to defeat
Jackson in the election. They persuaded Biddle to apply early for a new
charter (government permission to operate the bank), even though the
Banks current charter didnt expire until 1836 (20 year charter from 1816).
These two thought that Jackson would veto the charter which
would lead to his defeat in the election and allow Henry Clay to
become President. They thought wrong.
When the Bill came to the White House for Jacksons signature, he
was sick in bed. Jackson told Van Buren, The bank, Mr. Van
Buren, is trying to kill me. But I will kill it! And with that, he
vetoed the bill.
He felt that the Bank was making the rich and powerful, more rich
and powerful.
During the election of 1832, people were supporting Jacksons decision to
veto the charter. He was reelected, receiving 55% of the popular vote and
219 electoral votes to Clays 49.
Martin Van Buren was elected vice-president.
After his reelection, Jackson decided to expedite his plan to kill the bank.
He ordered the withdrawal of all government deposits from the
Bank and placed the funds in 23 smaller state banks.
By 1836, Nicholas Biddle was forced to close the Bank.
Election of 1836
Martin Van Buren vs. Four anti-Van Buren Candidates
Van Buren = Democratic Republican
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Whigs:
William Henry Harrison of Ohio
Daniel Webster of Massachusetts
W.P. Mangum of North Carolina
Hugh Lawson White of Tennessee = Democrat
The Whigs were founded on the principles of the constitution and that
Jackson had over-stepped his bounds of the constitution repeatedly.
The name was chosen for those people who were against a
monarchy. They referred to Jackson as King Andrew I.
The Anti-Masons also joined this new political party.
They were against the secrecy and exclusiveness of the Masonic
lodges which provided prominent men with fraternal fellowship.
Anti-Masons were concerned with people drinking, gambling and
finding other things to do on Sundays rather than go to church.
They joined the Whigs in response to the murder of a freemason
who threatened to reveal the secrets of the Masons.
The rising fear of secret societies caused more people to join
Van Buren easily defeated his opponents with the help of Jacksons great
popularity and personal support for him.
Specie-Circular Act
Passed by Jackson in 1836
Required only gold and silver to be accepted in payment for public lands.
This attempted to curb inflation and land speculation, but it happened in
such a sudden and drastic way that it actually helped cause the Panic of 1837
Moved much of the hard money (specie/silver and gold) to the western areas
of expansion when the Banks in the East needed it more
Panic of 1837
Occurred two months after Van Buren took office.
The country entered a severe economic depression (a period in which
business and employment fall to a very low level)
Caused by the government selling millions of acres of public land in the
West.
These people borrowed money from state banks to purchase the
land
The state banks just kept printing more money to meet the
demands of the loans
This money was not backed by silver and gold reserves
Effects of the Panic
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Land values dropped sharply

Investments declined suddenly
Banks failed when they suspended converting paper money into
gold and silver
Nine hundred banks failed across the country
People lost confidence in the economic system
Within weeks thousands of businesses closed and hundreds of
thousands of people lost their jobs
Prices rose so high poor people could not afford rent or food
Van Buren didnt do much to solve the economic problems our country was
facing
He believed in a system of laissez-faire (the government should interfere
with the economy as little as possible)
The depression lasted about six years
The people who had so loyally supported Jackson, now had turned against
Van Buren.
Indian Removal Act
Passed by Congress in 1830
Allowed the federal government to pay Native Americans to move
west.
The land west of the Mississippi River was dry and seemed unsuitable for
farming. So white men decided to pay the Indians to relocate there so
they/we could have their land. Andrew Jackson strongly supported this.
Jackson then sent federal officials to negotiate treaties with Indians of the
Southeast.
Most of them accepted payment for their lands and agreed to
move.
Indian Territory, an area located in present-day Oklahoma, was created by
Congress in 1834 for Native Americans in the Southeast.
Worchester v. Georgia, 1832
The Cherokee Nation:
Refused to give up their land
During the 1790s, the federal government had recognized the Cherokee
people in the state of Georgia as a separate nation with its own laws.
Georgia, as a state, refused to recognize Cherokee laws.
The Cherokee sued the state government of Georgia and eventually took
their case to the Supreme Court.

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Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Georgia had no right to interfere
with the Cherokee. The Native Americans, he said, were protected by the
federal government and the Constitution.
However, President Jackson supported Georgias efforts to remove the
Cherokee from their lands. He ignored the Supreme Courts ruling: John
Marshall has made his decision! Now let him enforce it!
Trail of Tears
In 1835, the federal government talked a few Cherokee into signing a treaty
giving up their peoples land. Yet most of the 17,000 Cherokee refused to
honor the treaty.
They wrote a protest to the government saying We are aware that some
persons suppose it will be for our advantage to move beyond the
Mississippi Our people universally think otherwise We wish to remain
on the land of our fathers.
Their plea did not affect Jackson or the white settlers who wanted
the land the Cherokee lived on.
Still, there were many white people who were ashamed.
Washington was flooded with protests over the treatment of
Indians.
In 1838, General Winfield Scott and an army of 7,000 federal troops
came to force the Cherokee to leave their homes and lead them west.
General Scott and the troops threatened to use force if they did not
leave their homes.
The Cherokee knew that fighting would only take lives and destroy
others.
They eventually gave in and began the long march to the West.
The brutal and unforgiving weather of the Great Plains claimed many
thousands of Cherokee lives along the way. This journey became know to
the Cherokee people as the Trail Where They Cried, or as we know it, the
Trail of Tears.

Caroline Affair
Canadian insurgents had been waging revolution against British rule. In an
attempt to capture Toronto, they ended up retreating back to Navy Island in
the Niagara River where the established a government-in-exile committed to
an independent Canada.

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Americans sympathetic to the revolution took supplies to the

island on the steamship Caroline.
In December 1837 Canadian militia, on orders from Britain, seized the
Caroline in US waters, set it on fire, and sent it plummeting over Niagara
Falls in flames.
One American was killed and several injured
This event only worsened our relations with the British. President Van Buren
said it produced the strongest feelings of resentment
Aroostook War, 1839
The border between Maine and the Canadian province of New Brunswick
had never been defined, and both the United States and Canada claimed
some 12,000 square miles along the Aroostook River.
These tensions heated up in February 1839, and led to a bloodless war
Both sides brought their militias along the frontier and south
support from their parent governments
A truce was arranged, effectively settling the crisis pending the decision of
the border issue by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty.
Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842
Fixed the boundary issue between the state of Maine and the Canadian
province of New Brunswick
The United States obtained 7,000 of the disputed 12,000 square miles
Election of 1840
William Henry Harrison (Whig) vs. President Van Buren (DemocraticRepublican)
William Henry Harrison was a hero from the War of 1812, from Ohio
His running mate, John Tyler, was a planter from Virginia.
Harrisons fame from the war came from defeating Tecumsehs followers at
the Battle of Tippecanoe ~ His campaign slogan became Tippecanoe and
Tyler, too!
To win, Harrison knew he had to gain the support of the farmers and laborers
who had voted for Jackson.
The Whigs chose a log cabin as their symbol
The political cartoons showed Harrison in front of a log cabin ~
showing he was a man of the people.
They used parades, posters, campaign hates and emblems, special
songs, and even movable log cabins filled with coonskin caps and
barrels of apple cider for those who followed
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The Whigs also ridiculed Van Buren for being a wealthy snob, they
called him King Martin
Apparently, their tactics worked Harrison won the election of 1840 by a
wide margin.
53% of the popular vote, but 234 electoral votes
Rights of Succession
Unfortunately, the honeymoon was short lived for Harrison and the Whig
party. Just one month after being the first Whig president inaugurated,
Harrison died of pneumonia.
John Tyler of Virginia became the first vice-president to take over the
presidency because the elected president died in office.
Some had different beliefs about succession as it is interpreted from the
Constitution
Some feel only the powers and duties of the president, not the presidency
itself was passed onto the vice-president
He was to be merely an acting president
In response to this insult, he would send back, unopened, all mail
addressed to him as acting president
Because of his actions, this precedent set by him has many times since
elevated the vice president to the full status of President.
Tyler loses Political Support
Even though Tyler had been elected to the vice-presidency in 1840 as a
Whig, he had once been a Democrat.
As president, Tyler disagreed with many Whig policies
He supported states rights and he was an independent thinker
He vetoed several bills sponsored by Whigs in Congress
Including a Bill to Recharter the Bank of the United States
Henry Clay wanted to resurrect the Bank of the United
States that Jackson had destroyed
Because of his lack of party loyalty most of his cabinet members resigned
and Whig leaders in Congress basically kicked him out of the party. Only
one of his cabinet members didnt resign Secretary of State Daniel
Webster.
Princeton Explosion
February 28, 1844
President Tyler and a few other officials inspected the USS Princeton
An advanced warship steamer driven to a screw propeller
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Itinerary called for the presidential party to cruise down the Potomac and
back
Highlight of the trip was supposed to be the firing of the Peacemaker, the
ships principal weapon and at the time, the worlds largest naval gun.
It was fired three times. The third time, it exploded at the breech,
killing or injuring those near it.
President Tyler was below decks with his future wife and a few
others
However, his future wifes father lost his life in this incident, as
well as the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Navy, and three
other people
Election of 1840 compared to the Election of 1828
1828: Jackson vs. Adams
The Democratic Republicans portrayed Jackson as a man of the people
and Adams as a stuck up snob who was out of touch with people.
Jackson was a self-made man and a hero from the War of 1812
1840: William Henry Harrison vs. President Van Buren
Whigs used the same tactics as the Democratic-Republicans did during 1828
Whigs portrayed Harrison as a war hero Tippecanoe and Tyler,
too!
They also portrayed him as a man of the people, hence the log
cabin campaign
Van Buren seen as out of touch with people and ineffective
because of the Panic of 1837 many people felt he had been
promoted beyond his capabilities
These tactics obviously worked for the Democratic-Republicans in 1828 and
for the Whigs in 1840, even though they were two totally different parties.
Texas Independence
Disagreements over Texas began in 1803, when the US acquired the
Louisiana Territory
Americans claimed that Texas was part of that territory Spain disagreed.
In 1819, we signed the Adams-Onis Treaty in which we agreed to drop any
further claim to the region.
At the time, few people lived in Texas. Some of those who did were called
Tejanos, or Mexicans who claimed Texas as their home. Some Native
Americans also ventured into this area.
Empresarios: large plots of land offered to people who agreed to bring
families to settle in Texas by the Spanish for the purpose of promoting the
growth of Texas
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Moses Austin: a man from Missouri who had made a fortune in lead mining
heard about the Spanish plan and applied for and received the first land grant
in 1821.
But before he could establish his colony, Mexico declared their
independence from Spain and he died before the new Mexican
government could confirm his land grant.
This confirmation went to his son, Stephen F. Austin, instead.
He recruited about three hundred families to settle on fertile land
along the Brazos River and the Colorado River of Texas.
These settlers became known as the Old Three Hundred. They
received 960 acres, as well as additional acres for each child.
Most of these settlers came from the United States
By 1830, the number of Americans living in Texas far outnumbered the
Mexicans.
To the disgust of the Mexicans, Americans had not adopted their traditions
or beliefs.
Roman Catholicism
No slavery
Wouldnt pay for the taxes on the things they would bring in from
the US
(The United States has tried to buy Texas from Mexico twice)
In 1830, Mexico had become so frustrated with the growing American
influence in Texas, that they passed a decree, or official order. This decree
prohibited any further immigration from the United States.
This decree also encouraged immigration from Mexican and
European families with large land grants. And last, but definitely
not least, trade was discouraged between Texas and the United
States by placing a tariff on goods imported from the US
Texans became angry with these new policies. Much of their
prosperity depended on trade with the US, not to mention the
families who had relatives who wanted to come to Texas.
Some of the American settlers began calling for independence, while others
wanted to stay within Mexico, but on better terms.
1833 General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna became president of
Mexico.
Stephen F. Austin traveled to Mexico City with the Texans demands to
remove the ban on America settlers and to make Texas a separate state.
The president agreed to first demand but refused the second.
In response, Austin sent a letter to Texas, to tell them to start plans
for their Independence.
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The letter was intercepted by the Mexican government and Austin

was arrested.
Shortly after, Santa Anna (the president) named himself dictator and
overthrew Mexicos constitution of 1824.
Texans no longer had a constitution to protect their rights they felt
betrayed.
During 1835, hostilities towards Mexico grew in Texas and eventually
resulted in open conflict.
Gonzales: town in Texas, where Mexican troops tried to seize a cannon held
by Texans
During the battle, Texans decorated the front of the cannon with a
white flag that bore the words Come and take it.
The Texans drove back the Mexican troops and they consider this
to be the first fight of the Texan Revolution.
The Texans called for volunteers to help their cause and offered free land to
anyone who answered
Davy Crockett, African Americans, and Tejanos
San Antonio: December 1835 very important victory
They liberated San Antonio from the control of a larger Mexican
force and caused them to retreat to the other side of the Rio Grande
Problems:
People thought prematurely that the war was won
People began arguing over who was in charge and what course of
action to follow
Early 1836, Texans should have been making plans to face Santa
Anna, but nothing was being done (this would come back to haunt
them sooner rather than later)
Battle of the Alamo
Santa Anna marched north still angry from the loss at San Antonio
His army reached San Antonio in late Feb 1836 they found a
small Texan force barricaded inside a nearby mission called the
Alamo
Texans had cannons, but no gun-powder
Texans had 187 people to Santa Annas 4000
Texans did have brave leaders like Davy Crockett
Battle lasted for 12 long, grueling days, while the defenders of the
Alamo kept Santa Annas army at bay with rifle fire
During these 12 days thirty two more volunteers from Gonzales
slipped through the Mexican lines to join the Alamo defenders
However, this was not enough
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On March 6, 1836 Mexican cannon fire smashed the Alamos

walls, and the Mexicans launched an all-out attack
There were too many Mexican troops they eventually entered the
Alamo and killed all of the defenders, including Davy Crockett.
Only a few women, children, and servants lived to tell the story
Men from Santa Annas side said The Texans fought more like
devils than like men.
This battle not only cost Mexico hundreds of their own soldiers,
but it also bought Texas some much needed time.
While the Battle of the Alamo was going on, Texans leaders were drawing
up a new constitution. On March 2, 1836, American settlers and Tejanos
firmly declared the independence of the Republic of Texas
Sam Houston was chosen as commander in chief of the Texas
forces
Goliad Massacre: In an attempt to prevent another situation like the Alamo,
Houston ordered troops at Goliad to abandon their position. As they did so,
they came face to face with Mexican troops. After a fierce fight, several
hundred Texans surrendered and a few days later, on orders from Santa
Anna, were executed.
Battle of San Jacinto: Houston gathered an army of about 800, while Santa
Anna had an army of more than 1,300.
April 21, 1836 Texans launched a surprise attack on the Mexican
camp, shouting Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!
They killed more than 600 soldiers and captured 700 more,
including Santa Anna.
On May 14, 1836 he signed a treaty that recognized the
independence of Texas
Texas finally becomes a state on December 29, 1845
Mexican War
Mexico felt that the annexation of Texas was illegal
To fuel the flame even further, the US insisted that the Rio Grande formed
the border, while Mexico claimed that the border lay along the Nueces
River, 150 miles farther north.
Mexico stopped paying payments on the more than $2 million it owed to
American citizens for losses suffered during outbreaks of fighting in
Mexico.
President Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico to propose a deal. He was
offering $30 million for California and New Mexico in return for Mexicos

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acceptance of the Rio Grande as the Texas boundary. And, the US would
take over payment of Mexicos debts to American citizens.
They refused.
Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to march his soldiers across the
borderland between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. On April 24,
1846, Mexican soldiers attacked a small force of Taylors soldiers.
On May 11, 1846, the president told Congress that Mexico had invaded our
territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. Congress
passed a declaration of war against Mexico.
Polk had a three-part plan for the war with Mexico
First, American troops would drive Mexican forces out of the
disputed border region in Texas and make the border secure.
Second, the US would seize New Mexico and California.
Third, American forces would take Mexico City.
Zachary Taylor accomplished the first goal by February 1847.
The second part of the plan was completed by January of 1847 with the help
of General Stephen Watts Kearny and his troops who conquered New
Mexico, and John C. Fremont and Kit Carson, along with the US Navy
who gained control over California.
General Winfield Scott was selected by Polk to complete the task of
capturing Mexico City. He devised a brilliant plan that brought the Mexican
War to a speedy conclusion.
The US lost a total of 1,721 men to battle and about 11,000 to disease in the
Mexican War, but Mexicos losses were much greater.
The war cost the US nearly $100 million, but Mexico also paid a higher
price here.
Mexico lost half of their territory to the US; the land we now know as
California, New Mexico, Utah, parts of Colorado and Wyoming, and most of
Arizona
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, was signed in February 1848.
Mexico gave up all claims to Texas, and agreed to the Rio Grande
border
Gave up New Mexico and California in return for $15 million
In 1853, the US paid Mexico an additional $10 million for the Gadsden
Purchase.
A strip of land along the southern edge of the present day states of Arizona
and New Mexico.
With this purchase, the US mainland reached its present size.

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Fifty-four Forty or Fight!

Settlers in Oregon felt strongly that the US should have sole ownership of
that area.
Because of this, Oregon became an issue in the Election of 1844
James K. Polk (Democratic Party) vs. Henry Clay (Whig Party)
Polk strongly supported American claims for sole ownership of Oregon.
Democrats used the campaign slogan Fifty-four Forty or Fight referring
to the latitude line that Democrats believed should be the nations northern
border in Oregon
Clay did not take a strong position on the issue
Polk won 50% of the popular vote and 170 electoral votes to Clays 48%
and 105 electoral votes.
After Polk won the election, he was determined to make Oregon part of the
US.
Britain would not accept the fifty-four forty border, but they compromised
with the US in June 1846 by setting the border at latitude forty-nine.
Oregon Trail
In the early 1840s, people started coming down with Oregon Fever
People formed societies to gather information about Oregon and to plan and
make the long journey there.
The first large-scale migration took place in 1843 when 120 wagons carrying
more than 1000 pioneers left Independence, Missouri, headed for Oregon.
In the following years, tens of thousands of Americans made the trip
It was a difficult 2,000 mile journey across the Great Plains and the through
the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains and then onto the north and west
along the Snake and Columbia Rivers into the Oregon country
It took five to six months to travel the trail. Most started in the spring time,
so they would be able to finish before winter snows blocked the mountain
passes
Most people walked alongside the wagons, only pregnant women, sick
people and very old or very young people rode in the wagons.
If the wagons proved to be too heavy, they would have to leave behind some
of their belongings to lighten the load
Food supplies often ran low, and fresh water always had to be conserved
They might only wash their clothes two or three times during the entire trip
At night, the travelers arranged their wagons in a square or circle with the
people and horses on the inside. They felt their wagons offered protection
from attacks by Native Americans. These attacks rarely occurred.

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More often than not, Native Americans assisted the pioneers serving as
guides and trading them for necessary food and supplies.
Most of the pioneers who died on the trail suffered from disease, overwork,
hunger or accidents.
Cholera sometimes wiped out whole wagon trains
49ers Gold Rush
Close to 100,000 people went to California looking for gold in 1848 and
1849
People came by sea, from the East Coast, others came from Mexico, South
America, Europe, and Australia
Others traveled along the Oregon Trail
As people came to the new areas, the communities they built became known
as boomtowns. They were called this because they were built almost
overnight.
Shinbone Peak, Murderers Gulch, and Whiskey Diggings
San Francisco grew from a tiny village to a city of about 20,000 people
Miners found gold along a 150-mile stretch of the western slope of the Sierra
Nevada. It could be found in any stream or canyon
Most miners had no experience some would use pickaxes and shovels,
while others would pan or wash the water for gold dust and nuggets.
The California Gold Rush more than doubled the worlds supply of gold.
However, very few of the miners achieved lasting wealth.
The merchants were the ones who prospered charging $10 for a dozen eggs
Levi Strauss made a fortune selling the miners his sturdy pants made of
denim
Very few women lived in these gold mining towns robberies and murder
were daily occurrences
Since California had become so populated, eventually, President Taylor
urged California to apply for statehood. They did so in 1850 after writing a
state constitution (it banned slavery). However, this caused an uproar in
Congress due to the fact that admitting California would upset the balance of
free vs. slave states. Congress eventually worked out a compromise six
months later.

Causes to the Civil War!

Review of Missouri Comprom
ise, 1820:
In 1818, Missourians asked Congress to make their territory a state.

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This posed a question as to whether Missouri would be a free or slave

state.
Plan proposed by Henry Clay to keep the number of slave and free states
equal. Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state.
Also stated that the land acquired through the Louisiana Purchase north
of latitude 3630 was to be free, south of that to be slave.
This maintained a balance of free and slave states in the Union,
previously it had been 11 vs. 11, now it was 12 vs. 12.
President Monroe considered vetoing the bill because he felt Congress
lacked Constitutional authority to ban slavery in the territories. However,
he decided to sign the bill into law for the fear that vetoing it might have
precipitated a civil war.
Sectionalism: the practice of holding ones own section of the country
higher than other sections, or even than the country as a whole; loyalty to
ones region.
Could be referred to as contradictory to nationalism.
This agreement was widely seen as a southern victory.
Missouri was controversial about slavery and they became slave.
Maine wasnt controversial; they would have been a free state
anyway.
Arkansas joined as a slave state in 1836 (13 slave)
Michigan joined as a free state in 1837 (13 free)
Florida joined as a slave state in 1845 (14 slave)
Texas joined as a slave state in 1845 (15 slave)
Iowa joined as a free state in 1846 (14 free)
Wisconsin joined as a free state in 1848 (15 free)
Compromise of 1850
Henry Clay proposed a five-part plan to settle several issues dividing
Congress.
California would be admitted as a free state
New Mexico Territory would have no restrictions on slavery
New Mexico-Texas border dispute would be settled in favor of New
Mexico
The slave trade, but not slavery itself, would be abolished in the
District of Columbia
A stronger fugitive slave law
These issue were debated in congress for seven months

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Clays plan could not pass as a combination of these issues. Too many
members objected to one part of it or another
President Taylor also opposed the plan and threatened to use force against
the South if states tried to secede
In July, President Taylor dies (2nd President to die in office who was the
first?)
Taylors VP, Millard Fillmore takes over
After a series of more debates and complicated bargaining, Congress
finally passed a series of five separate bills in August and September of
1850
These laws are known collectively as the Compromise of 1850
They contained the five main points of Clays original plan
Fugitive Slave Act 1850
Required all citizens to help catch runaway slaves
Anyone who aided a fugitive could be fined up to $1000 or imprisoned
Caused the North to be angry with the South and the evils of slavery
Slaveholders stepped up their efforts to catch runaway slaves
They even began trying to capture slaves who had been living free in the
North for years
Sometimes they captured free African Americans who were not runaways
and forced them into slavery
Underground Railroad
A network of free African Americans and whites who helped runaways
make their way to freedom.
Had no trains or tracks, the passengers traveled in the night, often on
foot and went north guided by the North Star.
During the day, passengers rested at stations barns, attics, church
basements, or other places where fugitives could rest, eat, and hide until
the next nights journey.
The railroads conductors were whites and African Americans who
helped guide the escaping slaves to freedom in the North.
Anti-slavery groups tried to rescue African Americans who were being
pursued or to free those who were captured
People contributed funds to buy the freedom of African Americans.
Northern juries refused to convict those accused of breaking the Fugitive
Slave Law.

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Harriet Beecher Stowe, wrote Uncle Toms Cabin which was published
in 1852. This book was filled with dramatic incidents and vivid
characters of a brutal and cruel system of slavery.
It sold more than 300,000 copies within its first year
Harriet Tubman escaped from slavery to become the most famous
conductor on the Underground Railroad.
She made many dangerous trips into the South and guided hundreds of
enslaved people, including her parents, to freedom.
She became known as Moses
Slaveholders offered a large reward for Tubmans capture or death she
was never captured and lived to the ripe old age of 91 years.
Franklin Pierce became president in 1853. Sectionalism

Issues that led to sectional divisions which in turn caused the civil
war.
In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote a novel called Uncle Toms
Cabin, which leads to impressions in the north of the severity of
the peculiar institution of slavery. Three hundred thousand copies
were sold in that single year, which led to many additions to the
abolitionists camp.
The Compromise of 1850 which called for a more vigorous
fugitive slave law which led to the coercing of northerners to help
the south retrieve their slaves. This caused animosity because
many of the northerners hated this institution and now they were
being forced to help people whos principles they despised.
Kansas-Nebraska Act promoted by Stephen Douglas as a way to
help people decide their own destiny, and a way to help populate
western areas quickly in order to promote the idea of a
transcontinental railroad which Douglas supported. The Acts
impact was much more simplistic, it suspended the Missouri
Compromise of 1820 in which geographically the south was

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divided by the parallel 3630. The south was given nothing in

return.
The Dred Scott Decision of 1857. James Buchanan wanted the
court to decide the slavery issue once and for all. When Dred
Scott sued for his freedom, Roger Taney, chief justice of the
supreme court, went further than just saying because Scott was a
black slave that he was not legally allowed to sue. Buchanan
asked for further clarify. Taney came back with even if he were
free he would not be able to sue because he was suing on the
premise that he was in Wisconsin which was protected by the
Missouri Compromise of 1820, which made all slavery illegal
above 3630. He ruled that this law was unconstitutional, which
really cut into the Republican Partys Platform.
Sectionalism also reached the area of religion. Religions started
splitting into Northern and Southern Factions in the late 40s and
50s based upon issues of slavery. Northern factions believed
slavery was morally wrong. Southern factions rationalized that it
had been done all throughout history. It was even in the Bible.
Writers from the north, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo
Emerson advocated freedom from slavery, which Edgar Allen Poe
and William Gilmore Simms wrote pro-slavery literature. These
writings became sectionalized where the north only read Thoreau
and Emerson and other abolitionists. The South only read Poe and
Simms and other pro-slavery literature. This led to a sectional
belief in religion and social literature which shaped the way people
thought.
Election of 1860
Republican Abraham Lincoln 180 electoral votes. He believed in
not extending slavery. This was misconstrued by many
southerners in that it would lead to outright abolishment of slavery

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and hence the southern way of life by making slavery illegal. He

wasnt even on the southern states ballot.
Democratic Southern John Breckinridge 72 electoral votes. He
believed in Federal protection for slave states.
Democratic Northern Stephen Douglas 12 electoral votes. He tried
to carry on a national campaign that the others did not. He tried to
please everyone, but he ended up spreading himself too thin.
Constitutional Union John Bell 39 electoral votes. He believed in
compromise and preserving the union.
Secession!!
South Carolina was the first state to secede on December 20, 1860.
The Constitutional justification or rationale behind the secession
was that the union was a compact among several states which any
could leave by convention of the state(s) that wanted to leave. This
was to be similar to the process that led to the original compact
that the people originally made to begin the United States.
By February 1, 1861, six other states Alabama, Mississippi,
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas had all seceded.
Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas resisted
secession because they didnt believe Lincolns election was
enough to cause them to secede.
On February 4, 1861, The Confederate States of America formed
with the above mentioned 7 states. Most of the southern
constitution was very similar to the United States Constitution.
The central government was denied the right to impose protective
tariffs, subsidize internal improvments, or interfere with with
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slavery in the states, and it was required to pass laws protecting

slavery in the territories.
Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, former cabinet member,
distinguished member of Congress was elected President of the
Confederacy. Alexander Stephens of Georgia, was elected as VicePresident.
William Yancy and Robert Rhett of South Carolina were denied
authority positions based upon their radical political views. They
chose the conservatives because the south wanted to open the path
for the upper south to join them in their fight. Yancey and Rhett
wanted to reopen the slave trade to revitalize their industry, and
they wanted to undo the 3/5 compromise and to prohibit the
admission of free states.
On April 15, Lincoln asked for 75,000 volunteers to help put down
the rebellion in the south. Each state was to provide 75,000 men in
the effort. Following this request, Virginia, North Carolina,
Arkansas and Tennessee seceded.
Civil War!!
On April 12, 1861 Fort Sumter. The south had taken all of the
southern forts, as they were manned by southern garrisons due to
proximity to their homelands, except for two forts. These forts,
Fort Pickens in Pensacola, Florida and Fort Sumter in Charleston,
South Carolina were manned by northern garrisons. The
Confederates couldnt allow the supplies to go through without
seriously jeopardizing their campaign for independence. Before
the supplies arrived the south opened fire on Fort Sumter. This
started the Civil War. More importantly, it showed the world that
the south Started the war and now the north had the moral
cause to put an end to the rebellion. It was now filled with rebels
across both political as well as military lines. The north
surrendered the fort after 34 hours of bombardment.
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North versus South on paper

Population North=20.7 million people
South=9 million people (3.5 million of which were
slaves)
Manufacturing North had 7 times as much production as the south
North had a much more efficient railroad system than the south
The North controlled the navy and merchant ships which made it
possible for the north to blockade the Confederacy. This in effect,
helped to destroy the south economically, due to their dependency
on foreign markets.
Despite these obvious disadvantages, the southerners believed that
they could win the war by making the war unpopular in the north
and causing political pressure on Lincoln to end the conflict. They
didnt believe the north had the stomach to do what was necessary
to keep the union whole. They also believed that northern factories
needed the raw materials produced by the south and that they were
helpless without them. King Cotton. If the north did blockade
the south, they believed that Great Britain, also dependent on their
cotton for creating textiles, would drive their country to aid the
south in their plight. The south believed that they could fight a
defensive war in which it would cost less men, and they believed
that they had better generals. 300 West Point graduates fought for
the north while 180 fought for the south.
The Battle of Bull Run (Manassas Junction), located 20 miles
south of Washington D.C. within the state of Virginia.
General Irvin McDowell attacked a roughly equal force against
Pierre G.T. Beauregard. McDowell swept back the Confederates
left flank, then a Virginia brigade under Thomas J. Jackson held a
key hill and stopped the advance of the Union. Here he received
the nickname Stonewall for his ability to keep his men in position
to defend against the enemy under fire. The southerners used this
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stand to mount a counter-attack and surprised Union soldiers which

routed the North due to their inexperience. The Northern soldiers
dropped their weapons and fled to the safe area of Washington
D.C. However, inexperience played a hand on the southern side as
well. They were unable to follow up their counter-attack because
their men got too spread out and lost their formations, therefore a
call for withdrawal was ordered. This was a relief to many
northerners as they believed after watching the fighting that day
that D.C. would fall within a matter of hours.
Following this battle, Lincoln decided to blockade all southern
ports. In the west, they would take measures to control the
Mississippi River. Also, they would create a new army at
Washington to invade Virginia. Congress authorized 500,000 3
year volunteers. He then appointed 34 year old George B.
McClellan to command this new army of the Potomac. His
appointment was to replace the recently retired (Nov 1860)
General Winfield Scott.
McClellan had already made a name for himself by driving
southern sympathizers from the western part of Virginia paving
way for the new state of West Virginia for the part of the state that
remained loyal to the Union. He was very experienced and
qualified, as he graduated from West Point and he served in the
Mexican War. During the Crimean War, he spent a year in the field
studying and talking with British officers. He could inspire troops
and train them efficiently with iron discipline.
Financial Matters.
Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase, greatly underestimated
the financial needs of the government. He failed to ask Congress
for enough money to fight the war properly. In August, of 1861,
Congress passed an income tax law (3 percent on incomes over
$800) this was later raised to a total of ten percent on incomes over
235

$10,000. Also, they assessed a direct tax on the states. Loans of

$140 million were made. As the war waged on in 1863, and
money was running out, excise taxes were placed on every
imaginable product and service. During the war, the Federal
government borrowed a total of 2.2 billion dollars and collected
667 million dollars in taxes. This proved to be inadequate, so they
printed $431 million in greenbacks to show that they would not
be redeemable in coin, but only in specie.
Shiloh
No heavy fighting took place after Bull Run until early 1862.
Everyone began preparing for a large organized war effort, and
therefore inactive on the battlefield.
Union forces under the command of Ulysses S. Grant (West Point
graduate), invaded Tennessee from Illinois. He used armored
gunboats in his attacks to take Fort Henry and Fort Donnelson,
which were Confederate strong points on the Tennessee and
Cumberland Rivers. He took 14,000 prisoners from these two
battles. Then he marched toward Corinth, Mississippi, where there
was an important railroad junction.
To counter Grant, the South sent 40,000 troops under Albert
Sydney Johnston toward Shiloh. The north was caught unawares,
eating breakfast, sleeping in late, or drinking coffee. Most were
half-dressed and some died in their blankets. At the end of the day,
the Confederates enjoyed a strong advantage.
However, during the night, General Don Carlos Buell came in to
support Grant and these fresh troops turned the tide of the battle
toward the Union. On the 2nd day of the battle, the Confederates
were forced to retreat due to inferior numbers toward Corinth,
Mississippi. The cost to Grant was great, as he was relieved of
command and he lost his fine reputation that he had gained at Fort
Donnelson and Fort Henry.
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More Americans died at Shiloh, in two days, then in all the battles
of the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, and the Mexican War
combined. Union losses exceeded 13,000 out of 63,000 men. The
Confederates lost 10,699 including General Johnston.
After the battle of the ironclads on March 9, 1862, the York and
James Rivers were firmly in northern hands. This enabled the
union forces to attack Richmond (the capital of the south) from the
southeast. General McClellan transported his troops over the water
and around the rough terrain which guarded Richmond. He floated
an army of 112,000 men down the Potomac River and by May 14,
he established a base 25 miles from Richmond at White House
Landing. His delay at this point put any hopes of a quick war to an
end. His troops got caught separated from one another at the
Battle of Seven Pines and the Union lost 10,000 men. The
Confederates leader General Joseph E. Johnston was severely
wounded. Robert E. Lee then took over as the main leader for the
Army of Northern Virginia and the pride of the south.
General Lee was widely respected by both the north and the south.
In fact, retired General Winfield Scott declared him to be the
bravest man in the army. He was humble, but very skilled with
innate qualities. It took others in charge a large amount of thought
on surmising a situation on the battlefield, whereas Lee acted
instinctively with great success.
General Lee sent General Stonewall Jackson on a diversionary raid
of the Shenandoah Valley, west of Richmond and Washington D.C.
Jackson struck hard and swiftly scattered Union forces. He won a
series of battles and secured a vast stores of equipment. Lincoln
sent 20,000 reserves to check Jackson. McClellan who believed he
needed those reserves was dismayed, and he then delayed his
invasion of Richmond. This played right into Lees plan.

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After Seven Pines, Lee ordered Jackson back to Richmond. As the

20,000 forces were sent to check Jackson, he quietly slipped by
them 25 miles to the north of Richmond at Ashland. When
Jackson wasnt there, even without the 20,000 reserves, McClellan
held the advantage, but now that Jackson had returned and the
20,000 Union forces were deployed in the wrong area, Lee now
held the advantage, and he made the most of it. Lee hit McClellan
hard and losses were heavy for both sides. The north lost 15,800
men and the south lost 20,000 casualties. However, the victory
went to the south because they drove the north from the field of
battle. McClellan retreated to the safety of the guns on his navy
ships, but still with 86,000 soldiers ready to strike Richmond. He
did not take advantage of the position he had or the troop
advantage that he held. His lack of initiative caused Lincoln to
lose confidence in his leadership and was removed from command.
General Halleck was now placed temporarily in charge of
McClellan (until Pope was ready), who ordered McClellan back to
defend Washington and halted the peninsula campaign. He was
ordered to join General John Pope who was gathering a new army
between D.C. and Richmond. When the army withdrew, Lee
grabbed the initiative. He marched north late in August, 1862
against Pope. Lee drove him from the grounds from the very same
land that the first major battle of the war was fought on and it was
titled the 2nd battle of Bull Run (or the 2nd Battle of Manassas). In
13 months of war, the Union had made no gains and Lincoln was
very frustrated. He removed Pope from command because of his
alleged incompetence and he turned back to McClellan to lead the
Army of the Potomac.
Lee sent General Stonewall Jackson to take Harpers Ferry where
he took 11,000 prisoners. However, in this campaign a message
was intercepted which told of Lees strategy. For once McClellan
took advantage of his resources and moved with unusual speed.
The two armies met at Antietam Creek Maryland on September 17,
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1862. 70,000 Union soldiers fought against 40,000 Confederates.

After the battle which started at sunup to sundown 22,000 men
died or were wounded. In the night, Lee retreated from the
battlefield. In a battle that could have ended the war McClellan let
Lee slip through his fingers. Lincoln again removed McClellan
from command.
Following the battle of Antietam (Sharpsburg), Lincoln used the
first major victory for the north to good political use and he freed
the slaves by issuing the Emancipation Proclamation. He freed all
the slaves in the states that were currently in rebellion, but not in
the 4 states with slaves that stayed loyal to the union. This was
done to make sure that the border states Maryland, Kentucky,
Delaware and Missouri still stayed loyal.
General Ambrose Burnside replaced McClellan, but he proved to
be too aggressive. In December of 1862, he attacked
Fredericksburg into an impregnable position that Lee had dug in on
top of a hill. Burnside had 120,000 men, whereas Lee had 75,000
men dug in on top of the hill. Burnside crossed a river using
pontoon bridges across heavy Confederate sniper gunfire. If they
survived the gunfire they were to charge the hill. The brave Union
soldiers charged Lees defensive line while the southern artillery
bombarded them running up the hill. On December 14, Burnside
literally cried as he evacuated. He was removed from command to
be replaced by Fightin Joe Hooker.
Hooker had 125,000 men ready for action by the spring of 1863.
He advanced 10 miles west of Fredericksburg when the
Confederates evacuated it. His army outnumbered the
Confederates 2 to 1. Hooker delayed his attack, and meanwhile
Lee sent 28,000 men under General Stonewall Jackson across a
heavily wooded area to attack Hookers unsuspecting flank. This
was a very risky proposition splitting his forces in the face of the
enemy with less overall numbers, but it worked to Lees advantage
239

due to the surprise effect. On May 2nd, 1863, Jackson attacked at

6:00 pm completely surprising the fighting forces of the Union.
Heavy fighting lasted until May 5th when Hooker abandoned the
field and retreated in good order. Both sides lost over 12,000 men.
The biggest casualty was that of General Jackson by a mortal
wound inflicted by friendly fire that caused an infection which led
to an arm being amputated. The infection eventually killed him.
Lee was heard saying that Jackson has lost his left arm while I
have lost my right.
The Gettysburg campaign.
Lee drove north into Pennsylvania with 75,000 men. Hooker was
now replaced by General George Meade. Meade took a strong
position on Cemetary Ridge, while Lee occupied Seminary Ridge
on a parallel position. For two days, the south tried to take the
position held by the Union forces. However, the Union held their
ground surviving Picketts Charge of 15,000 men. On July 4th both
sides extremely exhausted, rested. If Meade had made an attack he
probably could have crushed Lees forces, but he delayed and Lee
lived to fight another day.
In the West.
At Vicksburg, the reinstated Ulysses S. Grant, was able to
suffocate the support of the incredibly important city of Vicksburg.
It guarded a 150 mile stretch of the Mississippi River. The river
between Vicksburg and Port Hudson kept federal gunboats from
aiding an attack. As long as Vicksburg remained in control of the
Confederates, men could be sent as well as supplies to the
remainder of the South.
Grants forces originated from Memphis, Tennessee. He left some
of his troops behind, leaving the impression that he was going to
attack the city head on. However with a feint, he flanked the city
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to the south re-crossing the river below Vicksburg. He then

attacked Jackson, Mississippi. He took the capital of Mississippi
with this surprise attack. General Pemberton from the Confederate
side was paralyzed by this move and it made him not be able to
come to the defenses of Vicksburg, or Jackson. Pemberton who
was cut off from the rest of the south was attacked mercilessly by
Grant. On July 4, 1863 Pemberton surrendered. With this battle
settled, Port Hudson was forced to surrender on July 9th because of
the loss at Vicksburg. More importantly, this gave free reign to
federal gunboats to roam the Mississippi River which in turn cut
off Arkansas and Texas from the rest of the Confederacy. For all
intents and purposes putting an end to their rebellious purposes.
From Vicksburg, Grant was placed in charge of the Army of the
Potomac. His replacement in the West was his 2nd in command,
William Tecumseh Sherman. Sherman marched from Vicksburg to
Atlanta, Georgia, and then from Atlanta to the sea (Savannah).
Grant meanwhile would march on Richmond, Virginia. Lee had
only 60,000 men versus Grants 100,000 men and Shermans
100,000 men, so Lee forced the battle to some rough terrain in the
wilderness to set up for a more defensive battle formation for the
Confederates which would be less losses for the south.
On May 5th and 6th, The Battle of the Wilderness was fought. The
Union lost 18,000 men, which was far more than the south,
however Grant didnt retreat he just flanked the south to keep from
a counterattack from the cunning Lee. At Spotsylvania Court
House, Grant attacked. He lost another 12,000 men and the
Confederates were still in their original position. Lee couldnt
replace his losses, but Grant new that he could get reinforcements.
Grant kept up his relentless attacks and at Cold Harbor 9 miles
from Richmond, on June 3rd, Grant ordered an attack in which
30,000 men from the Union were casualties. In less than a month,
Grant had lost 60,000 men.

241

Petersburg (Battle of the Crater) was now under siege and while he
Lee dug in trenches, Grant had enough reserves to keep Lee at this
position with his back to Richmond. If he did leave this arena,
Richmond would fall, hence it pinned, Lee to where he was
currently located.
On June 27th, Sherman fought Joseph Johnston at Kennesaw
Mountain and was beaten back with heavy losses.
General Jubal Early advanced within 5 miles of Washington D.C.
before being forced to retreat. This caused Lincoln to call for an
additional 500,000 troops from the north!! This did not help the
northerners attitude toward the war effort.
On September 2nd General Sherman took Atlanta and then from
there he gambled that there werent any men behind the strong
lines guarding the surrounding area of Richmond and he marched
to the sea, away from his supply line. He lived off the land in
which he conquered, and then burned a 60 mile stretch of land
from Atlanta to Savannah. To this day, Shermans name still
evokes a response from many southerners.
Shermans victories helped to secure the White House for Abraham
Lincoln who was fending off a challenge from his former General
McClellan. As Lincoln won the election of 1864 212-21 in
electoral votes.
Sherman entered Savannah, Georgia on December 22, 1864.
Sherman believed in the concept of total war, which was described
earlier in his 60 mile span of waste and destruction in his wake.
He then advanced northward to South Carolina and then North
Carolina. In February 1865, he captured Columbia, South
Carolina. The lines that reinforced south were being thinned and
the grip that Grant held around Lee grew tighter.

242

On March 4, 1865, Lincolns inaugural address asked for tolerance,

mercy and reconstruction.
The Confederate armies around Petersburg tried to withstand
Federal pressure, but they had to retreat and they tried to fall back
to the Danville Railroad and Richmond, but Grant was too quick as
he anticipated Lees move. Richmond fell to the north on April
3rd. With fewer than 30,000 troops to oppose Grants 115,000
troops Lee was forced to contemplate surrender. On April 9, 1865,
Lee and Grant met at Appomattox Court House to discuss the
surrender of the army of Northern Virginia.
The war ended with the cost of 600,000 men. The Union was
restored and eventually slavery was abolished through the 13th
amendment in 1865.
Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on Good Friday in
mid-April. Booth was part of a group of conspirators that were to
originally capture the President and hold him for ransom along
with the Vice-President Andrew Johnson and the Secretary of State
William Seward. However, as the war became at its end and the
likelihood of a successful kidnapping attempt, the plan changed to
assassinations for all 3 men. A man named Lewis tried to
assassinate Seward but his gun did not work, so he tried to
bludgeon him to death, but he was finally pulled off the
unfortunate Secretary before he was successful in his attempt.
Another man lost his nerve and was unable to go through with the
plans to assassinate Johnson. Booth had the resolve and the ability
to get into Fords Theatre to get close enough to Lincolns box
suite at the play Our American Cousin to successfully assassinate
the President. He died the next day, April 15, 1865 at the house
across the street ironically in the same bed that Booth slept in a
week before while planning the assassination.

243

While Lincolns procession was being brought home to Illinois, the

Sultana filled with many prisoners of war returning home had their
boats boiler explode killing over 1700 men, but no one knows for
sure because the muster sheets werent filled out, so some have
guessed it was as high as 2300 men. This was the worst maritime
disaster in U.S. History. Much larger than the Titanic, which lost
around 1500 men.
Reconstruction of the south under Johnson and the Radical
Republicans.
Inanimate object report requirements
*Must be an object that is not alive. Personify the object to show what they felt, thought
while going through some historical event that we studied in class. For example, how did
a tea bag feel while being dumped in Boston Harbor during the Boston Tea Party. Make
the tea bag have feelings!!
This must be typed and 2 full pages and one word onto the 3rd page.
Due Friday May 29th.

244

The Civil War Museum is approaching us. This project is to be

completed outside of class. It is not meant to be a written project.
However you should have a one page written explanation of the
project. It should be no more than one page!!! You will need to
present it to the class in a five minute presentation. The time period
should be from 1840-1880. You can pick any topic or event that
occurred in this era. Make sure you get approval for any topic that
you receive and sign up for it. There will be no repeat topics for any
of my students. Topics are on a first come first serve basis. You
have around a month to complete the project.
You will be evaluated on the accuracy of your creation to the time
period. Neatness is always important as well as your presentation
skills. It will be worth 100 points.

Name___________________
Period_____
Historical Accuracy_____________50 points
Neatness/professionalism________20 points
1840-1880___________________20 points
Creativity____________________30 points
Oral presentation/knowledge_____50 points
One page typed explanation_____30 points
Total________________________200 points

245

Bibliography of Resources

Current Events:
The War Within by Bob Woodward
The Hunt for Bin Ladin by Robin Moore
Change we can Believe in by Barack Obama
The Secret Man by Bob Woodward
All the Presidents Men by Bob Woodward
The Way Things Ought to Be by Rush Limbaugh
See I told you So by Rush Limbaugh
Travels by Michael Crichton
At the Center of the Storm by George Tenet 2007
General Resources:
Don't Know Much About History by Kenneth C. Davis 1990
The Handy History Answer Book edited by Rebecca Nelson 1999
First Ladies, By Margaret Truman. Ballantine Books. 1995
The Complete Book of U.S. Presidents by William A. Degregorio 1946
Rating the Presidents, by William J. Ridings, Jr. and Stuart B. Mciver, Carol
Publishing Group 1997
Words of Our Nation, edited by John Hunt. 1993.
A History of the Supreme Court by Bernard Schwartz. 1993.
The Spirit of America by William Bennett. 1997.
Our Nation's Archive edited by Erik Brunn and Jay Crosby 1999.
1001 Things Everyone Should Know About American History by John
Garraty 1989.
Historical Viewpoints Volume One to 1877 edited by John Garraty. 1999.
The Most Brilliant Thoughts of All Time (In Two Lines or Less) edited by
John Shanahan 1999.
Presidential Anecdotes by Paul Boller, Jr.1981.
Aristotle and an Aardvark go to Washington by Daniel Cathcart

246

Puritanical Resources:
Puritanism in Old and New England by Alan Simpson 1955
Mayflower 2006
American Revolution Resources:
Saratoga, by Richard M. Ketchum, Henry Holt and Company Inc. 1997
Paul Revere's Ride, by David Hackett Fischer, Oxford University Press
1994
Alexander Hamilton by Broadus Mitchell. 1970
Voices of 1776 by Richard Wheeler. 1991.
Notes on the State of Virginia by Thomas Jefferson edited by William
Peden.1954.
Patriots by A.J. Languth. 1988.
John Adams by David McCullough. 2001.
Ben Franklin 2003.
1776 by David McCullough 2005
George Washingtons War by Robert Leckie 1994
Women of the Revolutionary War by Cokie Roberts 2003
Rise to Rebellion by Jeff Shaara
Boone a Biography by Robert Morgan
Samuel Adams by Ian Stoll
Constitution Resources:
Miracle at Philadelphia by Catherine Drinker Bowen 1987
Debate on the Constitution by Bernard Bailyn 1981.
The Antifederalists by Richard Ketchum.
American Creation by Joseph Ellis
Jeffersonian Democracy:
Thomas Jefferson-An Intimate History by Fawn M. Brodie 1974
The Essential Thomas Jefferson by Random House Publishing 1994
Undaunted Courage, by Stephen E. Ambrose. Simon & Schustter, 1996
Jefferson and the Gun-men.. By M.R. Montgomery. Random House, Inc.
2000
Founding Brothers, by Joseph J. Ellis, Alfred A. Knopf 2000
To His Excellency Thomas Jefferson by Jack McLaughlin July 1993.
*Historical Fiction, but an interesting theory-The Mysterious Death of
Meriwether Lewis by Ron Burns. 1993.
In Pursuit of Reason by Noble Cunningham, Jr. 1987.
John Marshall Definer of a Nation by Jean Edward Smith. 1996.
Jefferson's Great Gamble by Charles Cerami 2003.
247

Jacksonian Democracy:
From Sea to Shining Sea by Robert Lecke 1993.
Daniel Webster the Man and His Time by Robert Remini. 1997.
Andrew Jackson and the Bank War by Robert Remini. 1967
The Jacksonian Era by Glyndon Van Deusen.
A psychological profile of Andrew Jackson by Custis.
Andrew Jackson by Robert Remini 1982.
The Oregon Trail by Ralph Compton 1994.
Sam Houston by John Hoyt Williams. 1993.
Polk by Walter Borneman

Civil War Resources:

Civil War Stories by Ambrose Bierce 1909
The Wit and Wisdom of Abraham Lincoln by Bill Adler 1993
The Concise Illustrated History of the Civil War by James I. Robertson, Jr.
1979
"A House Divided" A Century of Great Civil War Quotations edited by
Edward Ayers. 1997.
Matthew Brady's Illustrated History of the Civil War by Benson J. Lossing
1996
The Photographic History of the Civil War 1983
Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. Volumes I & IV Castle
The Recollections & Letters of Robert E. Lee
The History of the Confederacy 1832-1865 by Clifford Dowdey. 1992.
Creative Minds in Desperate Times by Webb Garrison 1997.
Allegiance by David Detzer 2001
The Civil War: Strange and Fascinating Facts by Burke Davis 1960.
Robert E. Lee: The Recollections of Letters by his son Capt. Robert E. Lee
Lee's Last Campaign by Clifford Dowdey.1960.
The Civil War Fort Sumter to Perryville by Shelby Foote1958.
*historical fiction The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara 1974
Civil War Commanders by T.J. Stiles 1995.
Savannah
Charleston
The Last Flag Down
Post Civil War Resources:
Custer by Jeffry D. Wert 1996
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Crazy Horse and Custer by Stephen Ambrose 1975.

Jesse James Was His Name by William Settle, Jr. 1966.
The Johnstown Flood by David McCullough.
Nothing like it in the world by Stephen Ambrose.
Note of special thanks to the following for their contributions:
Erica Helton
Sarah Mikula
Eric Kunkel
Patrick Travieso
Kyle Frankl
Bobby Schwarber
David Matthews
Jared Lewis
Robyn Parrish
Jeff Rouff

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