PurityofHeart

EssaysontheBuddhistPath

by

ThanissaroBhikkhu
(GeoffreyDeGraff)

Contents

PurityofHeart
FaithinAwakening
UntanglingthePresent
PushingtheLimits
AllAboutChange
TheRootsofBuddhistRomanticism
Reconciliation,Right&Wrong
GettingtheMessage
EducatingCompassion
JhanaNotbytheNumbers
TheIntegrityofEmptiness
AVerbforNirvana
ThePracticeinaWord

PurityofHeart

Duringmyfirstweekswithmyteacher,AjaanFuang,Ibegantorealizethat
hehadpsychicpowers.Henevermadeashowofthem,butIgraduallysensed
thathecouldreadmymindandanticipatefutureevents.Ibecameintrigued:
Whatelsedidheknow?Howdidheknowit?Hemusthavedetectedwheremy
thoughtsweregoing,foroneeveninghegentlyheadedmeoff:Youknow,he
said,thewholeaimofourpracticeispurityofheart.Everythingelseisjust
games.
Thatonephrasepurityofheartmorethanintriguedme.Itreverberated
deepdowninside.AlthoughIwasextremelydisillusionedwithChristianity,I
stillvaluedKierkegaardsdictum:Purityofheartistowillonething.Ididnt
agreewithKierkegaardastowhatthatonethingwas,butIdidagreethat
purityofheartisthemostimportanttreasureoflife.AndhereAjaanFuangwas
offeringtoteachmehowtodevelopit.ThatsoneofthereasonswhyIstayed
withhimuntilhedied.
Hisbasicdefinitionofpurityofheartwassimpleenough:ahappinessthat
willneverharmanyone.Butahappinesslikethatishardtofind,forordinary
happinessrequiresthatweeat.AsthefirstoftheNovicesQuestionssays:What
isone?Allbeingssubsistonfood.ThisishowtheBuddhaintroducedthetopic
ofcausalitytoyoungpeople:Theprimarycausalrelationshipisntsomething
gentlelikelightreflectingoffmirrors,orjewelsilluminatingjewels.Itsfeeding.
Ourbodiesneedphysicalfoodfortheirwellbeing.Ourmindsneedthefoodof
pleasantsensorycontacts,intentions,andconsciousnessitselfinorderto
function.Ifyoueverwantproofthatinterconnectednessisntalwayssomething
tocelebrate,justcontemplatehowthebeingsoftheworldfeedononeanother,
physicallyandemotionally.Interbeingisintereating.AsAjaanSuwat,my
secondteacheroncesaid,Iftherewereagodwhocouldarrangethatbymy
eatingIcouldmakeeveryoneintheworldfull,Idbowdowntothatgod.But
thatsnothoweatingworks.
Ordinarily,evenwellintentionedpeoplemaynotseeeatingasharmful.
Weresocompelledtoeatthatweblindourselvestoitslargerimpact.Ourfirst
pleasure,aftertheterrorofbeingborn,wasgettingtofeed.Wediditwithour
eyesclosed,andmostpeoplekeeptheireyesclosedtotheimpactoftheirfeeding
throughoutlife.
Butwhenyougotoaquiet,secludedplaceandstartexaminingyourlife,you
begintoseewhatanenormousissueitisjusttokeepthebodyandmindwell

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fed.Ontheonehand,youseethesufferingyoucreateforotherssimplyinyour
needtofeed.Ontheother,youseesomethingevenmoredismaying:the
emotionsthatarisewithinyouwhenyoudontfeelthatyourbodyandmindare
gettingenoughtoeat.Yourealizethataslongasyoursourceofphysicalor
mentalfoodisunreliable,youreunreliable,too.Youseewhyevengoodpeople
canreachapointwheretheyrecapableofmurder,deceit,adultery,ortheft.
Beingbornwithabodymeansthatwerebornwithahugebundleofneedsthat
compelsandcanoverwhelmourminds.
Fortunately,wehumanbeingshavethepotentialtocivilizeoureatinghabits
bylearningtoweanourselvesfromourpassionforthejunkfoodofsights,
sounds,smells,etc.,andlookinsteadforgoodfoodwithin.Whenwelearnto
appreciatethejoythatcomesfromgenerosity,honor,compassion,andtrust,we
seethatitsmuchmorefulfillingthanthepleasurethatcomessimplyfrom
grabbingwhatwecanforourselves.Werealizethatourhappinesscantbe
independentofthehappinessofothers.Wecangiveoneanotherourbelongings,
ourtime,ourlove,ourselves,andseeitnotasalossbutasamutualgain.
Unfortunately,thesequalitiesoftheheartareconditional,fortheydependon
atenderwebofbeliefsandfeelingsbeliefinjusticeandthebasicgoodnessof
humannature,feelingsoftrustandaffection.Whenthatwebbreaks,asitso
easilycan,theheartcanturnvicious.Weseethisindivorce,brokenfamilies,and
societyatlarge.Whenthesecurityofourfoodsourcethebasisofourmental
andmaterialwellbeinggetsthreatened,thefinerqualitiesofthemindcan
vanish.Peoplewhobelieveinkindnesscansuddenlyseekrevenge.Thosewho
espousenonviolencecansuddenlycallforwar.Andthosewhoruleby
divisivenessbymakingamockeryofcompassion,prudence,andourcommon
humanityfindawillingfollowingfortheirlawofthejungleagenda.
Thisiswhycompassionbasedonlyonbelieforfeelingisnotenoughto
guaranteeourbehaviorandwhythepracticeoftrainingthemindtoreachan
unconditionedhappinessisnotaselfishthing.Ifyouvaluecompassionand
trust,itsanimperative,foronlyanunconditionedhappinesscanguaranteethe
purityofyourbehavior.Independentofspaceandtime,itsbeyondalteration.
Noonecanthreatenitsfoodsource,forithasnoneedtofeed.Whenyouvehad
evenjustaglimpseofthishappiness,yourbeliefingoodnessbecomes
unshakable.Thatwayotherpeoplecantotallytrustyou,andyoucangenuinely
trustyourself.Youlackfornothing.
Purityofheartistoknowthisonething.

FaithinAwakening

TheBuddhaneverplacedunconditionaldemandsonanyonesfaith.For
peoplefromaculturewherethedominantreligionsdomakesuchdemands,this
isoneofBuddhismsmostattractivefeatures.Itsespeciallyappealingtothose
whoinreactiontothedemandsoforganizedreligionembracetheviewof
scientificempiricismthatnothingdeservesourtrustunlessitcanbemeasured
againstphysicaldata.Inthislight,theBuddhasfamousinstructionstothe
Kalamasareoftenreadasaninvitationtobelieve,ornot,whateverwelike.
Dontgobyreports,bylegends,bytraditions,byscripture,bylogicalconjecture,by
inference,byanalogies,byagreementthroughponderingviews,byprobability,orby
thethought,Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,
Thesementalqualitiesareskillful;thesementalqualitiesareblameless;thesemental
qualitiesarepraisedbythewise;thesementalqualities,whenadopted&carriedout,
leadtowelfareandtohappinessthenyoushouldenterandremaininthem.(AN
III.65)
Pointingtothispassage,manymodernwritershavegonesofarastosaythat
faithhasnoplaceintheBuddhisttradition,thattheproperBuddhistattitudeis
oneofskepticism.ButeventhoughtheBuddharecommendstoleranceanda
healthyskepticismtowardmattersoffaith,healsonotesaconditional
imperative:Ifyousincerelywanttoputanendtosufferingthatsthe
conditionyoushouldtakecertainthingsonfaith,asworkinghypotheses,and
thentestthemthroughfollowinghispathofpractice.TheadvicetotheKalamas,
infact,containsthecrucialcaveatthatyoumusttakeintoaccountwhatwise
peoplevalue.
ThiscaveatgivesbalancetotheBuddhasadvice:Justasyoushouldntgive
unreservedtrusttooutsideauthority,youcantgiveunreservedtrusttoyour
ownlogicandfeelingsiftheygoagainstexperienceandthegenuinewisdomof
others.Asotherearlydiscoursesmakeclear,wisepeoplecanberecognizedby
theirwordsandbehaviorasmeasuredagainststandardssetbytheBuddhaand
hisawakeneddisciples.Theproperattitudetowardthosewhomeetthese
standardsisfaith:
ForadisciplewhohasconvictionintheTeachersmessageandlivestopenetrateit,
whataccordswiththeDhammaisthis:TheBlessedOneistheTeacher,Iama
disciple.Heistheonewhoknows,notI(MN70)

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RepeatedlytheBuddhastatedthatfaithinateacheriswhatleadsyoutolearn
fromthatteacher.FaithintheBuddhasownAwakeningisarequisitestrength
foranyoneelsewhowantstoattainAwakening.Asitfosterspersistence,
mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment,thisfaithcantakeyoualltheway
tothedeathless.
SotheresatensionintheBuddhasrecommendationsaboutfaithand
empiricism.FewofAsianBuddhistsIknowfindthetensionuncomfortable,but
WesternBuddhistsraisedinaculturewherereligionandfaithhavelongbeen
atwarwithscienceandempiricismfinditverydisconcerting.Inmy
discussionswiththem,theyoftentrytoresolveitinthesamewaysthat,
historically,thetensionbetweenChristianfaithandscientificempiricismhas
beenresolvedinourownculture.Threegeneralpositionsstandoutbecausethey
areatthesametimesocommonandsoclearlyWestern.Consciouslyornot,they
attempttounderstandtheBuddhaspositiononfaithandempiricisminaway
thatcanbeeasilymappedontothemodernWesternbattlelinesbetweenreligion
andscience.
ThefirstinterpretationhasitsrootsinthesideofWesternculturethattotally
rejectsthelegitimacyoffaith.Inthisview,theBuddhaembodiestheVictorian
idealoftheheroicagnostic,onewhoeschewedthechildishconsolationsoffaith
infavorofapurelyscientificmethodforstrengtheningonesownmind.Because
hismethodfocusedentirelyonthepresentmoment,questionsofpastandfuture
weretotallyirrelevanttohismessage.Thusanyreferencestofaithinsuchissues
aspastkarma,futurerebirth,oranunconditionedhappinessseparatefromthe
sensesarelaterinterpolationsinthetexts,whichBuddhistagnostics,following
theBuddhasexample,shoulddotheirbesttoreject.
ThesecondinterpretationhasrootsinthesideofWesternculturethathas
rejectedeitherthespecificsofChristianfaithortheauthorityofanyorganized
religion,buthasappreciatedfaithasanessentialrequirementformentalhealth.
ThisviewpresentstheBuddhaasaherofromtheRomanticera,appreciatingthe
subjectivevalueoffaithinestablishingasenseofwholenesswithinand
interconnectednesswithout,regardlessofwhattheobjectofthatfaithmightbe.
Inotherwords,itdoesntmatterwherefaithisdirected,aslongasitsdeeplyfelt
andpersonallynourishing.FaithintheBuddhasAwakening,inthisview,
meanssimplybelievingthathefoundwhatworkedforhimself,whichcarriesno
implicationsforwhatwillworkforyou.Ifyoufindtheteachingonkarmaand
rebirthcomforting,fine:Believeit.Ifnot,dont.Whatsimportantisthatyou
relatetoyourfaithinawaythatsemotionallyhealing,nourishing,and
empowering.
Athirdinterpretationencompassesthefirsttwo,butinsteadofpresenting
theBuddhaasaherodepictshimasavictimtrappedinhishistoricalsituation.

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Muchlikeus,hewasfacedwithfindingameaningfullifeinlightofthe
worldviewofhisday.Hisviewsonkarmaandrebirthweresimplyassumptions
pickedupfromtheprimitivescienceofancientIndia,whilehispathofpractice
wasanattempttonegotiateasatisfyinglifewithinthoseassumptions.Ifhewere
alivetoday,hewouldtrytoreconcilehisvalueswiththediscoveriesofmodern
science,inthesamewaythatsomeWesternershavedonewiththeirfaithin
monotheism.
Theunderlyingassumptionofthispositionisthatscienceisconcernedwith
facts,religionwithvalues.Scienceprovidestheharddatatowhichreligion
shouldprovidemeaning.ThuseachBuddhistwouldbeperformingtheworkof
aBuddhabyacceptingthehardfactsthathavebeenscientificallyprovenforour
generationandthensearchingtheBuddhisttraditionaswellasother
traditions,whereappropriateformythsandvaluestogivemeaningtothose
facts,andintheprocessforginganewBuddhismforourtimes.
EachofthesethreeinterpretationsmaymakeeminentsensefromaWestern
pointofview,butnoneofthemdojusticetowhatweknowoftheBuddhaorof
histeachingontheroleoffaithandempiricismonthepath.Allthreearecorrect
inemphasizingtheBuddhasunwillingnesstoforcehisteachingsonother
people,butbyforcingourownassumptionsontohisteachingsandactions
theymisreadwhatthatunwillingnessmeans.Hewasntanagnostic;hehad
strongreasonsfordeclaringsomeideasasworthyoffaithandothersasnot;and
histeachingsonkarma,rebirth,andnirvanabrokeradicallywiththedominant
worldviewofhistime.HewasneitheraVictoriannoraRomantichero,norwas
heavictimofcircumstances.Hewasaherowho,amongotherthings,mastered
theissueoffaithandempiricisminaradicalway.Buttoappreciatethatway,we
firsthavetostepbackfromtheWesternculturalbattlefieldandlookatfaithand
empiricisminamorebasiccontext,simplyasprocesseswithintheindividual
mind.

Althoughweliketothinkthatwebaseourdecisionsonhardfacts,we
actuallyusebothfaithandempiricismineverydecisionwemake.Eveninour
mostempiricallybaseddecisions,ourvisionishamperedbyourpositionintime.
AsKierkegaardnoted,weliveforwardsbutunderstandbackwards.Anyhard
headedbusinessentrepreneurwilltellyouthatthefuturehastobetakenon
faith,nomatterhowmuchweknowofthepast.Whatsmore,wereoftenforced
intomomentousdecisionswheretheresnotimeoropportunitytogather
enoughpastfactsforaninformedchoice.Atothertimeswehavetoomany
factsaswhenadoctorisfacedwithmanyconflictingtestsonapatients
conditionandwehavetogoonfaithindecidingwhichfactstofocusonand
whichonestoignore.

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However,faithalsoplaysadeeperroleinmanyofourdecisions.AsWilliam
Jamesonceobserved,therearetwokindsoftruthsinlife:thosewhosevalidity
hasnothingtodowithouractions,andthosewhoserealitydependsonwhatwe
do.Truthsofthefirstsorttruthsoftheobserverincludefactsaboutthe
behaviorofthephysicalworld:howatomsformmolecules,howstarsexplode.
Truthsofthesecondsorttruthsofthewillincludeskills,relationships,
businessventures,anythingthatrequiresyourefforttomakeitreal.Withtruths
oftheobserver,itsbesttostayskepticaluntilreasonableevidenceisin.With
truthsofthewill,though,thetruthwonthappenwithoutyourfaithinit,often
inthefaceofunpromisingodds.Forexample,ifyoudontbelievethatbecoming
apianistisworthwhile,orthatyouhavethemakingsofagoodpianist,itwont
happen.Truthsofthewillaretheonesmostrelevanttoourpursuitoftrue
happiness.Manyofthemostinspiringstoriesinlifeareofpeoplewhocreate
truthsofthissortwhenamountainofempiricalevidenceracism,poverty,
physicaldisabilityisagainstthem.Incaseslikethis,thetruthrequiresthatfaith
activelydiscounttheimmediatefacts.
Ifwedigevendeeperintothepsychologyofdecisionmaking,werunintoan
areaforwhichnoscientificevidencecanofferproof:Doweactuallyact,orare
actionsanillusion?Areouractsalreadypredeterminedbyphysicallawsoran
externalintelligence,ordowehavefreewill?Arecausalrelationshipsreal,or
onlyafiction?Eventhemostcarefullyplannedscientificexperimentcouldnever
settleanyoftheseissues,andyetoncewebecomeawareofthemwehavetotake
astandonthemifwewanttoputenergyintoourthoughts,words,anddeeds.
TheseweretheareaswheretheBuddhafocusedhisteachingsonempiricism
andfaith.Althoughthefirstnobletruthrequiresthatweobservesufferinguntil
wecomprehendit,wehavetotakeonfaithhisassertionthatthefactswe
observeaboutsufferingarethemostimportantguideformakingdecisions,
momentbymoment,throughoutlife.Becausethethirdnobletruth,thecessation
ofsuffering,isatruthofthewill,wehavetotakeitonfaiththatitsaworthwhile
andattainablegoal.Andbecausethefourthnobletruththepathtothe
cessationofsufferingisapathofactionandskill,wehavetotakeitonfaith
thatouractionsarereal,thatwehavefreewill,andyetthattheresacausal
patterntotheworkingsofthemindfromwhichwecanlearninmasteringthat
skill.AstheBuddhasaid,thepathwillleadtoadirectexperienceofthesetruths,
butonlyifyoubringfaithtothepracticewillyouknowthisforyourself.Inother
words,faithintheBuddhistcontextmeansfaithintheabilityofyouractions
toleadtoadirectexperienceoftheendofsuffering.
TheBuddhaofferedtheseteachingstopeopleseekingadviceonhowtofind
truehappiness.Thatswhyhewasabletoavoidanycoercionofothers:His
teachingsassumedthathislistenerswerealreadyinvolvedinasearch.Whenwe

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understandhisviewsonwhatitmeanstosearchwhypeoplesearch,andwhat
theyresearchingforwecanunderstandhisadviceonhowtousefaithand
empiricisminasuccessfulsearch.Thebestwaytodothisistoexaminefiveof
hissimilesillustratinghowasearchshouldbeconducted.
Thefirstsimileillustratessearchinitsmostrawandunfocusedform:
Twostrongmenhavegrabbedanothermanbythearmsandaredragginghimtoapit
ofburningembers.TheBuddhanotes,Wouldntthemantwisthisbodythiswayand
that?
Thetwistingofhisbodystandsforthewaywereacttosuffering.Wedont
bothertoaskifoursufferingispredeterminedorouractionshaveanyhopeof
success.Wesimplyputupastruggleanddowhatwecantoescape.Itsour
naturalreaction.
TheBuddhataughtthatthisreactionistwofold:WerebewilderedWhyis
thishappeningtome?andwesearchforawaytoputanendtothesuffering.
Whenhestatedthathetaughtnothingbutsufferingandtheendofsuffering,he
wasrespondingtothesetworeactions,providinganexplanationofsufferingand
itsendsoastodoawaywithourbewilderment,atthesametimeshowingthe
waytotheendofsufferingsoastosatisfyoursearch.Hehadnousefortheidea
thatoursufferingcomesfromourstruggletoresistsuffering;thatthesearchfor
anendtosufferingispreciselywhatkeepsusfromseeingthepeacealready
there.Inlightoftheabovesimile,simplyrelaxingintoatotalacceptanceofthe
momentmeansrelaxingintotheprospectofbeingburnedalive.
Thesecondsimile:
Amansearchingforfruitclimbsupintoatreetoeathisfillandtostuffhisgarments
withfruittotakehome.Whileheisthere,anothermansearchingforfruitcomesalong.
Thesecondmancantclimbthetreebuthehasanaxe,sohechopsthetreedown.Ifthe
firstmandoesntquicklygetoutofthetree,hemaybreakanarmoraleg,orevendie.
Thissimileshowstheperilsoflookingfortruehappinessinthewrongplace:
sensualpleasures.Ifyourhappinessdependsonanythingotherpeoplecantake
awayfromyou,youreputtingyourselfindanger.AstheBuddhanotes,we
hopeforhappinessinsensualpleasuresnotbecausetheyveeverreallysatisfied
usbutbecausewecantimagineanyotherescapefrompainandsuffering.Ifwe
allowedourselvestobelievethatthereisanotheralternative,wedbemore
willingtoquestionourstrongfaithinourcravingsandattachments,more
willingtolookforthatalternativeandgiveitatry.And,asthethirdsimile
argues,ifwelookintherightway,wellfindit.
Apersonsearchingformilktriestogetmilkoutofacowbytwistingitshorn.
Anotherpersonsearchingformilktriestogetmilkoutofthecowbypullingatitsudder.

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Thissimileisaresponsetotheassertionthatnohumanactioncanbring
releasefromsuffering.Wecanattainrelease,theBuddhasaid,aslongaswe
followtherightmethod,likethepersonpullingattheudderofthecow.
Therightmethodstartswithrightunderstanding,andthisiswherefaithin
theBuddhasAwakeningcomesin.AstheBuddhaoncestated,hedidnttellus
everythingheawakenedto.Whathetoldwaslikeahandfulofleaves;whathe
learnedwaslikealltheleavesintheforest.Still,theleavesinthehandful
containedallthelessonsthatwouldhelpotherstoawaken.Rightunderstanding
beginswithlearningwhatthosespecificlessonsare.
Themostimportantlesson,andthemostimportantitemoffaith,issimply
thefactoftheAwakeningitself.TheBuddhaachieveditthroughhisownefforts,
andhedidso,notbecausehewasmorethanhuman,butbecausehedeveloped
mentalqualitiesweallhavethepotentialtodevelop.Tohavefaithinhis
AwakeningthusmeanshavingfaithinyourownpotentialforAwakening.
However,thespecificsofwhathelearnedinhisAwakeningareimportantas
well.Itsnotsimplythecasethathefoundwhatworkedforhim,whilewhat
worksforyoumaybesomethingelseentirely.Nomatterhowmuchyoutwista
cowshorn,itllneverproducemilk.TheBuddhasinsightspenetratedintohow
thingswork,whatitmeansforthemtowork.Theseinsightsapplytoeveryone
throughouttime.
WhensummarizinghisAwakeninginthemostcondensedform,theBuddha
focusedonaprincipleofcausalitythatexplainshowweliveinaworldwhere
patternsofcausalityfashionevents,andyetthoseeventsarenottotally
predeterminedbythepast.
Theprincipleisactuallyadualone,fortherearetwokindsofcausality
interweavinginourlives.Thefirstisthatofacausegivingresultsinthe
immediatepresent:Whenthisis,thatis;whenthisisnt,thatisnt.Whenyouturn
onastereo,forexample,thenoisecomesout;whenyouturnitoff,thenoise
stops.Thesecondtypeofcausalityisthatofacausegivingresultsovertime:
Fromthearisingofthiscomesthearisingofthat;fromthecessationofthiscomesthe
cessationofthat.Ifyoustudynow,youllhaveknowledgelongintothefuture.If
youdamageyourbrain,thenegativeeffectswillbelongtermaswell.
Appliedtokarma,orintentionalaction,thedualprinciplemeansthis:Any
momentofexperienceconsistsofthreethings:(1)pleasuresandpainsresulting
frompastintentions,(2)presentintentions,and(3)pleasuresandpains
immediatelyresultingfrompresentintentions.Thusthepresentisnottotally
shapedbythepast.Infact,themostimportantelementshapingyourpresent
experienceofpleasureorpainishowyoufashion,withyourpresentintentions,
therawmaterialprovidedbypastintentions.Andyourpresentintentionscanbe
totallyfree.

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Thisishowthereisfreewillinthemidstofcausality.Atthesametime,the
patterninthewayintentionsleadtoresultsallowsustolearnfrompast
mistakes.Thisfreedomwithinapatternopensthewaytoapathofmental
training,masteredthroughexperience,thatcanleadtotheendofsuffering.We
practicegenerosity,virtue,andmeditationtolearnthepowerofourintentions
andinparticulartoseewhathappensasourintentionsgrowmoreskillful.To
fullytestthepowerofintention,weworkatmakingthemsoskillfulthatpresent
intentionsactuallystop.Onlywhentheystopcanyouproveforyourselfhow
powerfultheyvebeen.Andwheretheystopiswheretheunconditionedthe
endofsufferingisfound.Fromthereyoucanreturntointentions,butyoure
nolongertheircaptiveorslave.
Inpresentinghisteachingsonkarmaandsuffering,theBuddhaoffered
empiricalevidencetocorroboratethemnoting,forinstance,howyourreaction
toanotherpersonsmiserydependsonhowattachedyouaretothatpersonbut
heneverattemptedafullscaleempiricalproof.Infact,heheapedridiculeonhis
contemporaries,theJains,whotriedtoprovetheirmoredeterministicteaching
onkarmabyclaimingthatallthosewhokill,steal,lie,orengageinillicitsexwill
sufferfromtheiractionshereandnow.Haventyouseenthecase,theBuddha
asked,whereamanisrewardedbyakingforkillingthekingsenemy,for
stealingfromthekingsenemy,foramusingthekingwithacleverlie?Even
thoughthebasicprincipleofkarmaissimpleenoughskillfulintentionsleadto
pleasure,unskillfulintentionstopainthedualprincipleofcausalitythrough
whichkarmaoperatesissocomplex,likeaMandelbrotset,thatyouwouldgo
crazytryingtonailthewholethingdownempirically.
Soinsteadofanempiricalproofforhisteachingonkarma,theBuddha
offeredapragmaticproof:Ifyousincerelybelieveinhisteachingsoncausality,
karma,rebirth,andthefournobletruths,howwillyouact?Whatkindoflifewill
youlead?Wontyoutendtobemoreresponsibleandcompassionate?If,onthe
otherhand,youweretobelieveinanyofthealternativessuchasadoctrineof
animpersonalfateoradeitywhodeterminedthecourseofyourpleasureand
pain,oradoctrinethatallthingswerecoincidentalandwithoutcausewhat
wouldthosebeliefslogicallyleadyoutodo?Ifyouactedconsistentlyinlinewith
them,wouldtheyallowyoutoputanendtosufferingthroughyourownefforts?
Wouldtheyallowanypurposeforeffortatall?If,ontheotherhand,yourefused
tocommittoacoherentideaofwhathumanactioncando,wouldyoubelikely
topursueademandingpathofpracticeallthewaythroughtotheend?
ThiswasthekindofreasoningthattheBuddhausedtoinspirefaithinhis
Awakeningandinitsrelevancetoourownsearchfortruehappiness.
Thefourthsimilestressestheimportanceofnotsettlingforanythinglessthan
thegenuinething:

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Amansearchingforheartwoodgoesintoaforestandcomestoatreecontaining
heartwood,butinsteadoftakingtheheartwood,hetakeshomesomesapwood,branches,
orbark.
Faithinthepossibilityofnirvanatheheartwoodofthepathiswhatkeeps
youfromgettingwaylaidbythepleasuresofthesapwoodandbark:the
gratificationthatcomesfrombeinggenerousandvirtuous,thesenseofpeace,
interconnectedness,andonenessthatcomeswithstrongconcentration.Yet,
nirvanaisntconnectedtoanythingweveeverexperienced.Itsalreadythere,
buthiddenbyallourdesiresforphysicalandmentalactivity.Totouchit,we
havetoabandonourhabitualattachmenttoactivity.Tobelievethatsuchathing
ispossible,andthatitstheultimatehappiness,istotakeamajorleap.
ManyintheBuddhastimemanywerewillingtotaketheleap,whilemany
otherswerenot,preferringtocontentthemselveswiththebranchesand
sapwood,wantingsimplytolearnhowtolivehappilywiththeirfamiliesinthis
lifeandgotoheaveninthenext.Nirvana,theysaid,couldwait.Facedwiththis
honestandgentleresistancetohisteachingonnirvana,theBuddhawashappy
tocomply.
ButhewaslesstolerantofthestrongerresistancehereceivedfromBrahmas,
heavenlydeitieswhocomplacentlyfeltthattheirexperienceoflimitlessoneness
andcompassioninthemidstofsamsaratheirsapwoodwassuperiortothe
heartwoodofnirvana.Intheircaseheusedallthepsychicandintellectual
powersathisdisposaltohumbletheirpride,forherealizedthattheirviews
totallyclosedthedoortoAwakening.Ifyouseeyoursapwoodasheartwood,
youwontlookforanythingbetter.Whenyoursapwoodbreaks,youlldecide
thatheartwoodisalie.Butifyourealizeyoureusingbarkandsapwood,you
leaveopenthepossibilitythatsomedayyoullgobackandgivetheheartwooda
try.
Ofcourse,itsevenbetterifyoucantaketheBuddhasteachingsonnirvana
asadirectchallengeinthislifetimeasifheweresaying,Heresyourchance.
Canyouprovemewrong?
Thefifthsimile:
Anexperiencedelephanthunter,searchingforabigbullelephant,comesacrossa
largeelephantfootprintintheforest.However,hedoesntjumptotheconclusionthatits
thefootprintofabigbullelephant.Why?Becausetherearedwarffemaleelephantswith
bigfeet.Itmightbeoneoftheirs.Hefollowsalongandseessomescratchmarksandtusk
markshighuponthetrees,butstilldoesntjumptotheconclusionthathesonthetrail
ofabigbullelephant.Why?Becausetherearetallfemaleelephantswithtusks.The
marksmightbetheirs.Hefollowsalongandfinallyseesabigbullelephantunderatree
orinaclearing.Thatswhenheconcludesthathesfoundhisbullelephant.

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Inexplainingthissimile,theBuddhaidentifiedallthepreliminarystepsof
thepracticegoingintothewildernessasamonastic;adheringtotheprecepts;
developingrestraint,contentment,andstrongconcentration;seeingpastlives
andgainingvisionofthebeingsofthecosmosdyingandbeingreborninline
withtheirkarmaassimplyfootprintsandscratchmarksoftheBuddhas
Awakening.OnlywhenyouhaveyourownfirsttasteofAwakening,having
followedhispath,doyoureallyknowthatyourfaithinhisAwakeningwaswell
placed.Touchingthedimensionwheresufferingends,yourealizethatthe
Buddhasteachingsaboutitwerenotonlytruebutalsouseful:Heknewwhathe
wastalkingaboutandwasabletopointyouthereaswell.
Whatsinterestingaboutthissimileisthewayitcombineshealthyfaithwith
honestskepticism.Toactonthisfaithistotestit,thewayyoudtestaworking
hypothesis.Youneedfaithtokeepfollowingthefootprints,butyoualsoneed
thehonestytorecognizewherefaithendsandknowledgebegins.Thisiswhy,in
theBuddhistcontext,faithandempiricismareinseparable.Unlikea
monotheisticreligionwherefaithcentersonthepowerofanother,and
skepticismimpliesarejectionofthatpowerfaithintheBuddhasAwakening
keepspointingbacktothepowerofyourownactions:Doyouhaveenough
poweroveryourintentionstomakethemharmless?Doharmlessintentionsthen
giveyouthefreedomtodropintentionentirely?Theonlywayyoucananswer
thesequestionsisbybeingscrupulouslyhonestaboutyourintentions,todetect
eventheslightesttracesofharm,eventheslightestmovementofintentionitself.
Onlythenwillyouknowthedeathless,totallyunconditionedbyintention,for
sure.Butifyouclaimtoknowthingsthatyoudont,howcanyoutrustyourself
todetectanyofthesethings?Youvegottomakeyourinnerhonestyworthyof
thesubtletruthsyouretryingtoprove.
Thisiswhysciencewillneverbeabletopassvalidjudgmentonthetruthsof
Awakening,forthepathdealsinmattersthatoutsideexperimenterscantreach.
Althoughothersmaysympathizewithyoursuffering,thesufferingitselfisan
experienceyoucansharewithnooneelse.Thehonestyandskillfulnessofyour
intentionsisanaffairofyourinternaldialogue,somethingthatisalsopurely
yourown.Scientistscanmeasuretheneurologicaldataindicatingpainor
intentionalactivity,buttheresnoexternalmeasurementforhowthepainfeels,
orhowhonestyourintentionaldialoguemaybe.Andasforthedeathless,ithas
nophysicalcorrelatesatall.Theclosestthatoutsideempiricalmeasurementcan
getistopicturesofthefootprintsonthegroundandthemarksinthetrees.
Togettothebullelephant,youhavetodowhattheBuddhasdisciple
Sariputtadid.Hekeptfollowingthepath,withoutjumpingtodishonest
conclusions,untilhesawtheelephantwithin.Then,whentheBuddhaasked
him,Doyoutakeitonfaiththatthesefivestrengthsfaith,persistence,

14
mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernmentleadtothedeathless,Sariputta
couldanswerhonestly,No,Idonttakeitonfaith.Iknow.
AsSariputtastatedinanotherdiscourse,hisproofwasexperientialbutso
inwardthatittouchedadimensionwherenotonlytheexternalsensesbuteven
thesenseofthefunctioningofthemindcantreach.Ifyouwanttoconfirmhis
knowledgeyouhavetotouchthatdimensionintheonlyplaceyoucanaccessit,
insideyourself.ThisisoneoftwowaysinwhichtheBuddhasmethoddiffers
fromthatofmodernempiricism.
Theotherhastodowiththeintegrityofthepersonattemptingtheproof.
Asinscience,faithintheBuddhasAwakeningactslikeaworkinghypothesis,
butthetestofthathypothesisrequiresanhonestydeeperandmoreradicalthan
anythingsciencerequires.Youhavetocommityourselfeveryvariationonwho
youfeelyouaretotallytothetest.Onlywhenyoutakeapartallclingingto
yourinnerandoutersensescanyouprovewhethertheactivityofclingingis
whathidesthedeathless.TheBuddhaneverforcedanyonetocommittothistest,
bothbecauseyoucantcoercepeopletobehonestwiththemselves,andbecause
hesawthatthepitofburningemberswascoercionenough.

15

UntanglingthePresent

TheRoleofAppropriateAttention

Ifthewaysofthemindweresimple,itsproblemswouldbesimpleandeasy
tosolve.TheBuddha,inshowinghowtoputanendtoitsproblems,couldhave
kepthisinstructionssimpleandshortasingleblanketapproachtowhatever
happensinthepresent,anobleonefoldpath:justmindfulness,just
concentration,orjustnonreactivity.Orhemightnothavebotheredtoteach
muchatall,knowingthatpeoplecouldeasilysolvetheirproblemsontheirown.
Trust,hemighthavesaid,yourinnatenature,yourinnateunderstanding,
andleftitatthat.Butthatsnothowthemindworks,andthatsnothowhe
taught.
Evenjustafewminutesspentobservingthewaysofthemindcanshowhow
complexandconvolutedtheyare.Andthismeansthatitsproblemsarecomplex
aswell.Inparticular,theproblemofsuffering:AstheBuddhanoted,thecauses
ofsufferingareknottedandtangledlikeabirdsnest,likethethreadinatangled
skein.Asanyonewhohassolvedacomplexproblemknows,thetricktofinding
itssolutionliesinhowyouframetheissue:identifyingtheproblemandsorting
outthepatternoffactorsrelatedtoit.Seeingthepattern,youcandecidewhich
factorstofocusonascrucialtoitssolution,andwhichonesyouhavetoignoreso
asnottogetdistractedandleddownblindalleys.Framingtheissuealsomeans
decidinghowtoapproacheachofthecrucialfactorssothatinsteadof
maintainingorexacerbatingtheproblem,theyaidwithitssolution.Whatthis
boilsdowntois,whenfacedwithaproblem,knowingwhichquestionsare
helpfultoaskaboutit,andwhichquestionsarent.
TocontinuetheBuddhasanalogy,theabilitytosolvecomplexproblemsis
likeknowinghowtountangleatangledknot.Youneedabasicunderstandingof
howtanglesworksothatyoucanlearnthroughexperiencetestingand
observingwhichstrandsinthetangleshouldbepulledinwhichway,and
whichstrandsshouldbeleftalone.
If,forexample,youreadoctorinanemergencyroomfacedwithapatient
complainingofchestpains,youhavemanyquickdecisionstomake.Youhaveto
decidewhichteststoconduct,whichquestionstoaskthepatient,andwhich
physicalsymptomstolookfor,beforeyoucandiagnosethepainsasasignof
indigestion,anincipientheartattack,orsomethingelseentirely.Youalsohaveto
decidewhichquestionsnottoask,soasnottogetwaylaidbyextraneous

16
information.Ifyoufocusonthewrongsymptoms,thepatientmightdieor
mightspendaneedlessnightintheintensivecareunit,deprivingapatientwith
agenuineheartattackofabed.Onceyouvemadeyourdiagnosis,youhaveto
decidewhichcourseoftreatmenttofollowandhowtokeeptabsonthat
treatmenttoseeifitsreallyworking.Ifyouframethesymptomsinthewrong
light,youcandomoreharmthangood.Ifyouframethemintherightlight,you
cansavelives.
Thesameprincipleappliesinsolvingtheproblemofsuffering,whichiswhy
theBuddhagaveprimeimportancetotheabilitytoframetheissueofsuffering
intheproperway.Hecalledthisabilityyonisomanasikaraappropriate
attentionandtaughtthatnootherinnerqualitywasmorehelpfulfor
untanglingsufferingandgainingrelease.
Ingivinghismostdetailedexplanationofappropriateattention,hestarts
withexamplesofinappropriateattention,whichcenteronquestionsofidentity
andexistence:DoIexist?DoInot?WhatamI?DidIexistinthepast?
WillIexistinthefuture?Thesequestionsareinappropriatebecausetheylead
toawildernessofviews,athicketofviewssuchasIhaveaself,orIhave
noself,allofwhichleadtoentanglement,andnonetotheendofsuffering.
Incontrast,theBuddhathendepictsappropriateattentionastheabilityto
identifythatThisissuffering(thePaliworddukkhaherecoversstressandpain
aswell),Thisistheoriginationofsuffering,Thisisthecessationof
suffering,andThisisthepathofpracticeleadingtothecessationofsuffering.
ThesearethefourcategoriesthattheBuddha,inhisfirstdiscourse,calledthe
fournobletruths.Theabilitytoframetheissueofsufferinginlinewiththese
categoriesiswhatenablesyouultimatelytoputanendtotheproblemof
sufferingonceandforall.Thisiswhytheyreappropriate.
Themostobviouslessontobedrawnfromthiswayofdistinguishing
inappropriatefromappropriateattentionisthatinappropriateattentionframes
theissuesofthemindintermsofabstractcategories,whereasappropriate
attentionframesthemintermsofthingsthatcanbedirectlypointedtoin
immediateexperienceasThisThisThisThis.Ideasofidentityand
existencearebasictoabstractthinking,andmanyphilosophershavemaintained
thattheylieatthebasisofanyspiritualquest.TheBuddha,however,notedthat
thethought,Iamthethinkerliesattherootofallthecategoriesandlabelsof
conceptualproliferation,thetypeofthinkingthatcanturnandattacktheperson
employingit.Thesecategoriesarenotoriouslyhardtopindown,often
dissolvingintoarbitrarysemantics.DoIexist?Itdependsonwhatyoumean
byexist.DoIhaveaself?Itdependsonwhatyoumeanbyself.
Thinkingdrivenbydefinitionsliketheseoftenfallspreytothehiddenmotives
oragendasbehindthedefinitions,whichmeansthatitsunreliable.

17
However,sufferingissomethingdirectlyknowable:preverbal,private,but
universal.Inframingtheissuesofthemindaroundsuffering,theBuddhabases
histeachingsonanintentiontotallytrustworthythedesireforhislistenersto
putanendtoalltheirsufferingandfocusesonsomethingnotdependenton
definitions.Infact,heneveroffersaformaldefinitionofthetermsufferingat
all.Instead,heillustratesitwithexamplessuchasthesufferingofbirth,aging,
illness,anddeathandthenpointsoutthefunctionalelementthatallformsof
mentalsufferingshare:clingingtothefiveaggregatesofform,feeling,
perception,mentalfabrication,andconsciousness.Theclingingisnotthesame
asthepainofthesuffering,butitstheaspectofsufferingmostusefultofocuson
forthepurposeofbringingthesufferingtoanend.
AlthoughthereisapassagewheretheBuddhadefinesclingingasdesire
passion,heneverdescribespreciselywhatdesirepassionis.Whendevoting
whatisapparentlytheoldestpartoftheCanon,theAtthakaVagga,tothetopic
ofclinging,hefillsthediscussionwithpunsandwordplay,astylethat
discouragessystematicattemptsatsetdefinitionsandtheconceptual
proliferationtheycanfoster.Whatthismeansisthatifyouwanttorefineyour
understandingofclinging,desirepassion,andsuffering,youcantclingto
wordsortexts.Youhavetolookdeeperintoyourpresentexperience.
Inpointingrepeatedlytodirectexperience,however,theBuddhadoesnt
discourageallthoughtandconcepts.Theabilitytodistinguishthefour
categoriesofappropriateattentionrequiresthoughtandanalysisthetypeof
thoughtthatquestionspastunderstandingsandmisunderstandings,and
ponderswhatshappeninginthepresent;thetypeofanalysisthatcanferretout
connectionsbetweenactionsandtheirresultsandcanevaluatethemasto
whethertheyrehelpfulornot.Therearedesires,forinstance,thatactasacause
ofsuffering,andotherdesiresthatcanformpartofthepathleadingtoitsend.
AlthoughtheBuddhagivesageneraloutlinetotellwhichkindofdesire
functionsinwhichway,youhavetolearnhowtowatchyourowndesires
carefullyandhonestlytotellwhichkindofdesiretheyare.
Asyoukeepanalyzingthepresentundertheframeworkofthesefour
categories,youretracingtheBuddhasstepsasheapproachedAwakening.
Havingfocusedonclingingasthefunctionalhandleonsuffering,helookedfor
theconditionsthatformeditsbasis,andfoundtheminthreetypesofcravingor
thirst:sensualcraving,cravingforstatesofbeing,andcravingtodestroystatesof
being.Thenheidentifiedthecessationofsufferingastotaldispassionfor,
cessationof,andreleasefromthoseformsofcraving.Andheidentifiedthe
mentalqualitiesandpracticesthatwouldleadtothatcessationrightview,
rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,right

18
mindfulness,andrightconcentrationallofwhich,inpotentialform,canbe
foundinthepresentmoment.
Soinsteadofsimplythrowingthepresentmomentatyouasamonolithic
whole,theBuddhapointsyourattentiontofoursignificantthingsyoumight
findthere.Thisisbecausetheresapatterntothechangesweexperiencefrom
momenttomoment.Changeisneversorandomorradicalthatknowledge
gainedfromthepastisuselessinthepresent.Conceptsstillserveanimportant
purposeeventhoughtheymaylackthefreshnessoftheimmediatehereand
now.Whenyoustickyourfingerintofire,itsboundtoburn.Ifyouspitintothe
wind,itsboundtocomebackatyou.Lessonslikethesearegoodtokeepin
mind.Althoughthepatternsunderlyingsufferingmaybemoretangledthan
thoseunderlyingfireandwind,stilltheyarepatterns.Theycanbelearnedand
mastered,andthefourcategoriesofappropriateattentionarecrucialforgetting
ahandleonthosepatternsanddirectingthemtosufferingsend.
Inpracticalterms,distinguishingamongcategoriesisworthwhileonlyifyou
havetotreateachofthedifferentcategoriesinadifferentway.Adoctorwho
formulatesatheoryofsixteentypesofheadachesonlytotreatthemallwith
aspirin,forexample,iswastinghertime.Butonewho,notingthatdifferenttypes
ofheadachesrespondtodifferenttypesofmedications,devisesanaccuratetest
todifferentiateamongtheheadaches,makesagenuinecontributiontomedical
science.Thesameprincipleappliestothecategoriesofappropriateattention.As
theBuddhastatedinhisfirstaccountofhisAwakening,oncehehadidentified
eachofthefourcategories,hesawthateachhadtobetreatedinadifferentway.
Sufferinghadtobecomprehended,itscauseabandoned,itscessationrealized,
andthepathtoitscessationfullydeveloped.
Whatthismeansisthat,asameditator,youcanttreateverythinginthe
presentmomentinthesameway.Youcantsimplystaynonreactive,orsimply
accepteverythingthatcomes.Ifmomentsofstillnessandeaseariseinthemind,
youcantjustnotethemandletthempass.Youshoulddevelopthemtojhana
thefullbodypleasureandraptureofrightconcentrationthatformstheheartof
thepath.Whenmentalsufferingarises,youcantjustletitgo.Youshouldfocus
whateverpowersofconcentrationanddiscernmentyouhavetotryto
comprehendtheclingingthatliesatitsheart.
TheBuddhaexpandsonthispointinthediscourseswhereheshowshow
appropriateattentionshouldbeappliedtovariousaspectsofthepresent.
Appliedtothefiveaggregatesofform,feeling,andsoforth,appropriate
attentionmeansviewingtheminsuchawayastoinduceasenseofdispassion
thatwillhelpalleviateclinging.Appliedtoperceptionsofbeautyorirritation,it
meansviewingtheminsuchawayastokeepthemfromfosteringsuchobstacles
torightconcentrationassensualdesireorillwill.Appliedtofeelingsofserenity

19
orthepotentialforrapture,itmeansviewingtheminsuchawaythathelps
developthemintofactorsforAwakening.
Evenwithinaparticularcategory,theresnooneapproachthatworksinall
cases.InoneofhisdiscoursesBuddhaobservesthatsomeunskillfulmental
stateswitherawayifyousimplywatchthemwithequanimity,whileothers
requireanactiveefforttotakethemapart.Inanotherdiscourseheexpandson
thisobservationbyrecommendingfivewaysofdealingwithdistracting
thoughts:replacingthemwithmoreskillfulthoughts,focusingontheir
drawbacks,consciouslyignoringthem,relaxingthetensionthatgoesinto
maintainingthem,andforcefullysuppressingthem.Inneitherdiscourse,though,
doeshegivehardandfastrulesfortellingwhichtypeofthoughtwillrespondto
whichapproach.Youhavetofindoutforyourselfbysharpeningyour
discernmentthroughtrialanderrorastowhatworksandwhatdoesntinany
givensituation.
Thesameprincipleappliestoskillfulmentalstates.TheBuddhasfinal
summaryofhisteachings,thewingstoAwakening,listssevenwaysof
conceivingthepathtotheendofsufferingintermsoffourestablishingsof
mindfulness,fourbasesforsuccess,fourrightexertions,fivestrengths,five
faculties,sevenfactorsforAwakening,andthenobleeightfoldpath.Andagain,
itsuptoyoutolearnthroughtrialanderrorwhichwayofconceivingthepathis
mostusefulatanyparticulartimeinyourpractice.
Thismeansthatapplyingappropriateattentiontoskillfulandunskillful
mentalstatesisnotaoneshotaffair.Thetasksconnectedwitheachofthefour
categoriesofappropriateattentionallhavetobetestedthroughtrialanderror,
andmasteredasskills.ToborrowananalogyfromtheCanon,fullAwakeningis
notamatterofpickingupabowandarrowandhopingforaflukebullseye.
TheinsightofAwakeningcomesinthecourseofpracticingonastrawmanuntil
youreabletoshootlongdistances,tofireaccurateshotsinrapidsuccession,
andtopiercegreatmasses.
AstheBuddhanotedinhisfirstdiscourse,hedidntclaimtobeawakened
untilhehadfullymasteredthetasksappropriatetoallfourcategories.Infully
developingthefactorsofthepath,hefullycomprehendedthefiveclinging
aggregatestothepointofabandoningallpassionandcravingforthem.Thatwas
whenhefullyrealizedtheendofsuffering.Withthat,thecategoriesof
appropriateattentionhaddonetheirworkinsolvingtheproblemofsuffering,
buteventhentheystillhadtheiruses.AstheBuddhanoted,evenafully
awakenedarahantwouldstillapplythemtoexperiencetoprovideapleasant
dwellingforthemindinthehereandnow.
Inallofthesecases,appropriateattentionmeansseeingthingsintermsof
theirfunctionwhattheycandowhiletheactofappropriateattentionisitself

20
atypeofdoing,adoptedforwhatitcandoforthemind.Andthetestfor
appropriateattentionisthatitactuallyworksinhelpingtoputanendto
suffering.WhenwecontrastthiswiththeBuddhasexamplesofinappropriate
attention,weseethatattentionisinappropriatewhenitframesthingsintermsof
beingandidentity,andappropriatewhenframingthemintermsofactionsand
theirresults.Infact,appropriateattentionlooksatbeingitselfasanaction,with
eachactofbeingorassuminganidentitytobeevaluatedbythepleasureorpain
itproduces.Whenwelookatourselveswithappropriateattention,wefocusnot
onwhatweare,butonwhatweredoingandinparticularonwhetherwhat
weredoingisunskillfulleadingtosufferingorskillful,leadingtoitsend.
Thispointisimportanttobearinmindwhenwereflectonthetwocriticisms
oftenleveledagainstthefourcategoriesofappropriateattention.Thefirst
criticismisthattheyprovidealimitedviewofthefullnessandvarietyoflife,
thattheydontencompassthevirtuallyinfinitenumberofskillfulwaysof
approachingexperience.Whenformulatingatheoryofbeing,youcouldargue
thatthemorevarietyitcancontain,thebetter.Butwhenchoosingadoctor,you
wouldntwantonewhoinsistsonexploringaninfinitevarietyofapproachesto
yourdisease.Youwantonewhofocusesontheapproachesmostlikelytowork.
Thesameholdstruewithappropriateattention.Thefourcategories,withtheir
attendanttasks,aremeantnottoencompassrealitybuttofocusyourattentionat
therightfactorsforcuringthemostbasicprobleminexperience.TheBuddha
limitshisdiscussiontothesefourcategoriesbecausehedoesntwantyoutoget
distractedfromtheproblemathand.
Thesecondcriticismisthatthefourcategoriesaredualisticandthusinferior
toanondualisticviewoftheworld.Again,whenformulatingatheoryofbeing,
youcouldarguethatanondualistictheorywouldbesuperiortoadualisticone,
onthegroundsthatanondualconceptofbeingismoreencompassingthana
dualisticone,yieldingamoreunifiedtheory.Butappropriateattentionisnota
theoryofbeing.Itsaguidetowhattodointhepresentmoment.Becausethe
presentmomentissotangledandcomplex,themultiplecategoriesofferedby
appropriateattentionareastrengthratherthanaweakness.Insteadoflimiting
youtoonewayofunderstandingandapproachingeventsinthepresent,they
provideyouwithamorediscerningunderstandingandawidevarietyofoptions
fordealingwiththetanglesandcomplexitiesofsuffering.
Whenofferingoptionsforsolvingaproblem,noparticularnumberofoptions
is,onprinciple,superiortoanyother.Whatmattersisthattheoptionsare
enoughtobeadequatefortheproblem,butnotsomanyastoobscureits
solutionandbecomeatanglethemselves.Inotherwords,theoptionsaretobe
judged,notagainstabstractprinciples,butbywhattheyenableyoutodo.And
althoughtheBuddhadescribeshispathtotheendofsufferingastheoneformof

21
doingthatultimatelyputsanendtodoing,aslongasyourestilldoing
somethinginthepresentmoment,appropriateattentionensuresthatwhat
youredoingstaysonthepath.Andoncethepathisdevelopedtothepoint
whereitcanuntangletheproblemofsuffering,everythingelsegetsuntangledas
well.

22

PushingtheLimits

Desire&ImaginationintheBuddhistPath

Allphenomena,theBuddhaoncesaid,arerootedindesire.Everythingwe
think,say,ordoeveryexperiencecomesfromdesire.Evenwecomefrom
desire.Wewererebornintothislifebecauseofourdesiretobe.Consciouslyor
not,ourdesireskeepredefiningoursenseofwhoweare.Desireishowwetake
ourplaceinthecausalmatrixofspaceandtime.Theonlythingnotrootedin
desireisnirvana,foritstheendofallphenomenaandliesevenbeyondthe
Buddhasuseofthewordall.Butthepaththattakesyoutonirvanaisrooted
indesireinskillfuldesires.Thepathtoliberationpushesthelimitsofskillful
desirestoseehowfartheycango.
Thenotionofaskillfuldesiremaysoundstrange,butamaturemind
intuitivelypursuesthedesiresitseesasskillfulanddropsthoseitperceivesas
not.Basicineveryoneisthedesireforhappiness.Everyotherdesireisastrategy
forattainingthathappiness.YouwantaniPod,asexualpartner,oranexperience
ofinnerpeacebecauseyouthinkitwillmakeyouhappy.Becausethese
secondarydesiresarestrategies,theyfollowapattern.Theyspringfroman
inchoatefeelingoflackandlimitation;theyemployyourpowersofperceptionto
identifythecauseofthelimitation;andtheyuseyourpowersofcreative
imaginationtoconceiveasolutiontoit.
Butdespitetheircommonpattern,desiresarenotmonolithic.Eachoffersa
differentperceptionofwhatslackinginlife,togetherwithadifferentpictureof
whatthesolutionshouldbe.Adesireforasandwichcomesfromaperceptionof
physicalhungerandproposestosolveitwithaSwissonrye.Adesiretoclimba
mountainfocusesonadifferentsetofhungersforaccomplishment,
exhilaration,selfmasteryandappealstoadifferentimageofsatisfaction.
Whateverthedesire,ifthesolutionactuallyleadstohappiness,thedesireis
skillful.Ifitdoesnt,itsnot.However,whatseemstobeaskillfuldesiremay
leadonlytoafalseortransitoryhappinessnotworththeeffortentailed.So
wisdomstartsasametadesire:tolearnhowtorecognizeskillfulandunskillful
desiresforwhattheyactuallyare.
Unskillfuldesirescancreatesufferinginavarietyofways.Sometimesthey
aimattheimpossible:nottogrowoldordie.Sometimestheyfocuson
possibilitiesthatrequiredistastefulmeanssuchaslyingorcheatingtoget

23
aheadinyourjob.Orthegoal,whenyougetit,maynotreallykeepyouhappy.
EventhesummitofEverestcanbeadisappointment.Evenwhenitsnot,you
cantstaythereforever.Whenyouleave,youreleftwithnothingbutmemories,
whichcanshiftandfade.Ifyoudidmeanorhurtfulthingstogetthere,their
memorycanburnawayanypleasurethatmemoriesofthesummitmighthold.
Inaddition,desiresoftenpullinoppositedirections.Yourdesireforsex,for
instance,cangetinthewayofyourdesireforpeace.Infact,conflictamong
desiresiswhatalertsustohowpainfuldesirecanbe.Itsalsowhathastaught
eachdesirehowtospeak,topersuade,toargueorbullyitswayintopower.And
justbecauseadesireisskillfuldoesntmeanitsmoreskillfulatarguingitscase
thantheunskillfulones,forthosecanoftenbethemostintransigent,themost
strident,theslickestinhavingtheirway.Thismeansthatwisdomhastolearn
howtostrategize,too,tostrengthenskillfuldesiressothatlessskillfuldesires
willlistentothem.Thatwaydesirescanbetrainedtoworktogethertoward
greaterhappiness.Thisishowamatureandhealthymindworks:conductinga
dialoguenotsomuchbetweenreasonanddesireasbetweenresponsibledesires
andirresponsibleones.
Buteveninamaturemind,thedialogueoftenyieldscompromisesthatdont
reallygototheheart:snatchesofsensualpleasure,glimpsesofspiritualpeace,
nothingreallysatisfyingandwhole.Somepeople,growingimpatientwith
compromise,turnadeafeartoprudentdesiresandtuneintodemandsfor
instantgratificationallthesex,power,andmoneytheycangrab.Butwhenthe
rampageofgratificationwearsitselfout,thedamagecantakelifetimestoset
right.Otherpeopletrytheirbesttoacceptthecompromiseamongdesires,trying
tofindameasureofpeaceinnotreachingforwhattheyseeasimpossible.But
thispeace,too,dependsonadeafinnerear,denyingtheunderlyingtruthofall
desires:thatalifeofendlesslimitationsisintolerable.
Bothsortsofpeopleshareacommonassumptionthattrue,unlimited
happinessliesbeyondreach.Theirimaginationsaresostuntedthattheycant
evenconceiveofwhatatrue,unlimitedhappinessinthislifetimewouldbe.
WhatmadetheBuddhaspecialwasthatheneverloweredhisexpectations.
Heimaginedtheultimatehappinessonesofreefromlimitandlackthatit
wouldleavenoneedforfurtherdesireandthentreasuredhisdesireforthat
happinessashishighestpriority.Bringingallhisotherdesiresintodialoguewith
it,heexploredvariousstrategiesuntilfindingonethatactuallyattainedthat
unlimitedgoal.Thisstrategybecamehismostbasicteaching:thefournoble
truths.
Mostofus,whenlookingatthefournobletruths,dontrealizethattheyreall
aboutdesire.WeretaughtthattheBuddhagaveonlyoneroletodesireasthe
causeofsuffering.Becausehesaystoabandonthecauseofsuffering,itsounds

24
likehesdenyinganypositiveroletodesireanditsconstructivecompanions:
creativity,imagination,andhope.Thisperception,though,missestwoimportant
points.Thefirstisthatallfourtruthsspeaktothebasicdynamicofdesireonits
ownterms:perceptionoflackandlimitation,theimaginationofasolution,anda
strategyforattainingit.Thefirsttruthteachesthebasiclackandlimitationinour
livestheclingingthatconstitutessufferingwhilethesecondtruthpointsto
thetypesofdesiresthatleadtoclinging:desiresforsensuality,becoming,and
annihilation.Thethirdtruthexpandsourimaginationtoencompassthe
possibilitythatclingingcanbetotallyovercome.Thefourthtruth,thepathtothe
endofsuffering,showshowtostrategizesoastoovercomeclingingby
abandoningitscause.
Thesecondpointthatsoftenmissedisthatthenobletruthsgivetworolesto
desire,dependingonwhetheritsskillfulornot.Unskillfuldesireisthecauseof
suffering;skillfuldesireformspartofthepathtoitscessation.Skillfuldesire
undercutsunskillfuldesire,notbyrepressingit,butbyproducinggreaterand
greaterlevelsofsatisfactionandwellbeingsothatunskillfuldesirehasnoplace
tostand.Thisstrategyofskillfuldesireisexplicitinthepathfactorofrighteffort:
Whatisrighteffort?Thereisthecasewhereamonk(heremeaninganymeditator)
generatesdesire,endeavors,arousespersistence,upholdsandexertshisintentforthe
sakeofthenonarisingofevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen
forthesakeoftheabandoningofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavearisenforthe
sakeofthearisingofskillfulqualitiesthathavenotyetarisenforthemaintenance,
nonconfusion,increase,plenitude,development,andculminationofskillfulqualities
thathavearisen.Thisiscalledrighteffort.(DN22)
Asthisformulashows,thecrucialelementsforreplacingunskillfulmental
qualitieswithskillfulonesaredesire,persistence,andintent.Desiregivesthe
initialimpetusandfocusforrighteffort,whilepersistenceprovidesstaying
power.Intentisthemostcomplexfactorofthethree.ThePaliwordhere,citta,
alsomeansmind,andinthiscontextitmeansgivingyourwholemindtothe
workathand:allyourpowersofsensitivity,intelligence,discernment,and
ingenuity.Youdontwantyourmindtobesplitonthisissue;youwantallofits
powersworkingtogetheronthesameside.
Thesethreequalitiesdesire,persistence,andintentunderlieeveryattempt
tomasteraskill.Soitsuseful,inundertakingthepath,toreflectonhowyouve
usedthesequalitiestomasterskillsinthepast.TheBuddhamadethispointin
hismanysimilescomparingthepersononthepathtoamastercraftsmana
musician,carpenter,surgeon,acrobat,cook.Aswithanyskill,therearemany
stepstodevelopingthepath,butfourstandout.

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Thefirstistouseyouringenuitytofightoffthechorusofinnervoicestrying
todissuadeyoufrommakingtheefforttobeskillfulinthefirstplace.These
voicesarelikedeviouslawyersrepresentingstronglyentrenchedinterests:all
yourthreatenedunskillfuldesires.Youhavetobequickandalertincountering
theirarguments,fortheycancomefromallsides,soundinghonestandwise
eventhoughtheyrenot.Herearesomeoftheargumentsthesevoicesmay
propose,alongwithafeweffectiveresponses:
Tryingtomanipulateyourdesireslikethisisunnatural.Actually,yourealready
manipulatingyourdesiresallthetime,whenyouchooseonedesireover
another,soyoumightaswelllearntodoitskillfully.Andthereareplentyof
peopleoutthereonlytoohappytomanipulateyourdesiresforyouthinkofall
theadvertisementsclamoringforyourattentionsoitsbettertoputthe
manipulationinmoretrustworthyhands:yourown.
Tryingtochangeyourdesiresisanattackonyourveryself.Thisargumentworks
onlyifyougiveyoursenseofselfwhichisreallyjustagrabbagofdesires
moresoliditythanitdeserves.Youcanturntheargumentonitsheadbynoting
thatsinceyourselfisaperpetuallychanginglineupofstrategiesfor
happiness,youmightaswelltrychangingitinadirectionmorelikelytoachieve
truehappiness.
Tothinkofskillfulandunskillfuldesiresisdualisticandjudgmental.Youdont
wantnondualisticmechanicsworkingonyourcar,ornondualisticsurgeons
operatingonyourbrain.Youwantpeoplewhocantellwhatsskillfulfrom
whatsnot.Ifyoureallyvalueyourhappiness,youlldemandthesame
discernmentinthepersonmostresponsibleforit:yourself.
Itstoogoaloriented.Justacceptthingsastheyareinthepresent.Everydesiretells
youthatthingsinthepresentarelimitedandlacking.Youeitheracceptthe
desireoracceptthelack.Toacceptbothatonceistodenythateitherhasanyreal
truth.Totrytodwellpeacefullyinthetensionbetweenthetwoinapathofno
cravingtoberidofeitheriswhattheBuddhacalledlimitedequanimity,and
whatoneThaiforestmastercalledtheequanimityofacow.
Itsafutileattempttoresistsuchadivineandmysteriouspower.Desireseems
overwhelmingandmysterioussimplybecausewedontknowourminds.And
wherewouldwebeifwekeptslappingthetermdivineorcosmiconforces
wedidntunderstand?
Arguingwithunskillfuldesiresistoomuchwork.Considerthealternative:an
endlesswanderingfromonesetoflimitationstoanother,continuallyseeking
happinessandyetfindingitalwaysslippingfromyourgrasp,repeatedlytaking
astanceforonedesireonemomentandshiftingtoanotherdesirethenext.Right
effortatleastgivesyouonesteadyplacetostand.Itsnotaddingamore

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demandingdesiretothechaoticmix;itsofferingawaytosortoutthemess.And
theBuddhaspathholdsopenthehopeofanunlimitedhappiness,precededby
increasinglyrefinedandreliablelevelsofhappinessallalongthepath.Inshort,
hisalternativeisactuallytheonethatsmoreenjoyableandinvolveslesswork.
Onceyouvesilencedthesevoices,thenextstepistotakeresponsibilityfor
youractionsandtheirconsequences.Thisrequiresbeingwillingtolearnfrom
yourmistakes.Severalyearsago,asociologiststudiedstudentsina
neurosurgeryprogramtoseewhatqualitiesseparatedthosewhosucceeded
fromthosewhofailed.Hefoundultimatelythattwoquestionsinhisinterviews
pointedtothecrucialdifference.Hewouldaskthestudents,Doyouevermake
mistakes?Ifso,whatistheworstmistakeyouveevermade?Thosewhofailed
theprogramwouldinevitablyanswerthattheyrarelymademistakesorelse
wouldblametheirmistakesonfactorsbeyondtheircontrol.Thosewho
succeededintheprogramnotonlyadmittedtomanymistakesbutalso
volunteeredinformationonwhattheywoulddonottorepeatthosemistakesin
thefuture.
TheBuddhaencouragedthissamematureattitudeinhisfirstinstructionsto
hisson,Rahula.HetoldRahulatofocusonhisintentionsbeforeacting,andon
theresultsofhisactionsbothwhilehewasdoingthemandaftertheyweredone.
IfRahulasawthathisintentionswouldleadtoharmforhimselforothers,he
shouldntactonthem.Ifhesawthathisthoughts,words,ordeedsactually
producedharm,heshouldstopthemandresolvenevertorepeatthem,without
atthesametimefallingintoremorse.If,ontheotherhand,hesawnoharmful
consequencesfromhisactions,heshouldtakejoyinhisprogressonthepath,
andusethatjoytonourishhiscontinuedpractice.
AlthoughtheBuddhaaimedtheseinstructionsatasevenyearoldchild,the
patterntheyoutlineinformseverylevelofthepractice.Thewholepathto
awakeningconsistsofstickingtothedesirealwaystodothemostskillfulthing;
itdevelopsasyoursenseofskillfulgetsmorerefined.Ifyouactonan
unskillfuldesire,takeresponsibilityfortheconsequences,usingthemtoeducate
thatdesireastowhereitwentwrong.Althoughdesirescanberemarkably
stubborn,theyshareacommongoalhappinessandthiscanformthe
commongroundforaneffectivedialogue:Ifadesiredoesntreallyproduce
happiness,itcontradictsitsreasonforbeing.
Thebestwaytomakethispointistokeeptracingthethreadfromthedesire
toitsresultingactions,andfromtheactionstotheirconsequences.Ifthedesire
aimedatahappinessthatcausedsufferingtoothers,noticehowtheir
correspondingdesireforhappinessleadsthemtounderminethehappinessyou
sought.Ifthedesireaimedatahappinessbasedonthingsthatcanage,growill,

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die,orleaveyou,noticehowthatfactsetsyouupforafall.Thennoticehowthe
distressthatcomesfromactingonthissortofdesireisuniversal.Itsnotjustyou.
Everyonewhohasacted,isacting,orwillactonthatdesirehassufferedinthe
past,issufferingrightnow,andwillsufferinthefuture.Theresnowayaround
it.
Reflectingthiswayhelpstoweakenthewhyme?tendencythataggravates
sufferingandmakesyouclingfiercelytothedesirecausingit.Italsohelps
developtwoimportantattitudesthatstrengthenskillfuldesires:asenseof
dismay(samvega)overtheuniversalityofsuffering,andanattitudeof
heedfulness(appamada)toavoidbeingdupedbythatparticulartypeofdesire
again.
Unskillfuldesiresdontreallygiveway,though,untilyoucanshowthat
other,lesstroublesomedesiresactuallycanproducegreaterhappiness.Thisis
whytheBuddhaemphasizeslearninghowtoappreciatetherewardsofa
virtuous,generouslife:thejoyinfosteringthehappinessofothers,thesolid
dignityandselfworthindoingthehardbuttherightthing.Itsalsowhyhis
pathcentersonstatesofblissful,refreshingconcentration.Accessingthis
refreshmentinyourmeditationgivesyouimmediate,visceralproofthatthe
Buddhawasnokilljoy.Thedesiresherecommendsreallydoproducea
happinessthatcangiveyouthestrengthtokeeponchoosingtheskillfulpath.
Thatsthenextstep:patientlyandpersistentlystickingwiththedesiretodo
theskillfulthinginallsituations.Thisisntamatterofsheereffort.Asanygood
sportscoachwilltellyou,hoursofpracticedontnecessarilyguaranteeresults.
Youhavetocombineyourpersistencewithintent:sensitivity,discernment,
ingenuity.Keepaneyeoutforhowtodothingsmoreefficiently.Trytosee
patternsinwhatyoudo.Atthesametime,introduceplayandvarietyintoyour
practicesothattheplateausdontgetboring,andthedownsdontgetyoudown.
TheBuddhamakessimilarpointsinhismeditationinstructions.Onceyouve
masteredastateofconcentration,seewhereitstillcontainselementsofstress.
Thenlookforpatternstothatstress:whatareyoudoingtocauseit?Findwaysto
gladdenthemindwhenitsdown,toliberateitfromitsconfinements,tosteady
itwhenitgetsrestless.Inthisway,asyoulearntoenjoyrisingtothechallenges
ofmeditation,youalsogainfamiliaritywithsubtlepatternsofcauseandeffectin
themind.
Thefourthstep,onceyouvemasteredthosepatterns,istopushtheirlimits.
Again,thisisntsimplyamatterofincreasedeffort.Itsmorearekindlingofyour
imaginationtoexploretheunexpectedsidealleysofcauseandeffect.Afamous
cellistoncesaidthathismostexhilaratingconcertwasoneinwhichhebrokea
stringonhiscelloanddecidedtofinishthepiecehewasplayingonthe
remainingstrings,refingeringitonthespot.Themostobviousstringsin

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meditationarethespecifictechniquesforfosteringstillnessandinsight,butthe
moreinterestingonesaretheassumptionsthatunderliethequestforskill:lack,
strategy,dialogue,yoursenseofself.Canyoulearntodowithoutthem?There
comesapointinyourmeditationwhentheonlywayforgreaterhappinessisto
beginquestioningtheseassumptions.Andthisleadstosomeintriguing
paradoxes:Ifdesirespringsfromasenseoflackorlimitation,whathappensto
desirewhenitproducesahappinesswithnolackorlimitationatall?Whatsit
likenottoneeddesire?Whatwouldhappentoyourinnerdialogue,yoursense
ofself?Andifdesireishowyoutakeyourplaceinspaceandtime,what
happenstospaceandtimewhendesireisabsent?
TheBuddhaencouragedthesequeriesbydescribingtheawakenedpersonas
soundefinedandunlimitedthatheorshecouldntbelocatedinthepresentlife
orbedescribedafterthislifeasexisting,notexisting,neither,orboth.Thismay
soundlikeanabstractandunreachablegoal,buttheBuddhademonstratedits
humanfaceintheexampleofhisperson.Havingpushedpastthelimitsofcause
andeffect,hewasstillabletofunctionadmirablywithinthem,inthislife,happy
ineventhemostdifficultcircumstances,compassionatelyteachingpeopleof
everysort.Andthereshistestimonythatnotonlymonksandnuns,butalsolay
peopleevenchildrenhaddevelopedtheirskillfuldesirestothepointwhere
theygainedatasteofawakeningaswell.
Soimaginethat.Andlistentoanydesirethatwouldtakeyouinthat
direction,forthatsyourpathtotruehappiness.

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AllAboutChange

ChangeisthefocalpointforBuddhistinsightafactsowellknownthatit
hasspawnedafamiliarsoundbite:IsntchangewhatBuddhismisallabout?
Whatslesswellknownisthatthisfocushasaframe,thatchangeisneither
whereinsightbeginsnorwhereitends.Insightbeginswithaquestionthat
evaluateschangeinlightofthedesirefortruehappiness.Itendswitha
happinessthatliesbeyondchange.Whenthisframeisforgotten,peoplecreate
theirowncontextsfortheteachingandoftenassumethattheBuddhawas
operatingwithinthosesamecontexts.Twoofthecontextscommonlyattributed
totheBuddhaatpresentarethese:

Insightintochangeteachesustoembraceourexperienceswithoutclingingto
themtogetthemostoutoftheminthepresentmomentbyfullyappreciatingtheir
intensity,infullknowledgethatwewillsoonhavetoletthemgotoembracewhatever
comesnext.

Insightintochangeteachesushope.Becausechangeisbuiltintothenatureof
things,nothingisinherentlyfixed,notevenourownidentity.Nomatterhowbadthe
situation,anythingispossible.Wecandowhateverwewanttodo,createwhatever
worldwewanttolivein,andbecomewhateverwewanttobe.

Thefirstoftheseinterpretationsofferswisdomonhowtoconsumethe
pleasuresofimmediate,personalexperiencewhenyoudrathertheynotchange;
thesecond,onhowtoproducechangewhenyouwantit.Althoughsometimes
presentedascomplementaryinsights,theseinterpretationscontainapractical
conflict:Ifexperiencesaresofleetingandchangeable,aretheyworththeeffort
neededtoproducethem?Howcanwefindgenuinehopeintheprospectof
positivechangeifwecantfullyrestintheresultswhentheyarrive?Arentwe
justsettingourselvesupfordisappointment?
Oristhisjustoneoftheunavoidableparadoxesoflife?Ancientfolkwisdom
frommanycultureswouldsuggestso,advisingusthatweshouldapproach
changewithcautiousjoyandstoicequanimity:trainingourselvestonottoget
attachedtotheresultsofouractions,andacceptingwithoutquestiontheneedto
keeponproducingfleetingpleasuresasbestwecan,fortheonlyalternative
wouldbeinactionanddespair.Thisviewpoint,too,isoftenattributedtothe
Buddha.

30
ButtheBuddhawasnotthesortofpersontoacceptthingswithoutquestion.
Hiswisdomlayinrealizingthattheeffortthatgoesintotheproductionof
happinessisworthwhileonlyiftheprocessesofchangecanbeskillfully
managedtoarriveatahappinessresistanttochange.Otherwise,werelifelong
prisonersinaforcedlaborcamp,compelledtokeeponproducingpleasurable
experiencestoassuageourhunger,andyetfindingthemsoemptyofanyreal
essencethattheycanneverleaveusfull.
Theserealizationsareimplicitinthequestionthat,accordingtotheBuddha,
liesatthebeginningofinsight:
What,whenIdoit,willleadtomylongtermwellbeingandhappiness?
Thisisaheartfeltquestion,motivatedbythedesirebehindallaction:to
attainlevelsofpleasureworthyoftheeffortthatgoesintothem.Itspringsfrom
therealizationthatliferequireseffort,andthatifwearentcarefulwhole
lifetimescanbelivedinvain.Thisquestion,togetherwiththerealizationsand
desiresbehindit,providesthecontextfortheBuddhasperspectiveonchange.If
weexamineitclosely,wefindtheseedsforallhisinsightsintotheproduction
andconsumptionofchange.
ThefirstphraseinthequestionWhat,whenIdoit,willleadto.
focusesontheissuesofproduction,onthepotentialeffectsofhumanaction.
PriortohisAwakening,theBuddhahadlefthomeandgoneintothewilderness
toexplorepreciselythisissue:toseehowfarhumanactioncouldgo,and
whetheritcouldleadtoadimensionbeyondthereachofchange.His
Awakeningwasconfirmationthatitcouldifdevelopedtotheappropriatelevel
ofskillfulness.Hethustaughtthattherearefourtypesofaction,corresponding
tofourlevelsofskill:threethatproducepleasant,unpleasant,andmixed
experienceswithinthecyclesofspaceandtime;andafourththatleadsbeyond
actiontoalevelofhappinesstranscendingthedimensionsofspaceandtime,
thuseliminatingtheneedtoproduceanyfurtherhappiness.
Becausetheactivitiesofproducingandconsumingrequirespaceandtime,a
happinesstranscendingspaceandtime,byitsverynature,isneitherproduced
norconsumed.Thus,whentheBuddhareachedthathappinessandstepped
outsidethemodesofproducingandconsuming,hewasabletoturnbackand
seeexactlyhowpervasivearoletheseactivitiesplayinordinaryexperience,and
howimprisoningtheynormallyare.Hesawthatourexperienceofthepresentis
anactivitysomethingfabricatedorproduced,momenttomoment,fromthe
rawmaterialprovidedbypastactions.Weevenfabricateouridentity,oursense
ofwhoweare.Atthesametime,wetrytoconsumeanypleasurethatcanbe
foundinwhatweveproducedalthoughinourdesiretoconsumepleasure,we
oftengobbledownpain.Witheverymoment,productionandconsumptionare

31
intertwined:Weconsumeexperiencesasweproducethem,andproducethemas
weconsume.Thewayweconsumeourpleasuresorpainscanproducefurther
pleasuresorpains,nowandintothefuture,dependingonhowskillfulweare.
ThethreepartsofthelatterphraseintheBuddhasquestionmy/long
term/wellbeingandhappinessprovidestandardsforgaugingthelevelof
ourskillinapproachingtruepleasureorhappiness.(ThePaliword,here
sukhacanbetranslatedaspleasure,happiness,ease,orbliss.)Weapplythese
standardstotheexperiencesweconsume:iftheyarentlongterm,thenno
matterhowpleasanttheymightbe,theyarenttruehappiness.Iftheyrenottrue
happiness,theresnoreasontoclaimthemasmine.
ThisinsightformsthebasisfortheThreeCharacteristicsthattheBuddha
taughtforinducingasenseofdispassionfornormaltimeandspacebound
experience.Anicca,thefirstofthethree,ispivotal.Aniccaappliestoeverything
thatchanges.Oftentranslatedasimpermanent,itsactuallythenegativeof
nicca,whichmeansconstantordependable.Everythingthatchangesis
inconstant.Now,thedifferencebetweenimpermanentandinconstantmay
seemsemantic,butitscrucialtothewayaniccafunctionsintheBuddhas
teachings.Astheearlytextsstaterepeatedly,ifsomethingisaniccathentheother
twocharacteristicsautomaticallyfollow:itsdukkha(stressful)andanatta(not
self),i.e.,notworthytobeclaimedasmeormine.
Ifwetranslateaniccaasimpermanent,theconnectionamongtheseThree
Characteristicsmightseemdebatable.Butifwetranslateitasinconstant,and
considertheThreeCharacteristicsinlightoftheBuddhasoriginalquestion,the
connectionisclear.Ifyoureseekingadependablebasisforlongtermhappiness
andease,anythinginconstantisobviouslyastressfulplacetopinyourhopes
liketryingtorelaxinanunstablechairwhoselegsareliabletobreakatanytime.
Ifyouunderstandthatyoursenseofselfissomethingwilledandfabricated
thatyouchoosetocreateittheresnocompellingreasontokeepcreatingame
orminearoundanyexperiencethatsinconstantandstressful.Youwant
somethingbetter.Youdontwanttomakethatexperiencethegoalofyour
practice.
Sowhatdoyoudowithexperiencesthatareinconstantandstressful?You
couldtreatthemasworthlessandthrowthemaway,butthatwouldbewasteful.
Afterall,youwenttothetroubletofabricatetheminthefirstplace;and,asit
turnsout,theonlywayyoucanreachthegoalisbyutilizingexperiencesofjust
thissort.Soyoucanlearnhowtousethemasmeanstothegoal;andtherole
theycanplayinservingthatpurposeisdeterminedbythetypeofactivitythat
wentintoproducingthem:thetypethatproducesapleasureconducivetothe
goal,orthetypethatdoesnt.Thosethatdo,theBuddhalabeledthepath.
Theseactivitiesincludeactsofgenerosity,actsofvirtue,andthepracticeof

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mentalabsorption,orconcentration.EventhoughtheyfallundertheThree
Characteristics,theseactivitiesproduceasenseofpleasurerelativelystableand
secure,moredeeplygratifyingandnourishingthantheactofproducingand
consumingordinarysensualpleasures.Soifyoureaimingathappinesswithin
thecyclesofchange,youshouldlooktogenerosity,virtue,andmental
absorptiontoproducethathappiness.Butifyoudratheraimforahappiness
goingbeyondchange,thesesameactivitiescanstillhelpyoubyfosteringthe
clarityofmindneededforAwakening.Eitherway,theyreworthmasteringas
skills.Theyreyourbasicsetoftools,soyouwanttokeepthemingoodshape
andreadytohand.
Asforotherpleasuresandpainssuchasthoseinvolvedinsensualpursuits
andinsimplyhavingabodyandmindthesecanserveastheobjectsyou
fashionwithyourtools,asrawmaterialsforthediscernmentleadingto
Awakening.BycarefullyexaminingtheminlightoftheirThreeCharacteristics
toseeexactlyhowtheyreinconstant,stressful,andnotselfyoubecomeless
inclinedtokeeponproducingandconsumingthem.Youseethatyouraddictive
compulsiontofabricatethemcomesentirelyfromthehungerandignorance
embodiedinstatesofpassion,aversion,anddelusion.Whentheserealizations
giverisetodispassionbothforfabricatedexperiencesandfortheprocessesof
fabrication,youenterthepathofthefourthkindofkamma,leadingtothe
Deathless.
Thispathcontainstwoimportantturns.Thefirstcomeswhenallpassionand
aversionforsensualpleasuresandpainshasbeenabandoned,andyouronly
remainingattachmentistothepleasureofconcentration.Atthispoint,youturn
andexaminethepleasureofconcentrationintermsofthesameThree
Characteristicsyouusedtocontemplatesensualexperiences.Thedifficultyhere
isthatyouvecometorelysostronglyonthesolidityofyourconcentrationthat
youdrathernotlookforitsdrawbacks.Atthesametime,theinconstancyofa
concentratedmindismuchmoresubtlethanthatofsensualexperiences.But
onceyouovercomeyourunwillingnesstolookforthatinconstancy,thedayis
suretocomewhenyoudetectit.Andthenthemindcanbeinclinedtothe
Deathless.
Thatswherethesecondturnoccurs.Asthetextspointout,whenthemind
encounterstheDeathlessitcantreatitasamindobjectadhammaandthen
produceafeelingofpassionanddelightforit.Thefabricatedsenseoftheself
thatsproducingandconsumingthispassionanddelightthusgetsinthewayof
fullAwakening.SoatthispointthelogicoftheThreeCharacteristicshastotake
anewturn.TheiroriginallogicWhateverisinconstantisstressful;whateveris
stressfulisnotselfleavesopenthepossibilitythatwhateverisconstantcould
be(1)easefuland(2)self.Thefirstpossibilityisinfactthecase:whateveris

33
constantiseaseful;theDeathlessisactuallytheultimateease.Butthesecond
possibilityisntaskillfulwayofregardingwhatsconstant:ifyoulatchonto
whatsconstantasself,yourestuckonyourattachment.Togobeyondspaceand
time,youhavetogobeyondfabricatingtheproducingandconsumingself,
whichiswhytheconcludinginsightofthepathis:Alldhammasconstantor
notarenotself.
Whenthisinsighthasdoneitsworkinovercominganypassionordelightfor
theDeathless,fullAwakeningoccurs.Andatthatpoint,eventhepathis
relinquished,andtheDeathlessremains,althoughnolongerasanobjectofthe
mind.Itssimplythere,radicallypriortoandseparatefromthefabricationof
spaceandtime.Allconsumingandproducingforthesakeofyourown
happinesscomestoanend,foratimelesswellbeinghasbeenfound.And
becauseallmindobjectsareabandonedinthishappiness,questionsofconstant
orinconstant,stressorease,selfornotselfarenolongeranissue.
This,then,isthecontextofBuddhistinsightintochange:anapproachthat
takesseriouslyboththepotentialeffectsofhumaneffortandthebasichuman
desirethateffortnotgotowaste,thatchangehavethepotentialtoleadtoa
happinessbeyondthereachofchange.Thisinsightisfocusedondevelopingthe
skillsthatleadtotheproductionofgenuinehappiness.ItemploystheThree
Characteristicsofinconstancy,stress,andnotselfnotasabstractstatements
aboutexistence,butasinducementformasteringthoseskillsandasguidelines
formeasuringyourprogressalongtheway.Whenusedinthisway,theThree
CharacteristicsleadtoahappinesstranscendingtheThreeCharacteristics,the
activitiesofproducingandconsuming,andspaceandtimeasawhole.
WhenweunderstandthiscontextfortheThreeCharacteristics,wecanclearly
seethehalftruthscontainedintheinsightsontheproductionandconsumption
ofchangethatarecommonlymisattributedtotheBuddha.Withregardto
production:Althoughitmaybetruethat,withenoughpatienceandpersistence,
wecanproducejustaboutanythingfromtherawmaterialofthepresent
moment,includinganamazingarrayofselfidentities,thequestionis:whats
worthproducing?Weveimprisonedourselveswithourobsessionforproducing
andconsumingchangeablepleasuresandchangeableselves,andyettheresthe
possibilityofusingchangetoescapefromthisprisontothefreedomofa
happinesstranscendingtimeandspace.Dowewanttotakeadvantageofthat
possibility,orwouldweratherspendoursparehoursblowingbubblesinthe
sunlightcomingthroughourprisonwindowsandtryingtoderivehappiness
fromtheirswirlingpatternsbeforetheyburst?
Thisquestiontiesinwithwisdomonconsumption:Gettingthemostoutof
ourchangingexperiencesdoesntmeanembracingthemormilkingthemoftheir
intensity.Insteaditmeanslearningtoapproachthepleasuresandpainsthey

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offer,notasfleetingendsinthemselves,butastoolsforAwakening.Withevery
momentweresuppliedwithrawmaterialssomeofthemattractive,someof
themnot.Insteadofembracingthemindelightorthrowingthemawayin
disgust,wecanlearnhowtousethemtoproducethekeysthatwillunlockour
prisondoors.
Andasforthewisdomofnonattachmenttotheresultsofouractions:inthe
Buddhascontext,thisnotioncanmakesenseonlyifwecaredeeplyaboutthe
resultsofouractionsandwanttomastertheprocessesofcauseandeffectthat
leadtogenuinefreedom.Inotherwords,wedontdemandchildishlythatour
actionsskillfulornotalwaysresultinimmediatehappiness,thateverything
westickintothelockwillautomaticallyunlatchthedoor.Ifwhatwehavedone
hasbeenunskillfulandledtoundesirableresults,wewanttoadmitourmistakes
andfindoutwhytheyweremistakessothatwecanlearnhowtocorrectthem
thenexttimearound.Onlywhenwehavethepatiencetolookobjectivelyatthe
resultsofouractionswillwebeabletolearn,bystudyingthekeysthatdont
unlockthedoors,howfinallytomaketherightkeysthatdo.
Withthisattitudewecanmakethemostoftheprocessesofchangeto
developtheskillthatreleasesusfromtheprisonofendlessproducingand
consuming.Withrelease,weplungeintothefreedomofahappinesssotruethat
ittranscendsthetermsoftheoriginalquestionthatledusthere.Theresnothing
furtherwehavetodo;oursenseofmyandmineisdiscarded;andeventhe
longterm,whichimpliestime,iserasedbythetimeless.Thehappiness
remainingliesradicallybeyondtherangeofourtimeandspacebound
conceptionsofhappiness.Totallyindependentofmindobjects,its
unadulteratedandunalterable,unlimitedandpure.Asthetextstellus,iteven
liesbeyondtherangeoftotalityandtheAll.
AndthatswhatBuddhistpracticeisallabout.

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TheRootsofBuddhistRomanticism

ManyWesterners,whennewtoBuddhism,arestruckbytheuncanny
familiarityofwhatseemtobeitscentralconcepts:interconnectedness,
wholeness,egotranscendence.Butwhattheymaynotrealizeisthattheconcepts
soundfamiliarbecausetheyarefamiliar.Toalargeextent,theycomenotfrom
theBuddhasteachingsbutfromtheDharmagateofWesternpsychology,
throughwhichtheBuddhaswordshavebeenfiltered.Theydrawlessfromthe
rootsourcesoftheDharmathanfromtheirownhiddenrootsinWesternculture:
thethoughtoftheGermanRomantics.
TheGermanRomanticsmaybedeadandalmostforgotten,buttheirideasare
stillverymuchalive.Theirthoughthassurvivedbecausetheywerethefirstto
tackletheproblemofhowitfeelstogrowupinamodernsociety.Theiranalysis
oftheproblem,togetherwiththeirproposedsolution,stillringstrue.
Modernsociety,theysaw,isdehumanizinginthatitdenieshumanbeings
theirwholeness.Thespecializationoflaborleadstofeelingsoffragmentation
andisolation;thebureaucraticstate,tofeelingsofregimentationand
constriction.Theonlycureforthesefeelings,theRomanticsproposed,isthe
creativeartisticact.Thisactintegratesthedividedselfanddissolvesits
boundariesinanenlargedsenseofidentityandinterconnectednesswithother
humanbeingsandnatureatlarge.Humanbeingsaremostfullyhumanwhen
freetocreatespontaneouslyfromtheheart.Theheartscreationsarewhatallow
peopletoconnect.AlthoughmanyRomanticsregardedreligiousinstitutionsand
doctrinesasdehumanizing,someofthemturnedtoreligiousexperiencea
directfeelingofonenesswiththewholeofnatureasaprimarysourceforre
humanization.
WhenpsychologyandpsychotherapydevelopedasdisciplinesintheWest,
theyabsorbedmanyoftheRomanticsideasandbroadcastthemintotheculture
atlarge.Asaresult,conceptssuchasintegrationofthepersonality,self
fulfillment,andinterconnectedness,togetherwiththehealingpowersof
wholeness,spontaneity,playfulness,andfluidityhavelongbeenpartoftheair
webreathe.Sohastheideathatreligionisprimarilyaquestforafeeling
experience,andreligiousdoctrinesareacreativeresponsetothatexperience.
Inadditiontoinfluencingpsychology,theseconceptionsinspiredliberal
ChristianityandreformJudaism,whichproposedthattraditionaldoctrineshad
tobecreativelyrecasttospeaktoeachnewgenerationinordertokeepreligious
experiencevitalandalive.SoitwasonlynaturalthatwhentheDharmacame

36
west,peopleinterpreteditinlinewiththeseconceptionsaswell.Asian
teachersmanyofwhomhadabsorbedRomanticideasthroughWesternized
educationbeforecomingherefoundtheycouldconnectwithWestern
audiencesbystressingthemesofspontaneityandfluidityinoppositiontothe
bureaucracyoftheego.Westernstudentsdiscoveredthattheycouldrelateto
thedoctrineofdependentcoarisingwhenitwasinterpretedasavariationon
interconnectedness;andtheycouldembracethedoctrineofnotselfasadenialof
theseparateselfinfavorofalarger,moreencompassingidentitywiththeentire
cosmos.
Infact,theRomanticviewofreligiouslifehasshapedmorethanjustisolated
Dharmateachings.ItcolorstheWesternviewofthepurposeofDharmapractice
asawhole.Westernteachersfromalltraditionsmaintainthattheaimof
Buddhistpracticeistogainthecreativefluiditythatovercomesdualities.Asone
authorhasputit,theBuddhataughtthatdissolvingthebarriersthatweerect
betweenourselvesandtheworldisthebestuseofourhumanlives
.[Egolessness]manifestsasinquisitiveness,asadaptability,ashumor,as
playfulnessourcapacitytorelaxwithnotknowing.Orasanotherhassaid,
Whenouridentityexpandstoincludeeverything,wefindapeacewiththe
danceoftheworld.Addsathird:Ourjobfortherestofourlifeistoopenup
intothatimmensityandtoexpressit.
JustastheChinesehadTaoismastheirDharmagatethehomegrown
traditionprovidingconceptsthathelpedthemunderstandtheDharmawein
theWesthaveRomanticismasours.TheChineseexperiencewithDharmagates,
though,containsanimportantlessonthatisoftenoverlooked.Afterthree
centuriesofinterestinBuddhistteachings,theybegantorealizethatBuddhism
andTaoismwereaskingdifferentquestions.Astheyrootedoutthese
differences,theystartedusingBuddhistideastoquestiontheirTaoist
presuppositions.ThiswashowBuddhism,insteadofturningintoadropinthe
Taoistsea,wasabletoinjectsomethinggenuinelynewintoChineseculture.The
questionhereintheWestiswhetherwewilllearnfromtheChineseexampleand
startusingBuddhistideastoquestionourDharmagate,toseeexactlyhowfar
thesimilaritiesbetweenthegateandtheactualDharmago.Ifwedont,werun
thedangerofmistakingthegatefortheDharmaitself,andofnevergoing
throughittotheotherside.
Takenbroadly,RomanticismandtheDharmaviewspirituallifeinasimilar
light.Bothregardreligionasaproductofhumanactivity,ratherthandivine
intervention.Bothregardtheessenceofreligionasexperientialandpragmatic;
anditsroleastherapeutic,aimedatcuringthediseasesofthehumanmind.But
ifyouexaminethehistoricalrootsofbothtraditions,youfindthattheydisagree

37
sharplynotonlyonthenatureofreligiousexperience,butalsoonthenatureof
thementaldiseasesitcantreatandonthenatureofwhatitmeanstobecured.
Thesedifferencesarentjusthistoricalcuriosities.Theyshapethe
presuppositionsthatmeditatorsbringtothepractice.Evenwhenfullypresent,
themindcarriesalongitspastpresuppositions,usingthemtojudgewhich
experiencesifanyshouldbevalued.Thisisoneoftheimplicationsofthe
Buddhistdoctrineonkarma.Aslongasthesepresuppositionsremain
unexamined,theyholdanunknownpower.Sotobreakthatpower,weneedto
examinetherootsoftheBuddhistRomanticismtheDharmaasseenthrough
theRomanticgate.AndfortheexaminationtojibewithBuddhistideasof
causality,wehavetolookforthoserootsintwodirections:intothepastforthe
originofRomanticideas,andintothepresentfortheconditionsthatkeep
Romanticideasattractiveinthehereandnow.

TheRomanticstooktheiroriginalinspirationfromanunexpectedsource:
Kant,thewizenedoldprofessorwhosedailywalksweresopunctualthathis
neighborscouldsettheirclocksbyhim.InhisCritiqueofJudgmenthetaughtthat
aestheticcreationandfeelingwerethehighestactivitiesofthehumanmind,in
thattheyalonecouldhealthedichotomiesofhumanexperience.Friedrich
Schiller(17591805),perhapsthemostinfluentialRomanticphilosopher,
elaboratedonthisthesiswithhisnotionoftheaestheticplaydriveasthe
ultimateexpressionofhumanfreedom,beyondboththecompulsionsofanimal
existenceandthelawsofreason,bringingbothintointegration.Man,hesaid,is
fullyahumanbeingonlywhenheplays.
InSchillerseyes,thisplaydrivenotonlyintegratedtheself,butalsohelped
dissolveonesseparationfromotherhumanbeingsandthenaturalenvironment
asawhole.Apersonwiththeinternalfreedomneededforselfintegrationwould
instinctivelywantotherstoexperiencethesamefreedomaswell.This
connectionexplainstheRomanticpoliticalprogramofofferinghelpand
sympathyfortheoppressedofallnationsinoverthrowingtheiroppressors.The
valueofinternalunity,intheireyes,wasprovenbyitsabilitytocreatebondsof
unityintheworldofsocialandpoliticalaction.
Schillersawtheprocessofintegrationasunending:perfectunitycouldnever
beachieved.Ameaningfullifewasonecontinuallyengagedintheprocessof
integration.Thepathwasthegoal.
Itwasalsototallyunpatternedandunconstrained.Giventhefreenatureof
theplaydrive,eachpersonspathtointegrationwasindividualandunique.
Schillerscolleague,FriedrichSchleiermacher(17681834),appliedtheseideas
toreligion,concludingthatit,likeanyotherartform,wasahumancreation,and
thatitsgreatestfunctionlayinhealingthesplitsbothwithinthehuman

38
personalityandinhumansocietyatlarge.Hedefinedtheessenceofreligionas
thesensibilityandtastefortheinfinite,whichbeginsinthereceptivemind
statewhereawarenessopenstotheinfinite.Thisfeelingfortheinfiniteis
followedbyanactofthecreativeimagination,whicharticulatesthatfeelingto
oneselfandothers.Becausethesecreativeactsandthusallreligious
doctrinesareastepremovedfromtherealityoftheexperience,theyare
constantlyopentoimprovementandchange.
Afewquotationsfromhisessays,OnReligion,willgiveasenseof
Schleiermachersthought.

Theindividualisnotjustpartofawhole,butanexhibitionofit.Themind,like
theuniverseiscreative,notjustreceptive.Whoeverhaslearnedtobemorethan
himselfknowsthatheloseslittlewhenheloseshimself.Ratherthanalignthemselves
withabeliefofpersonalimmortalityafterdeath,thetrulyreligiouswouldpreferto
strivetoannihilatetheirpersonalityandliveintheoneandintheall.
Whereisreligionchieflytobesought?Wherethelivingcontactofahuman
beingwiththeworldfashionsitselfasfeeling.Trulyreligiouspeoplearetolerantof
differenttranslationsofthisfeeling,eventhehesitationofatheism.Nottohavethe
divineimmediatelypresentinonesfeelingshasalwaysseemedtothemmore
irreligiousthansuchahesitation.Toinsistononeparticularconceptionofthedivine
tobetrueisfarfromreligion.

SchillerandSchleiermacherbothhadastronginfluenceonRalphWaldo
Emerson,whichcaneasilybeseeninthelatterswritings.Weresometimestold
thatEmersonwasinfluencedbyEasternreligions,butactuallyhisreadingsin
BuddhismandHinduismsimplyprovidedchapterandverseforthelessonshe
hadalreadylearnedfromtheEuropeanRomantics.

Bringthepastintothe1000eyedpresentandliveeverinanewday.With
consistencyagreatsoulhassimplynothingtodo.Theessenceofgenius,ofvirtue,
andoflifeiswhatiscalledSpontaneityorInstinct.Everymanknowsthattohis
involuntaryperceptionsaperfectfaithisdue.
Thereasonwhytheworldlacksunityisbecausemanisdisunitedwith
himself.Weliveinsuccession,indivision,inparts,inparticles.Meanwhile,
withinmanisthesoulofthewhole,thewisesilence,theuniversalbeauty,towhich
everypartandparticleisequallyrelated,theeternalOne.Andthisdeeppowerin
whichweexist,andwhosebeatitudeisallaccessibletous,isnotonlyselfsufficing
andperfectineveryhour,buttheactofseeingandthethingseen,theseerandthe
spectacle,thesubjectandtheobject,areone.

39
Atpresent,theRomanticsandTranscendentalistsarerarelyreadoutsideof
literatureortheologyclasses.Theirideashavelivedoninthegeneralculture
largelybecausetheywereadoptedbythedisciplineofpsychologyand
translatedintoavocabularythatwasbothmorescientificandmoreaccessibleto
thepublicatlarge.OneofthemostcrucialtranslatorswasWilliamJames,who
gavethepsychologicalstudyofreligionitsmodernformacenturyago,in1902,
withthepublicationofTheVarietiesofReligiousExperience.Jamesbroad
sympathiesextendedbeyondWesternculturetoincludeBuddhismand
Hinduism,andbeyondtheacceptablereligionsofhistimetoincludethe
MentalCulturemovement,the19thcenturysversionoftheNewAge.His
interestindiversitymakeshimseemamazinglypostmodern.
Still,Jameswasinfluencedbytheintellectualcurrentsaliveinhistime,which
shapedthewayheconvertedhislargemassofdataintoapsychologyofreligion.
Althoughhespokeasascientist,thecurrentwiththedeepestinfluenceonhis
thoughtwasRomanticism.
HefollowedtheRomanticsinsayingthatthefunctionofreligiousexperience
wastohealthesenseofdividedself,creatingamoreintegratedselfidentity
betterabletofunctioninsociety.However,tobescientific,thepsychologyof
religionmustnotsidefororagainstanytruthclaimsconcerningthecontentof
religiousexperiences.Forinstance,manyreligiousexperiencesproduceastrong
convictionintheonenessofthecosmosasawhole.Althoughscientificobservers
shouldacceptthefeelingofonenessasafact,theyshouldnttakeitasproofthat
thecosmosisindeedone.Instead,theyshouldjudgeeachexperiencebyits
effectsonthepersonality.Jameswasnotdisturbedbythemanymutually
contradictorytruthclaimsthatreligiousexperienceshaveproducedoverthe
centuries.Inhiseyes,differenttemperamentsneeddifferenttruthsasmedicine
tohealtheirpsychologicalwounds.
DrawingonMethodismtoprovidetwocategoriesforclassifyingallreligious
experiencesconversionandsanctificationJamesgaveaRomantic
interpretationtoboth.FortheMethodists,thesecategoriesappliedspecificallyto
thesoulsrelationshiptoGod.ConversionwastheturningofthesoultoGods
will;sanctification,theattunementofthesoultoGodswillinallitsactions.To
applythesecategoriestootherreligions,JamesremovedthereferencestoGod,
leavingamoreRomanticdefinition:conversionunifiesthepersonality;
sanctificationrepresentstheongoingintegrationofthatunificationintodaily
life.
Also,JamesfollowedtheRomanticsinjudgingtheeffectsofbothtypesof
experiencesinthisworldlyterms.Conversionexperiencesarehealthywhenthey
fosterhealthysanctification:theabilitytomaintainonesintegrityintherough
andtumbleofdailylife,actingasamoralandresponsiblememberofhuman

40
society.Inpsychologicalterms,Jamessawconversionassimplyanextreme
exampleofthebreakthroughsordinarilyencounteredinadolescence.Andhe
agreedwiththeRomanticsthatpersonalintegrationwasaprocesstobepursued
throughoutlife,ratherthanagoaltobeachieved.
OtherwriterswhotookupthepsychologyofreligionafterJamesdeviseda
morescientificvocabularytoanalyzetheirdata.Still,theymaintainedmanyof
theRomanticnotionsthatJameshadintroducedintothefield.
Forexample,inModernManinSearchofaSoul(1933),CarlJungagreedthat
religionsproperrolelayinhealingofdivisionswithinthepersonality,although
hesawthesamebasicsplitineveryone:thenarrow,fearfulegovs.thewiser,
morespaciousunconscious.Thusheregardedreligionasaprimitiveformof
psychotherapy.Infact,heactuallylaycloserthanJamestotheRomanticsinhis
definitionofpsychichealth.QuotingSchillersassertionthathumanbeingsare
mosthumanwhentheyareatplay,Jungsawthecultivationofspontaneityand
fluiditybothasameansforintegratingthedividedpersonalityandasan
expressionofthehealthypersonalityengagedintheunendingprocessof
integration,internalandexternal,throughoutlife.
UnlikeJames,Jungsawtheintegratedpersonalityaslyingabovetherigid
confinesofmorality.And,althoughhedidntusetheterm,heextolledwhat
Keatscallednegativecapability:theabilitytodealcomfortablywith
uncertaintiesandmysterieswithouttryingtoimposeconfiningcertaintieson
them.ThusJungrecommendedborrowingfromreligionsanyteachingsthat
assisttheprocessofintegration,whilerejectinganyteachingsthatwouldinhibit
thespontaneityoftheintegratedself.
InReligions,Values,andPeakExperiences(1970),AbrahamMaslow,the
Americanfatheroftranspersonalpsychology,dividedreligiousexperiences
intothesametwocategoriesusedbyJames.Butinanattempttodivorcethese
categoriesfromanyparticulartradition,henamedthemaftertheshapethey
wouldassumeifgraphedovertime:peakexperiencesandplateauexperiences.
Thesetermshavenowenteredthecommonvernacular.Peakexperiencesare
shortlivedfeelingsofonenessandintegrationthatcancome,notonlyinthearea
ofreligion,butalsoinsport,sex,andart.Plateauexperiencesexhibitamore
stablesenseofintegrationandlastmuchlonger.
Maslowhadlittleusefortraditionalinterpretationsofpeakexperiences,
regardingthemasculturaloverlaysthatobscuredthetruenatureofthe
experience.Assumingallpeakexperiences,regardlessofcauseorcontext,tobe
basicallythesame,hereducedthemtotheircommonpsychologicalfeatures,
suchasfeelingsofwholeness,dichotomytranscendence,playfulness,and
effortlessness.Thusreduced,hefound,theywerentoflastingvalueunlessthey
couldbetransformedintoplateauexperiences.Tothisendhesaw

41
psychotherapyasnecessaryfortheirperfection:integratingthemintoaregimeof
counselingandeducationthatwouldactualizethefullpotentialofthehuman
beingintellectual,physical,social,sexualinasocietywhereallareasoflife
aresacred,andplateauexperiencescommonplaceforall.
Thesethreewritersonthepsychologyofreligion,despitetheirdifferences,
keptRomanticideasaboutreligionaliveintheWestbygivingthemthescientific
stampofapproval.Throughtheirinfluence,theseideashaveshapedhumanistic
psychologyandthroughhumanisticpsychologytheexpectationsmany
AmericansbringtotheDharma.
However,whenwecomparetheseexpectationswiththeoriginalprinciplesof
theDharma,wefindradicaldifferences.Thecontrastbetweenthemisespecially
strongaroundthethreemostcentralissuesofspirituallife:Whatistheessenceof
religiousexperience?Whatisthebasicillnessthatreligiousexperiencecancure?
Andwhatdoesitmeantobecured?
Thenatureofreligiousexperience.Forhumanisticpsychology,asforthe
Romantics,religiousexperienceisadirectfeeling,ratherthanthediscoveryof
objectivetruths.Theessentialfeelingisaonenessovercomingallinnerandouter
divisions.Theseexperiencescomeintwosorts:peakexperiences,inwhichthe
senseofonenessbreaksthroughdivisionsanddualities;andplateauexperiences,
wherethroughtrainingthesenseofonenesscreatesashealthysenseofself,
informingallofonesactivitiesineverydaylife.
However,theDharmaasexpoundedinitsearliestrecordsplacestrainingin
onenessandahealthysenseofselfpriortothemostdramaticreligious
experiences.Ahealthysenseofselfisfosteredthroughtrainingingenerosityand
virtue.Asenseofonenesspeakorplateauisattainedinmundanelevelsof
concentration(jhana)thatconstitutethepath,ratherthanthegoalofpractice.
Theultimatereligiousexperience,Awakening,issomethingelseentirely.Itis
described,notintermsoffeeling,butofknowledge:skillfulmasteryofthe
principlesofcausalityunderlyingactionsandtheirresults,followedbydirect
knowledgeofthedimensionbeyondcausalitywhereallsufferingstops.
Thebasicspiritualillness.Romantic/humanisticpsychologystatesthattheroot
ofsufferingisasenseofdividedself,whichcreatesnotonlyinnerboundaries
betweenreasonandemotion,bodyandmind,egoandshadowbutalsoouter
ones,separatingusfromotherpeopleandfromnatureandthecosmosasa
whole.TheDharma,however,teachesthattheessenceofsufferingisclinging,
andthatthemostbasicformofclingingisselfidentification,regardlessof
whetheronessenseofselfisfiniteorinfinite,fluidorstatic,unitaryornot.
Thesuccessfulspiritualcure.Romantic/humanisticpsychologymaintainsthata
total,finalcureisunattainable.Instead,thecureisanongoingprocessof
personalintegration.Theenlightenedpersonismarkedbyanenlarged,fluid

42
senseofself,unencumberedbymoralrigidity.Guidedprimarilybywhatfeels
rightinthecontextofinterconnectedness,onenegotiateswitheaselikea
dancertherolesandrhythmsoflife.Havinglearnedthecreativeanswertothe
question,Whatismytrueidentity?,oneisfreedfromtheneedforcertainties
aboutanyoflifesothermysteries.
TheDharma,however,teachesthatfullAwakeningachievesatotalcure,
openingtotheunconditionedbeyondtimeandspace,atwhichpointthetaskis
done.Theawakenedpersonthenfollowsapaththatcantbetraced,butis
incapableoftransgressingthebasicprinciplesofmorality.Suchapersonrealizes
thatthequestion,Whatismytrueidentity?wasillconceived,andknowsfrom
directexperiencethetotalreleasefromtimeandspacethatwillhappenatdeath.

Whenthesetwotraditionsarecomparedpointbypoint,itsobviousthat
fromtheperspectiveofearlyBuddhismRomantic/humanisticpsychologygives
onlyapartialandlimitedviewofthepotentialsofspiritualpractice.Thismeans
thatBuddhistRomanticism,intranslatingtheDharmaintoRomanticprinciples,
givesonlyapartialandlimitedviewofwhatBuddhismhastooffer.
Now,formanypeople,theselimitationsdontmatter,becausetheycometo
BuddhistRomanticismforreasonsrootedmoreinthepresentthaninthepast.
ModernsocietyisnowevenmoreschizoidthananythingtheRomanticsever
knew.Ithasmadeusmoreandmoredependentonwiderandwidercirclesof
otherpeople,yetkeepsmostofthosedependencieshidden.Ourfoodand
clothingcomefromthestore,buthowtheygotthere,orwhoisresponsiblefor
ensuringacontinualsupply,wedontknow.Wheninvestigativereporterstrack
downthewebofconnectionsfromfieldtofinalproductinourhands,thebare
factsreadlikeanexpos.Oursweatshirts,forexample,comefromUzbekistani
cottonwoveninIran,sewninSouthKorea,andstoredinKentuckyanunstable
webofinterdependenciesthatinvolvenotalittlesufferingbothforthe
producersandforthosepushedoutoftheproductionwebbycheaperlabor.
Whetherornotweknowthesedetails,weintuitivelysensethe
fragmentationanduncertaintycreatedbytheentiresystem.Thusmanyofusfeel
aneedforasenseofwholeness.Forthosewhobenefitfromthehidden
dependenciesofmodernlife,acorollaryneedisasenseofreassurancethat
interconnectednessisreliableandbenignor,ifnotyetbenign,thatfeasible
reformscanmakeitthatway.Theywanttohearthattheycansafelyplacetheir
trustintheprincipleofinterconnectednesswithoutfearthatitwillturnonthem
orletthemdown.WhenBuddhistRomanticismspeakstotheseneeds,itopens
thegatetoareasofDharmathatcanhelpmanypeoplefindthesolacetheyre
lookingfor.Indoingso,itaugmentstheworkofpsychotherapy,whichmay
explainwhysomanypsychotherapistshaveembracedDharmapracticefortheir

43
ownneedsandfortheirpatients,andwhysomehavebecomeDharmateachers
themselves.
However,BuddhistRomanticismalsohelpsclosethegatetoareasofthe
Dharmathatwouldchallengepeopleintheirhopeforanultimatehappiness
basedoninterconnectedness.TraditionalDharmacallsforrenunciationand
sacrifice,onthegroundsthatallinterconnectednessisessentiallyunstable,and
anyhappinessbasedonthisinstabilityisaninvitationtosuffering.True
happinesshastogobeyondinterdependenceandinterconnectednesstothe
unconditioned.Inresponse,theRomanticargumentbrandstheseteachingsas
dualistic:eitherinessentialtothereligiousexperienceorinadequateexpressions
ofit.Thus,itconcludes,theycansafelybeignored.Inthisway,thegatecloses
offradicalareasoftheDharmadesignedtoaddresslevelsofsufferingremaining
evenwhenasenseofwholenesshasbeenmastered.
Italsoclosesofftwogroupsofpeoplewhowouldotherwisebenefitgreatly
fromDharmapractice.
1)Thosewhoseethatinterconnectednesswontendtheproblemofsuffering
andarelookingforamoreradicalcure.
2)Thosefromdisillusionedanddisadvantagedsectorsofsociety,whohave
lessinvestedinthecontinuationofmoderninterconnectednessandhave
abandonedhopeformeaningfulreformorhappinesswithinthesystem.
Forbothofthesegroups,theconceptsofBuddhistRomanticismseem
Pollyannaish;thecureitoffers,toofacile.AsaDharmagate,itsmorelikeadoor
shutintheirfaces.
Likesomanyotherproductsofmodernlife,therootsourcesofBuddhist
Romanticismhavefortoolongremainedhidden.Thisiswhywehavent
recognizeditforwhatitisorrealizedthepricewepayinmistakingthepartfor
thewhole.BarringmajorchangesinAmericansociety,BuddhistRomanticismis
suretosurvive.Whatsneededisformorewindowsanddoorstothrowlight
ontotheradicalaspectsoftheDharmathatBuddhistRomanticismhassofarleft
inthedark.

44

Reconciliation,Right&Wrong

Thesetwoarefools.Whichtwo?Theonewhodoesntseehis/hertransgression
asatransgression,andtheonewhodoesntrightfullypardonanotherwhohas
confessedhis/hertransgression.Thesetwoarefools.
Thesetwoarewise.Whichtwo?Theonewhoseeshis/hertransgressionasa
transgression,andtheonewhorightfullypardonsanotherwhohasconfessedhis/her
transgression.Thesetwoarewise.ANII.21

ItsacauseofgrowthintheDhammaandVinayaofthenobleoneswhen,seeing
atransgressionassuch,onemakesamendsinaccordancewiththeDhammaand
exercisesrestraintinthefuture.DN2

TheBuddhasucceededinestablishingareligionthathasbeenagenuineforce
forpeaceandharmony,notonlybecauseofthehighvalueheplacedonthese
qualitiesbutalsobecauseofthepreciseinstructionshegaveonhowtoachieve
themthroughforgivenessandreconciliation.Centraltotheseinstructionsishis
insightthatforgivenessisonething,reconciliationissomethingelse.
InPali,thelanguageofearlyBuddhism,thewordforforgivenesskhama
alsomeanstheearth.Amindliketheearthisnonreactiveandunperturbed.
Whenyouforgivemeforharmingyou,youdecidenottoretaliate,toseekno
revenge.Youdonthavetolikeme.Yousimplyunburdenyourselfoftheweight
ofresentmentandcutthecycleofretributionthatwouldotherwisekeepus
ensnarledinanuglysamsaricwrestlingmatch.Thisisagiftyoucangiveus
both,totallyonyourown,withoutmyhavingtoknoworunderstandwhat
youvedone.
Reconciliationpatisaraniyakammameansareturntoamicability,andthat
requiresmorethanforgiveness.Itrequiresthereestablishingoftrust.IfIdeny
responsibilityformyactions,ormaintainthatIdidnowrong,theresnowaywe
canbereconciled.Similarly,ifIinsistthatyourfeelingsdontmatter,orthatyou
havenorighttoholdmetoyourstandardsofrightandwrong,youwonttrust
menottohurtyouagain.Toregainyourtrust,Ihavetoshowmyrespectforyou
andforourmutualstandardsofwhatisandisnotacceptablebehavior;toadmit
thatIhurtyouandthatIwaswrongtodoso;andtopromisetoexerciserestraint
inthefuture.Atthesametime,youhavetoinspiremytrust,too,inthe
respectfulwayyouconducttheprocessofreconciliation.Onlythencanour
friendshipregainasolidfooting.

45
Thustherearerightandwrongwaysofattemptingreconciliation:thosethat
skillfullymeettheserequirementsforreestablishingtrust,andthosethatdont.
Toencouragerightreconciliationamonghisfollowers,theBuddhaformulated
detailedmethodsforachievingit,alongwithacultureofvaluesthatencourages
puttingthosemethodstouse.
ThemethodsarecontainedintheVinaya,theBuddhascodeofmonastic
discipline.LongpassagesintheVinayaaredevotedtoinstructionsforhow
monksshouldconfesstheiroffensestooneanother,howtheyshouldseek
reconciliationwithlaypeopletheyhavewronged,howtheyshouldsettle
protracteddisputes,andhowafullsplitintheSanghathemonastic
communityshouldbehealed.Althoughdirectedtomonks,theseinstructions
embodyprinciplesthatapplytoanyoneseekingreconciliationofdifferences,
whetherpersonalorpolitical.
Thefirststepineverycaseisanacknowledgementofwrongdoing.Whena
monkconfessesanoffense,suchashavinginsultedanothermonk,hefirstadmits
tohavingsaidtheinsult.Thenheagreesthattheinsultreallywasanoffense.
Finally,hepromisestorestrainhimselffromrepeatingtheoffenseinthefuture.
Amonkseekingreconciliationwithalaypersonfollowsasimilarpattern,with
anothermonk,onfriendlytermswiththelayperson,actingasmediator.Ifa
disputehasbrokentheSanghaintofactionsthathavebothbehavedinunseemly
ways,thenwhenthefactionsseekreconciliationtheyareadvisedfirsttoclearthe
airinaprocedurecalledcoveringoverwithgrass.Bothsidesmakeablanket
confessionofwrongdoingandapromisenottodigupeachothersminor
offenses.Thisfreesthemtofocusonthemajorwrongdoings,ifany,thatcaused
orexacerbatedthedispute.
TohealafullsplitintheSangha,thetwosidesareinstructedfirsttoinquire
intotherootintentionsonbothsidesthatledtothesplit,forifthoseintentions
wereirredeemablymaliciousordishonest,reconciliationisimpossible.Ifthe
grouptriestopatchthingsupwithoutgettingtotherootofthesplit,nothinghas
reallybeenhealed.Onlywhentherootintentionshavebeenshowntobe
reconcilableandthedifferencesresolvedcantheSanghaperformthebrief
ceremonythatreestablishesharmony.
Pervadingtheseinstructionsistherealizationthatgenuinereconciliation
cannotbebasedsimplyonthedesireforharmony.Itrequiresamutual
understandingofwhatactionsservedtocreatedisharmony,andapromisetotry
toavoidthoseactionsinthefuture.Thisinturnrequiresaclearlyarticulated
agreementaboutandcommitmenttomutualstandardsofrightandwrong.
Evenifthepartiestoareconciliationagreetodisagree,theiragreementneedsto
distinguishbetweenrightandwrongwaysofhandlingtheirdifferences.

46
Thisisoneofthereasonswhygenuinereconciliationhasbeensohardto
achieveinthemodernworld.Theglobalvillagehasmadeinstantneighborsof
deeplyconflictingstandardsofrightandwrong.Inaddition,manywellfunded
groupsfinditintheirinterestnarrowlydefinedtoemphasizethepointsof
conflictthatdivideusrace,religion,socialclass,educationandtoheap
ridiculeonsincereeffortstoestablishawidelyacceptablecommonground.
Althoughtheweaponsandmediacampaignsofthesegroupsmaybe
sophisticated,theimpulseistribal:Onlythosewholook,think,andactlikeus
havetherighttoliveinpeace;everyoneelseshouldbesubjugatedordestroyed.
Butalthoughtheglobalreachofmodernhateandfearmongersis
unprecedented,theexistenceofclashingvaluesystemsisnothingnew.The
Buddhafacedasimilarsituationinhistime,andthewayheforgedamethodfor
reconcilingconflictingviewscanbeinstructiveforours.
ThebeliefsheencounteredintheIndiaofhisdayfellintotwoextreme
camps:absolutismthebeliefthatonlyonesetofideasabouttheworldandits
origincouldberightandrelativism,therefusaltotakeaclearstandonissues
ofrightandwrong.TheBuddhanotedthatneitherextremewaseffectivein
puttinganendtosuffering,sohefoundapragmaticMiddleWaybetweenthem:
Rightandwrongweredeterminedbywhatactuallydidanddidntworkin
puttinganendtosuffering.ThepublicproofofthisMiddleWaywastheSangha
thattheBuddhabuiltaroundit,inwhichpeopleagreedtofollowhisteachings
andwereabletodemonstratetheresultsthroughtheinnerandouterpeace,
harmony,andhappinesstheyfound.Inotherwords,insteadofforcingother
peopletofollowhisway,theBuddhaprovidedtheopportunityforthemtojoin
voluntarycommunitiesofmonksandnuns,togetherwiththeirlaysupporters,
whoseimpactonsocietyresidedintheexampletheyset.
TheobviousimplicationformodernBuddhistcommunitiesisthatifthey
wanttohelpbringpeaceandreconciliationtotheworld,theyllhavetodoit
throughtheexampleoftheirowncommunallife.Thisisonearea,however,
wheremodernWesternBuddhistcommunitieshaveoftenbeenremiss.Intheir
enthusiasmtostriptheBuddhisttraditionofwhattheyviewasitsmonastic
baggage,theyhavediscardedmanyoftheprinciplesofmonasticlifethatwerea
powerfulpartoftheBuddhasoriginalteachings.Inparticular,theyhavebeen
extremelyallergictotheideaofrightandwrong,largelybecauseofthewaysin
whichtheyhaveseenrightandwrongabusedbytheabsolutistsinourown
cultureaswhenonepersontriestoimposearbitrarystandardsormean
spiritedpunishmentsonothers,orhypocriticallydemandsthatothersobey
standardsthathehimselfdoesnot.
Inanattempttoavoidtheabusessocommonintheabsolutistapproach,
WesternBuddhistshaveoftenruntotheoppositeextremeoftotalrelativism,

47
advocatinganondualvisionthattranscendsattachmenttorightandwrong.
Thisvision,however,isopentoabuseaswell.Incommunitieswhereitis
espoused,irresponsiblememberscanusetherhetoricofnondualityandnon
attachmenttoexcusegenuinelyharmfulbehavior;theirvictimsareleftadrift,
withnocommonlyacceptedstandardsonwhichtobasetheirappealsfor
redress.Eventheactofforgivenessissuspectinsuchacontext,forwhatrightdo
thevictimshavetojudgeactionsasrequiringforgivenessornot?Alltoooften,
thevictimsaretheonesheldatfaultforimposingtheirstandardsonothersand
notbeingabletoriseabovedualisticviews.
Thismeansthatrightandwronghavenotreallybeentranscendedinsucha
community.Theyvesimplybeenrealigned:Ifyoucanclaimanondual
perspective,youreintherightnomatterwhatyouvedone.Ifyoucomplain
aboutanotherpersonsbehavior,youreinthewrong.Andbecausethis
realignmentisnotopenlyacknowledgedassuch,itcreatesanatmosphereof
hypocrisyinwhichgenuinereconciliationisimpossible.
SoifBuddhistcommunitieswanttosetanexamplefortheworld,theyhave
torealizethatthesolutionliesnotinabandoningrightandwrong,butin
learninghowtousethemwisely.ThisiswhytheBuddhabackeduphismethods
forreconciliationwithacultureofvalueswherebyrightandwrongbecomeaids
ratherthanhindrancestoreconciliation.Twiceamonth,hearrangedforthe
membersoftheSanghatomeetforarecitationoftherulestheyhadallagreedto
obeyandtheprocedurestobefollowedincasedisputesovertherulesarose.In
thisway,thesenseofcommunitywasfrequentlyreinforcedbyclear,detailed
remindersofwhattiedthegrouptogetherandmadeitagoodoneinwhichto
live.
Theproceduresforhandlingdisputeswereespeciallyimportant.Toprevent
thoseintherightfromabusingtheirposition,hecounseledthattheyreflecton
themselvesbeforeaccusinganotherofwrongdoing.Thechecklistofquestionshe
recommendedboilsdowntothis:AmIfreefromunreconciledoffensesofmy
own?AmImotivatedbykindness,ratherthanvengeance?AmIreallyclearon
ourmutualstandards?Onlyiftheycanansweryestothesequestionsshould
theybringuptheissue.Furthermore,theBuddharecommendedthatthey
determinetospeakonlywordsthataretrue,timely,gentle,tothepoint,and
promptedbykindness.Theirmotivationshouldbecompassion,solicitudefor
thewelfareofallpartiesinvolved,andthedesiretoseethewrongdoer
rehabilitated,togetherwithanoverridingdesiretoholdtofairprinciplesofright
andwrong.
Toencourageawrongdoertoseereconciliationasawinningratherthana
losingproposition,theBuddhapraisedthehonestacceptanceofblameasan
honorableratherthanashamefulact:notjustameans,butthemeansfor

48
progressinspiritualpractice.Ashetoldhisson,Rahula,theabilitytorecognize
onesmistakesandadmitthemtoothersistheessentialfactorinachieving
purityinthought,word,anddeed.OrashesaidintheDhammapada,people
whorecognizetheirownmistakesandchangetheirwaysilluminetheworld
likethemoonwhenfreedfromacloud.
Inadditiontoprovidingtheseincentivesforhonestlyadmittingmisbehavior,
theBuddhablockedthepathstodenial.Modernsociologistshaveidentifiedfive
basicstrategiesthatpeopleusetoavoidacceptingblamewhentheyvecaused
harm,anditsnoteworthythattheearlyBuddhistteachingonmoral
responsibilityservestoundercutallfive.Thestrategiesare:todeny
responsibility,todenythatharmwasactuallydone,todenytheworthofthe
victim,toattacktheaccuser,andtoclaimthattheywereactingintheserviceofa
highercause.ThePaliresponsestothesestrategiesare:(1)Wearealways
responsibleforourconsciouschoices.(2)Weshouldalwaysputourselvesinthe
otherpersonsplace.(3)Allbeingsareworthyofrespect.(4)Weshouldregard
thosewhopointoutourfaultsasiftheywerepointingouttreasure.(Monks,in
fact,arerequirednottoshowdisrespecttopeoplewhocriticizethem,evenif
theydontplantoabidebythecriticism.)(5)Therearenorepeat,nohigher
purposesthatexcusebreakingthebasicpreceptsofethicalbehavior.
Insettingoutthesestandards,theBuddhacreatedacontextofvaluesthat
encouragesbothpartiesenteringintoareconciliationtoemployrightspeechand
toengageinthehonest,responsibleselfreflectionbasictoallDhammapractice.
Inthisway,standardsofrightandwrongbehavior,insteadofbeingoppressive
orpetty,engenderdeepandlonglastingtrust.Inadditiontocreatingthe
externalharmonyconducivetoDhammapractice,theprocessofreconciliation
thusalsobecomesanopportunityforinnergrowth.
AlthoughtheBuddhadesignedthiscultureofreconciliationforhismonastic
Sangha,itsinfluencedidnotendthere.LaysupportersoftheSanghaadoptedit
fortheirownuseparliamentaryprocedureinThailand,forinstance,stilluses
terminologyfromtheVinayaandsupportersofotherreligionswhohad
contactwithBuddhismadoptedmanyfeaturesofthiscultureaswell.The
Buddhaneverplacedapatentonhisteachings.Heofferedthemfreelyforall
whofoundthemusefulinanyway.Butregardlessofwhetheranyoneelse
followedhisexample,hestucktohisprinciplesinallhisactions,secureinthe
knowledgethattruechangehastobeginbytakingsolidrootwithin.Evenifits
impactisntimmediate,asolidinnerchangeissuretohavelongtermresults.If
Buddhistgroupsaretobringreconciliationtomodernsociety,theyhaveto
masterthehardworkofreconciliationamongthemselves.Onlythenwilltheir
examplebeaninspirationtoothers.Andeveniftheirimpactisnotenoughto
preventageneraldescentintothemadnessoffascism,terror,andwar,theywill

49
beplantingseedsofcivilizationthatcansproutwhenthemadnesslikeafire
acrossaprairiehaspassed.
TheBuddhaadmittedthatnotalldisputescanbereconciled.Therearetimes
whenoneorbothpartiesareunwillingtoexercisethehonestyandrestraintthat
truereconciliationrequires.Eventhen,though,forgivenessisstillanoption.This
iswhythedistinctionbetweenreconciliationandforgivenessissoimportant.It
encouragesusnottosettleformereforgivenesswhenthegenuinehealingof
rightreconciliationispossible;anditallowsustobegenerouswithour
forgivenessevenwhenitisnot.Andaswemastertheskillsofbothforgiveness
andreconciliation,wecanholdtooursenseofrightandwrongwithoutusingit
tosettheworldablaze.

50

GettingtheMessage

TheBuddhaisfamousforhavingrefusedtotakeapositiononmanyofthe
controversialissuesofhisday,suchaswhetherthecosmosisfiniteorinfinite,
eternalornot.Infact,manypeoplebothinhistimeandinourshaveassumed
thathedidnttakeafirmpositiononanyissueatall.Basedonthisassumption,
somepeoplehavebeenexasperatedwiththeBuddha,accusinghimofbeing
wishywashyandindecisive,whileothershavebeenpleased,praisinghimfor
beingtolerantandrefreshinglyfreefromideasofrightandwrong.
Bothreactions,however,aremisinformed.Theearlytextsreportthatagroup
ofwanderers,inadiscussionwithoneoftheBuddhaslaydisciples,once
accusedtheBuddhaofnottakingapositiononanyissue,andthedisciple
repliedthattheyweremistaken.TherewasoneissueonwhichtheBuddhas
positionwasveryclear:whatkindofbehaviorisskillful,andwhatkindof
behaviorisnot.WhenthedisciplelaterreportedtheconversationtotheBuddha,
theBuddhaapprovedofwhathehadsaid.Thedistinctionbetweenskillfuland
unskillfulbehaviorliesatthebasisofeverythingtheBuddhataught.
Inmakingthisdistinction,theBuddhadrewsomeverysharplines:
Whatisunskillful?Takinglifeisunskillful,takingwhatisnotgiven...sexual
misconduct...lying...abusivespeech...divisivetalebearing...idlechatteris
unskillful.Covetousness...illwill...wrongviewsareunskillful.Thesethingsare
calledunskillful.
Andwhatisskillful?Abstainingfromtakinglifeisskillful,abstainingfrom
takingwhatisnotgiven...fromsexualmisconduct...fromlying...fromabusive
speech...fromdivisivetalebearing...abstainingfromidlechatterisskillful.Lackof
covetousness...lackofillwill...rightviewsareskillful.Thesethingsarecalled
skillful.MN9
Killingisneverskillful.Stealing,lying,andeverythingelseinthefirstlistare
neverskillful.Whenaskediftherewasanythingwhosekillingheapprovedof,
theBuddhaansweredthattherewasonlyonething:anger.Innorecorded
instancedidheapproveofkillinganylivingbeingatall.Whenoneofhismonks
wenttoanexecutionerandtoldthemantokillhisvictimscompassionately,with
oneblow,ratherthantorturingthem,theBuddhaexpelledthemonkfromthe
Sangha,onthegroundsthateventherecommendationtokillcompassionatelyis
stillarecommendationtokillsomethinghewouldnevercondone.Ifamonk

51
wasphysicallyattacked,theBuddhaallowedhimtostrikebackinselfdefense,
butneverwiththeintentiontokill.Ashetoldthemonks,
Evenifbanditsweretocarveyouupsavagely,limbbylimb,withatwohandled
saw,heamongyouwholethisheartgetangeredevenatthatwouldnotbedoingmy
bidding.Eventhenyoushouldtrainyourselves:Ourmindswillbeunaffectedand
wewillsaynoevilwords.Wewillremainsympathetic,withamindofgoodwill,and
withnoinnerhate.Wewillkeeppervadingthesepeoplewithanawarenessimbued
withgoodwilland,beginningwiththem,wewillkeeppervadingtheall
encompassingworldwithanawarenessimbuedwithgoodwillabundant,
expansive,immeasurable,freefromhostility,freefromillwill.Thatshowyou
shouldtrainyourselves.MN21
Whenformulatinglaypreceptsbasedonhisdistinctionbetweenskillfuland
unskillful,theBuddhanevermadeanyallowancesforifs,ands,orbuts.When
youpromiseyourselftoabstainfromkillingorstealing,thepowerofthe
promiseliesinitsuniversality.Youwontbreakyourpromisetoyourselfunder
anyconditionsatall.Thisisbecausethissortofunconditionalpromiseisa
powerfulgift.Take,forinstance,thefirstprecept,againstkilling:
Thereisthecasewhereadiscipleofthenobleones,abandoningthetakingoflife,
abstainsfromtakinglife.Indoingso,hegivesfreedomfromdanger,freedomfrom
animosity,freedomfromoppressiontolimitlessnumbersofbeings.Ingivingfreedom
fromdanger,freedomfromanimosity,freedomfromoppressiontolimitlessnumbers
ofbeings,hegainsashareinlimitlessfreedomfromdanger,freedomfromanimosity,
andfreedomfromoppression.Thisisthefirstgift,thefirstgreatgiftoriginal,long
standing,traditional,ancient,unadulterated,unadulteratedfromthebeginning
thatisnotopentosuspicion,willneverbeopentosuspicion,andisunfaultedby
knowledgeablecontemplatives&brahmans.ANVIII.39
Ifyoumakeexceptionsinyourpromisetoyourselftryingtojustifykilling
incaseswhereyoufeelendangeredorinconveniencedbyanotherbeings
existenceyourgiftoffreedomislimited,andyouloseyourshareinlimitless
freedom.Thusthegiftoffreedom,tobefullyeffective,hastobeunconditional,
withnoroomforexceptions,nomatterhownobletheymaysound,ofanykind.
Thedynamicofthiskindofgift,ofcourse,dependsonanimportant
principle,theteachingofkarmaandrebirth:Ifyouactonunskillfulmotivations,
theactwillresultinyoursuffering,noworinlivestocome;ifyouactonskillful
intentions,theactwillresultinyourpleasurenoworinlivestocome.Ifyou
dontkillanyone,youarenotcreatingthecircumstanceswhereanyoneor
anythingwillcutshortyourlifespan.Yourpastkarmamaystillleavean
openingforyourmurderoraccidentaldeathyoucantgobackandundowhat

52
youvealreadydonebutonceyoumakeandfollowthroughwiththepromise
nottokillagain,youarecreatingnonewopeningsforhavingyourlifecutshort.
AstheDhammapadasays,
Iftheresnowoundonthehand,
thathandcanholdpoison.
Poisonwontpenetrate

wheretheresnowound.
Theresnoevil

forthosewhodontdoit.Dhp124
ThisiswhytheBuddhalistedvirtueasoneofapersonsgreatesttreasures.
Kingsandthievescanstealyourmaterialbelongingsandeventakeyourlife,but
theycanttakeyourvirtue.Ifitsuncompromising,yourvirtueprotectsyoufrom
anytruedangerfromnowuntilyoureachnirvana.
Evenifyourenotreadytoaccepttheteachingonkarmaandrebirth,the
Buddhastillrecommendedanabsolutestandardofvirtue.Ashetoldthe
Kalamas,ifyoudecidetoactskillfullyatalltimes,harmingnoone,thenevenif
itturnedoutthattherewasnolifeafterdeath,youdstillcomeoutahead,for
youwouldhavebeenabletoliveanddiewithaclearconsciencesomething
thatnoamountofmoneyorpoliticalinfluencecanbuy.
SotheBuddhaspositiononthepreceptswasuncompromisingandclear.If
youwanttofollowhisteachings,theresabsolutelynoroomforkilling,stealing,
orlying,period.However,inourcurrentclimateofterrorismandcounter
terrorismwheregovernmentshaveclaimedthatitstheirmoraldutytolie,kill,
andtortureinordertopreventothersfromlying,killing,andtorturinga
numberofBuddhistteachershavejoinedintheeffort,tryingtofindevidence
thatthereweresomeoccasions,atleast,wheretheBuddhawouldcondone
killingorofferarationaleforajustwar.Exactlywhytheywouldwanttodothis
isuptothemtosay,buttheresaneedtoexaminetheirargumentsinordertoset
therecordstraight.TheBuddhanevertaughtatheoryofjustwar;nodecisionto
wagewarcanlegitimatelybetracedtohisteachings;nowarveteranhasever
hadtoagonizeovermemoriesofthepeoplehekilledbecausetheBuddhasaid
thatwarwasokay.ThesefactsareamongthegloriesoftheBuddhisttradition,
anditsimportantforthehumanracethattheynotbemuddiedinaneffortto
recasttheBuddhainourownlessthangloriousimage.
BecausethePaliCanonissuchanunpromisingplacetolookforthe
justificationofkilling,mostoftheargumentsforaBuddhisttheoryofjustwar
lookelsewherefortheirevidence,citingthewordsandbehaviorofpeoplethey
takeassurrogatesfortheBuddha.Theseargumentsareobviouslyonshaky
ground,andcanbeeasilydismissedevenbypeoplewhoknownothingofthe

53
Canon.Forexample,ithasbeenarguedthatbecauseAsiangovernments
claimingtobeBuddhisthaveengagedinwarandtorture,theBuddhas
teachingsmustcondonesuchbehavior.However,wevehadenoughexposureto
peopleclaimingtobeChristianwhosebehaviorisveryunchristiantorealizethat
thesamethingcanprobablyhappenintheBuddhistworldaswell.Totake
killersandtorturersasyourguidetotheBuddhasteachingishardlyasignof
goodjudgment.
Onasomewhathighernote,onewriterhasnotedthathismeditationteacher
hastoldsoldiersandpolicementhatiftheirdutyistokill,theymustperform
theirduty,albeitcompassionatelyandwithmindfulness.Thewriterthengoeson
toarguethatbecausehisteacheristhedirectrecipientofanoraltraditiondating
backtotheBuddha,wemusttakethisasevidencethattheBuddhawouldgive
similaradviceaswell.Thisstatement,ofcourse,tellsusmoreaboutthewriters
faithinhisteacherthanabouttheBuddha;andwhenwereflectthattheBuddha
expelledfromtheSanghaamonkwhogaveadviceofthissorttoanexecutioner,
itcastsseriousdoubtsonhisargument.
Thereare,however,writerswhotrytofindevidenceinthePaliCanonfora
Buddhisttheoryofjustwar,notinwhattheBuddhasaid,butinwhathedidnt.
Theargumentsgolikethis:Whentalkingwithkings,theBuddhanevertold
themnottoengageinwarorcapitalpunishment.Thiswashistacitadmission
thatthekinghadajustifiabledutytoengageintheseactivities,andthekings
wouldhaveunderstoodhissilenceassuch.BecausetheseargumentscitethePali
Canonandclaimahistoriansknowledgeofhowsilencewasinterpretedinthe
Buddhasday,theyseemtocarrymoreauthoritythantheothers.Butwhenwe
actuallylookatthePalirecordoftheBuddhasconversationswithkings,wefind
thattheargumentsarebogus.TheBuddhawasabletocommunicatethemessage
tokingsthattheyshouldntkill,butbecausekingsingeneralwerenotthemost
promisingstudentsoftheDhamma,hehadtobringthemtothismessageinan
indirectway.
ItstruethatinthePaliCanonsilenceissometimesinterpretedas
acquiescence,butthisprincipleholdsonlyinresponsetoarequest.Ifsomeone
invitedtheBuddhatohishouseforamealandtheBuddharemainedsilent,that
wasasignofconsent.However,thereweremanyinstancesinwhichthe
Buddhassilencewasasign,notofacquiescence,butoftact.Aprofessional
soldieroncewenttotheBuddhaandsaidthathisteachershadtaughtthe
existenceofaheavenawaitingsoldierswhodieinbattle.WhatdidtheBuddha
havetosayaboutthat?AtfirsttheBuddhadeclinedtoanswer,butwhenthe
soldiershowedthesincerityofhisquestionbypressinghimthreetimesfora
response,hefinallyreplied:

54
Whenawarriorstrives&exertshimselfinbattle,hismindisalreadyseized,
debased,&misdirectedbythethought:Maythesebeingsbestruckdownor
slaughteredorannihilatedordestroyed.Maytheynotexist:Ifothersthenstrikehim
down&slayhimwhileheisthusstriving&exertinghimselfinbattle,thenwiththe
breakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisreborninthehellcalledtherealmofthoseslain
inbattle.Butifheholdssuchaviewasthis:Whenawarriorstrives&exertshimself
inbattle,ifothersthenstrikehimdown&slayhimwhileheisstriving&exerting
himselfinbattle,thenwiththebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisreborninthe
companyofdevasslaininbattle,thatishiswrongview.Now,therearetwo
destinationsforapersonwithwrongview,Itellyou:eitherhellortheanimal
womb.SNXLII.3
ThesoldierthenbrokedownandcriednotbecausehefeltthattheBuddhas
wordswerecruel,butbecausehebelievedtheirtruthandwasupsetathisearlier
teachersforhavingliedtohim.Inthiscase,theBuddhasreticenceandtact
helpedtomakehisteachingeffective.Asimilarsetofeventshappenedwhenan
actoraskedtheBuddhaifthereisaspecialheavenreservedforactors.The
Buddhasreticenceandtactininformingtheactorofahellforactorswhoincite
theiraudiencestogreed,anger,anddelusioninspiredtheactortorespondinthe
samewayasthesoldier.
Iftheprideofsoldiersandactorsrequiredspecialhandling,evenmorecare
wasrequiredinthehandlingofkings,fortheirpridewasoftencoupledwithan
unrestrainedsenseofpower.AremarkablefeatureofthePaliCanonisthateven
thoughtheBuddhawasamemberofthenoblewarriorcaste,thediscourses
generallyshowalowregardforthespiritualstandingofkings.Inmany
passages,kingsarementionedinthesamebreathwiththieves:Theyconfiscate
propertyandshowlittleregardfortheruleoflaw.TheCanondoesrecognize
exceptionsKingBimbisaraofMagadhaachievesstreamentrythefirsttimehe
hearstheDhamma,andheneverengagesinwarbutforthemostpart,kings
aredepictedasspirituallystunted.KingAjatasattu,onfirstseeingtheBuddha
sittingsurroundedbymonks,canttellwhichpersonintheassemblyisthe
Buddha,asignofhisspiritualblindness;thisblindnessislaterprovenbyhis
askingtheBuddhasadviceonhowtodefeathisinnocentneighborsinwar.As
oneofthediscoursessuggests,thissortofblindnessisanoccupationalhazard
forrulers,inthattheunfairexerciseofpowercanmakeapersonunfitfor
learningthetruth.
Becauseofhavingwronglyinflictedsufferingonanotherpersonthroughbeating
orimprisonmentorconfiscationorplacingblameorbanishment,[withthethought,]
Ihavepower.Iwantpower,whentoldwhatisfactual,hedeniesitanddoesnt

55
acknowledgeit.Whentoldwhatisunfactual,hedoesntmakeanardenteffortto
untangleit[tosee],Thisisunfactual.Thisisbaseless.ANIII.69
EvenKingPasenadiofKosala,thekingmostcloselyassociatedwiththe
Buddha,comesacrossaswellmeaningbutsomewhatdense.Anentire
discourse,MN90,isasatireofhowhisroyalpositionhasthwartedhisabilityto
learntheDhamma.Hecantphrasehisquestionsproperly,hastroublefollowing
adiscussionformorethanafewsentences,andisunabletocometoanycertain
conclusionsaboutthetruth.Still,inotherdiscourseshehashisoccasional
momentsofspiritualclarity,andtheBuddhausesthosemomentsas
opportunitiestoteachtheDhamma.TheBuddhasapproachhereistwofold:to
trytoexpandthekingsperspectiveonlifeattimeswhenthekingiswillingtobe
frank;andtoencouragethekingwhenthelattergainsinsightsonhisown.
Forexample,theresthefamousdiscourse(SNIII.25)wherePasenadicomes
tovisittheBuddhainthemiddleoftheday.TheBuddhaaskshimwhathes
beendoing,andthekingrepliesinamomentofrareandwonderful
franknessthathesbeeninvolvedinthesortofactivitiestypicalofaking
intoxicatedwithhispower.TheBuddhatakesthismomentoffranknessasan
opportunitytoteachtheDhamma.Suppose,hesays,thatfourmountainswere
rollingininexorablyfromthefourdirections,crushingalllifeintheirpath.
Giventhatthehumanbirthissorareandhardtoachieve,whatshouldbedone?
Thekingsreply:WhatelseshouldbedonebutlivinginlinewiththeDhamma?
TheBuddhathendrawsthelesson:Aginganddeatharerollingininexorably.
Giventhatthehumanbirthissorareandhardtoachieve,whatshouldbedone?
Thekingdrawstheobviousconclusionthat,again,theonlythingtobedoneisto
liveinlinewiththeDhamma.Hethengoesontomaketheobservationthat
whenaginganddeatharerollingininexorably,thereisnoroleforarmies,wars,
cleveradvisors,orgreatwealthtopreventtheirrollingin.Theonlythingtodois
toliveinlinewiththeDhamma.
Inanotherdiscourse,PasenadicomestotheBuddhaandreportshisown
independentobservation:
Thosewhoengageinbodilymisconduct,verbalmisconduct,&mental
misconductleavethemselvesunprotected.Eventhoughasquadronofelephanttroops
mightprotectthem,asquadronofcavalrytroops,asquadronofchariottroops,a
squadronofinfantrytroopsmightprotectthem,stilltheyleavethemselves
unprotected.Whyisthat?Becausethatsanexternalprotection,notaninternalone.
Thereforetheyleavethemselvesunprotected.Butthosewhoengageingoodbodily
conduct,goodverbalconduct,&goodmentalconducthavethemselvesprotected.
Eventhoughneitherasquadronofelephanttroops,asquadronofcavalrytroops,a
squadronofchariottroops,norasquadronofinfantrytroopsmightprotectthem,still

56
theyhavethemselvesprotected.Whyisthat?Becausethatsaninternalprotection,
notanexternalone.Thereforetheyhavethemselvesprotected.SNIII.5
ItshighlyunlikelythatPasenadiwouldhavecometothisconclusionifhe
hadntspenttimeinconversationwiththeBuddha.Fromthatconversation,he
wouldhavelearnedthemeaningofgoodbodily,verbal,andmentalconduct:the
tenformsofskillfulaction.Asatactfulteacher,theBuddhasimplyconcurred
withthekingsinsight.Thediscoursessuggestthatthisstrategyencouragedthe
kingtospendtimeinreflectionofthissort,forinotherdiscoursestheking
reportsmanysimilarinsightsfortheBuddhatoconfirm.
Welearnthatthekingdidnotalwaysfollowthroughwithhisinsights,but
thatsnotbecausetheBuddhaencouragedhimtoviewkillingashisduty.Infact,
thereisonestrikingexamplewheretheseinsightshadatleastapartialeffect.
AjatasattuonceattackedPasenadiskingdom,andPasenadirespondedby
raisinganarmytofighthimoff.Afteraninitialsetback,Pasenadiwasableto
captureAjatasattu.Hecouldhavekilledhiminrevenge,forthatwasallowable
undertherulesofengagementduringhistime.Buthechosenotto,anditshard
nottoseetheBuddhasimpactonthisdecision.Whentoldofthebattle,the
Buddhasaid:

Amanmayplunder
aslongasitserveshisends,
butwhenothersareplundered,
hewhohasplundered
getsplunderedinturn.

Afoolthinks,
Nowsmychance,
aslongashisevil
hasyettoripen.
Butwhenitripens,
thefool
falls
intopain.

Killing,yougain
yourkiller.
Conquering,yougainone
whowillconqueryou;

57
insulting,insult;
harassing,harassment.
Andso,throughthecycleofaction,
hewhohasplundered
getsplunderedinturn.SNIII.15

Benightedashewas,Pasenadistillgotthemessage.Thequestionis,why
cantwe?

58

EducatingCompassion

Ifyouhaveanyfriendsorfamilymemberswhoaresickordying,Iknowof
noonewhowouldtellyoutotreattheminahardheartedway.Everyonewould
agreethatyoushouldbeascompassionateasyoucan.Theproblemisthat
thereslittleagreementonhowcompassiontranslatesintospecificactions.For
somepeople,compassionmeansextendinglifeaslongaspossible;forothersit
meansterminatinglifethroughassistedsuicideoreuthanasiawhenqualityof
lifefallsbelowacertainlevel.Andneitherofthesetwogroupsseestheotheras
compassionateatall.Thefirstseesthesecondascriminal;thesecondseesthe
firstasheartlessandcruel.
Forthoseofustryingtonegotiatethemurkyterritorybetweenthesetwo
extremes,theresnotmuchreliableguidance.Oursisaculturethatdoesntlike
tothinkaboutillnessanddeath,andasaresult,whenfacedwithsomeonewhos
sickordying,wereatalossastowhattodo.Somepeoplewilladviseyou
simplytodowhatfeelsright,butfeelingshaveawayofturningslipperyand
devious.Somethingsfeelrightsimplybecausetheymakeyoufeelgood,
regardlessofwhethertheyregenuinelyrightfortheotherperson.Adesireto
extendlifemaymaskadeeperfearofyourowndeath;adesiretoterminatea
miserableillnessmayrationalizeyourdistressathavingtowitnesssuffering.
Evenifyouretoldtoactfromaplaceofmindfulpresence,youmayfindthat
whatseemtobeyourspontaneousinspirationsareactuallyconditionedby
hidden,unexaminedassumptionsaboutwhatlifeanddeathareallabout.
Thisiswhythesimpleinjunctiontobecompassionateormindfulinthe
presenceofasickordyingpersonisntenough.Weneedhelpineducatingour
compassion:specificadviceonhowtothinkthroughtheimplicationsofour
actionsinthefaceoflifeanddeath,andspecificexamplesofhowpeoplewho
havecontemplatedtheseissuesthoroughlyhaveactuallyactedinthepast.
Withthisthoughtinmind,IsearchedthroughthePaliCanontheoldest
extantrecordoftheBuddhasteachingstoseewhatlessonscouldbedrawn
fromtheBuddhasexample.Afterall,theBuddhaoftenreferredtohimselfasa
doctor,andtohisDharmaasmedicineforthesufferingsoftheworld.Fromhis
pointofview,wereallsickanddyingonasubtlelevel,sowealldeserve
continualcompassion.Butwhatsortofadvicedidthisdoctorgivewhenfaceto
facewiththefleshandbloodsufferingofillnessanddeath?Howdidhetreat
peoplewhowerephysicallysickordying?

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Youprobablyknowthestoryofhow,togetherwithVen.Ananda,heonce
foundanunattendedsickmonklyinginhisownfilth.Afterwashingthemonk,
heassembledtheothermonks,chidedthemforabandoningtheirbrother,and
gavethemstrongincentivetofollowhisexample:Whoeverwouldtendtome,
hesaid,shouldtendtothesick.Hearrangedthatmonksnursingtheirfellow
monksshouldreceivespecialallotmentsoffood,toencouragethemintheir
workandhelplightentheirburden.Buthedidntsubscribetothenotionthat
medicaltreatmentshouldtrytoextendlifeatallcosts.TheVinaya,hismonastic
discipline,imposesonlyaminorpenaltyonamonkwhorefusestocarefora
fellowmonkwhoissickordying,orwhototallyabandonsasickmonkbefore
thelatterrecoversordies.Andtheresnopenaltyforwithholdingor
discontinuingaspecificmedicaltreatment.Sotherulesconveynomessagethat
thefailuretokeeplifegoingisanoffenseofanykind.Atthesametime,though,
amonkwhodeliberatelyendsthelifeofapatient,evenfromcompassionate
motives,isexpelledfromthemonkhoodandcanneverreordaininthislife,so
theresnoroomforeuthanasiaorassistedsuicide.
Thismeansthatthemiddlegroundiswheretruecompassioncanbe
exercised.TheBuddhasetsoutsomeguidelinesforthisareainhisdefinitionof
theidealnurse.Yourequalifiedtotendtothesickif(1)youknowhowto
preparemedicines;(2)youknowwhatsamenabletothepatientscure,taking
awaywhateversunamenableandprovidingthingsthatareamenable;(3)youre
motivatedbycompassionandnotbymaterialgain;(4)yourenotsqueamish
aboutcleaningupurine,excrement,saliva,orvomit;and(5)yourecompetentat
encouragingthepatientatthepropertimeswithtalkonDharma.
Ofthesefivequalifications,theonemostdiscussedinthePaliCanonisthe
fifth:WhatqualifiesasahelpfulandcompassionatetalkonDharmatoaperson
whoissickordying?Whatdoesnt?
Hereagain,thedontsmarkofftheterritoryforthedos.TheVinayacitescases
wheremonkstellasickpersontofocushisthoughtsondying,inthebeliefthat
deathwouldbebetterthanthemiserablestateofhislife.Thesickpersondoesas
theyadvise,hediesasaresult,andtheBuddhaexpelsthemonksfromthe
monkhood.Thus,fromtheBuddhasperspective,encouragingasickpersonto
relaxhergriponlifeortogiveupthewilltolivewouldnotcountasanactof
compassion.Insteadoftryingtoeasethepatientstransitiontodeath,the
Buddhafocusedoneasinghisorherinsightintosufferinganditsend.
Thisisbecauseheregardedeverymomentoflifeasanopportunityto
practiceandbenefitfromtheDharma.Itsawellknownprincipleinall
meditationtraditionsthatamomentsinsightintothepainofthepresentisfar
morebeneficialthanviewingthepresentmomentwithdisgustandplacingones
hopesonabetterfuture.Thisprincipleappliesasmuchattheendoflifeasit

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doesanywhereinthemiddle.Infact,theBuddhaencouragedhismonksto
reflectconstantlyonthepotentialimminenceofdeathateverymoment,even
wheninordinaryhealth,sothattheycouldbringasenseofurgencytotheir
practiceandgivethepresentmomenttheirfullattention.Ifyoulearntotreatall
momentsaspotentiallyyourlast,thenwhenyourlastmomentdoescomeyou
willfaceitprepared.
Mostoften,though,asickordyingpersonhasntbeenlivingwiththissortof
urgentalertness,sothefirststepinadvisingsuchapersonistoaimatclearing
awayanyemotionalobstaclestolearningfromthepresent.ThePalitextsnote
twosuchobstacles:worryovertheresponsibilitiesthepersonisleavingbehind,
andfearofdeath.Inonepoignantdiscourse,amanappearstobedyingandhis
wifeconsoleshimnottoworry:Shellbeabletoprovideforherselfandtheir
childreninhisabsence;shewontgolookingforanotherhusband;andshell
continueinherpracticeoftheDharma.Witheachreassurancesherepeatsthe
refrain,Sodontbeworriedasyoudie.Deathispainfulforonewhoisworried.
TheBlessedOnehaswarnedagainstbeingworriedatthetimeofdeath.The
manrecoversunexpectedlyand,whilestillfrail,goestovisittheBuddha,telling
himofhiswifesreassurances.TheBuddhacommentsonhowfortunatetheman
istohavesuchawiseandsympatheticwife.
Asforfearofdeath,theBuddhanotesthatoneoftheprimaryreasonsforthis
fearistheremembranceofhurtfulorcruelthingsyouvedoneinthepast.Thus
theVinayashowsthatmonkswouldoftenconsoleafellowmonkonhis
deathbedbyaskinghimtocalltomindsomethingmorepositivehishighest
meditativeattainmentandtofocushisthoughtsthere.Inasimilarvein,a
commonpracticeinAsianBuddhistcountriesistoremindadyingpersonofthe
actsofgenerosityorvirtueheorshehasperformedinthislife.Eveniftheperson
isunabletomusterthemindfulnessandalertnessneededtogainfurtherinsight
intothepresent,anyDharmatalkthathelpsallayworriesandforestallfearsisan
actoftruecompassion.
TheBuddhacomments,however,thattherearethreeadditionalreasonsfor
fearingdeath:attachmenttothebody,attachmenttosensualpleasures,anda
lackofdirectinsightintotheunconditionedDharmaoftheDeathless.Hismore
advancedinstructionsforsickanddyingpeoplethusfocusoncuttingthese
reasonsforfearattheroot.Heoncevisitedasickwardandtoldthemonksthere
toapproachthemomentofdeathmindfulandalert.Insteadoffocusingon
whethertheywouldrecover,theyshouldobservethemovementsofthefeelings
theywereexperiencing:painful,pleasant,orneutral.Observingasensationof
pain,forinstance,theyshouldnoticehowinconstantitisandthenfocusonthe
repeateddissolutionofallpains.Theycouldthenapplythesamefocused
alertnesstopleasantandneutralfeelingsaswell.Thesteadinessoftheirfocus

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wouldgiverisetoasenseofeaseindependentofsensoryfeelings,andfromthis
pointofindependencetheycoulddevelopdispassionandrelinquishment,both
forthebodyandforfeelingsofanysort.Withrelinquishmentwouldcomea
genuineinsightintotheDharmawhich,beingDeathless,wouldendallfearof
death.
Onanotheroccasion,Ven.Sariputtavisitedthefamoussupporterofthe
Buddha,Anathapindika,whowasonhisdeathbed.Afterlearningthat
Anathapindikasdiseasewasworsening,headvisedhimtotrainhimself:I
wontclingtotheeye;myconsciousnesswontbedependentontheeye.Iwont
clingtotheear;myconsciousnesswontbedependentontheear,andsoforth
throughallthesixsenses,theirobjects,andanymentaleventsdependenton
them.AlthoughAnathapindikawasunabletodevelopthisindependent
consciousnessinlinewithSariputtasinstructions,heaskedthatthese
instructionsbegiventootherlaypeopleaswell,fortherewouldbethosewho
wouldunderstandandbenefitfromthem.
Obviously,theserecommendationsareallshapedbytheBuddhasteachings
onhowthestateofonesmindinfluencestheprocessofdeathandrebirth,but
thatdoesntmeanthattheyreappropriateonlyforthosewhowouldcall
themselvesBuddhist.Regardlessofyourreligiousbeliefs,whenyourefaced
withobviouspainyoureboundtoseethevalueofanyinstructionsthatshow
youhowtoreducesufferingbyinvestigatingthepaininandofitself.Ifyouhave
thestrengthtofollowthroughwiththeinstructions,youreboundtowantto
givethematry.AndifyouencountertheDeathlessinthecourseofyourefforts,
yourenotgoingtoquibbleaboutwhethertocallitbyaBuddhistornon
Buddhistname.
ThispointisillustratedbyanotherstoryinvolvingVen.Sariputta.Visitingan
agedbrahmanonhisdeathbed,Sariputtareflectedthatbrahmansdesireunion
withBrahma,sohetaughtthemantodevelopthefourattitudesofaBrahma
infinitegoodwill,compassion,appreciation,andequanimity.Afterfollowing
theseinstructions,thebrahmanwasrebornasaBrahmaafterdeath.TheBuddha,
however,laterchidedSariputtafornotteachingthebrahmantofocusinsteadon
investigatingpain,forifhehad,thebrahmanwouldhaveexperiencednirvana
andbeenfreedfromrebirthaltogether.
Whatsstrikingaboutalltheseinstructionsisthat,fromtheBuddhaspoint
ofview,deathbedDharmaisnodifferentfromDharmataughttopeoplein
ordinaryhealth.Thecauseofsufferingisineverycasethesame,andthepathto
theendofsufferingisthesameaswell:comprehendsuffering,abandonits
cause,realizeitscessation,anddevelopthequalitiesofmindthatleadtoits
cessation.Theonlydifferenceisthattheobviousproximityofdeathmakes
teachingtheDharmabotheasierandhardereasierinthatthepatientisfreed

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fromextraneousresponsibilitiesandcanseeclearlytheneedtounderstandand
gainreleasefrompain;harderinthatthepatientmaybetooweakened
physicallyoremotionally,throughfearorworry,toputtheinstructionsinto
practice.Butwhateverthecase,itsworthnotingthatuptothemomentofdeath
theBuddhawouldhaveyoufocuslessonthelimitationsofthesituationthanon
thepotentialopportunities.Evenonemomentofinsightinthemidstofpainand
suffering,hesaid,isworthmorethanonehundredyearsofgoodhealth.
Frommyownpersonalexperiencebothinwatchingmyteachersimplement
theseinstructionsandintryingtoimplementthemmyselfIvelearnedtwo
majorlessons.Oneisthatthepatientsbestsuitedformakingthemostofthe
Dharmawhensickordyingarethosewhoarenottormentedwithmemoriesof
cruelorhurtfulthingstheydidinthepast,andwhohavealreadydevelopeda
meditativeorcontemplativepracticepriortotheirillness.Evenifthatpractice
isntBuddhist,theyintuitivelyrespondtotheBuddhasmessageonpainandare
abletouseittoalleviatetheirownsufferings.Thelessonhereisthataslongas
youknowyouregoingtodiesomeday,itsagoodideatoavoidcruelactions
andtogetstartedonameditativepracticeofyourown,sothatyoullbe
preparedforillnessanddeathwhentheycome.Asmyteacher,AjaanFuang,
oncesaid,whenyoumeditateyouregainingpracticeinhowtodiehowtobe
mindfulandalert,howtoendurepain,howtogaincontroloverwayward
thoughtsandmaybeevenreachtheDeathlesssothatwhenthetimecomesto
die,youlldoitwithskill.
Thesecondlessonisthatifyouwanttohelpotherpeopleovercometheirfear
ofdeath,youhavetolearnhowtoovercomeyourownfearofdeathaswell,by
abandoningattachmenttothebody,abandoningattachmenttosensual
pleasures,avoidingcruelactions,andgainingdirectinsightintotheDeathless.
Withyourfearsovercome,youllbemuchmoreeffectiveinteachingtheDharma
tothoseontheirdeathbed.Youwontbedisturbedbythephysicalhorrorsof
death,youllbeabletocommunicatedirectlytotheneedsofthedyingperson,
andyourwordswillcarrymoreweight,fortheycomefromdirectexperience.
Yourcompassionwillbeeducatednotbybooksorfeelings,butbyaclearinsight
intowhatdiesandwhatdoesnt.
Ultimately,thesetwolessonsboildowntoone:Meditate,asanactof
compassionbothforyourselfandforothers,evenifdeathseemsfaraway.When
thetimecomestodie,youllbelessofaburdenonthosewhoarecaringforyou.
Inthemeantime,ifyourecalledontocomfortthosewhoaresickordying,your
compassionwillbemoregenuinelyhelpful,andyoullhaveamoreeffective
messagetoteach.

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JhanaNotbytheNumbers

WhenIfirstwenttostudywithmyteacher,AjaanFuang,hehandedmea
smallbookletofmeditationinstructionsandsentmeupthehillbehindthe
monasterytomeditate.Thebookletwrittenbyhisteacher,AjaanLeebegan
withabreathmeditationtechniqueandconcludedwithasectionshowinghow
thetechniquewasusedtoinducethefirstfourlevelsofjhana.
Inthefollowingyears,IsawAjaanFuanghandthesamebooklettoeachof
hisnewstudents,layandordained.Yetdespitethebookletsdetailed
descriptionsofjhana,hehimselfrarelymentionedthewordjhanainhis
conversations,andneverindicatedtoanyofhisstudentsthattheyhadreacheda
particularlevelofjhanaintheirpractice.Whenastudenttoldhimofarecurring
meditativeexperience,helikedtodiscussnotwhatitwas,butwhattodowithit:
whattofocuson,whattodrop,whattochange,whattomaintainthesame.Then
hedteachthestudenthowtoexperimentwithittomakeitevenmorestable
andrestfulandhowtojudgetheresultsoftheexperiments.Ifhisstudents
wantedtomeasuretheirprogressagainstthedescriptionsofjhanainthebooklet,
thatwastheirbusinessandnoneofhis.Heneversaidthisinsomanywords,but
giventhewayhetaught,theimplicitmessagewasclear.
Asweretheimplicitreasonsforhisattitude.Hehadtoldmeonceabouthis
ownexperiencesasayoungmeditator:Backinthosedaysyoudidnthave
booksexplainingeverythingthewaywedonow.WhenIfirststudiedwith
AjaanLee,hetoldmetobringmyminddown.SoIfocusedongettingitdown,
down,down,butthemoreIbroughtitdown,theheavilyanddulleritgot.I
thought,Thiscantberight.SoIturnedaroundandfocusedonbringingitup,
up,up,untilIfoundabalanceandcouldfigureoutwhathewastalkingabout.
Thisincidentwasoneofmanythattaughthimsomeimportantlessons:thatyou
havetotestthingsforyourself,toseewheretheinstructionshadtobetaken
literallyandwheretheyhadtobetakenfiguratively;thatyouhadtojudgefor
yourselfhowwellyouweredoing;andthatyouhadtobeingenious,
experimentingandtakingriskstofindtowaystodealwithproblemsasthey
arose.
Soasateacher,hetriedtoinstillinhisstudentsthesequalitiesofselfreliance,
ingenuity,andawillingnesstotakerisksandtestthingsforthemselves.Hedid
thatnotonlybytalkingaboutthesequalities,butalsobyforcingyouinto
situationswhereyoudhavetodevelopthem.Hadhealwaysbeenthereto
confirmforyouthat,Yes,youvereachedthethirdjhana,or,No,thatsonly

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thesecondjhana,hewouldhaveshortcircuitedthequalitieshewastryingto
instill.He,ratherthanyourownpowersofobservation,wouldhavebeenthe
authorityonwhatwasgoingoninyourmind;andyouwouldhavebeen
absolvedofanyresponsibilityforcorrectlyevaluatingwhatyouhad
experienced.Atthesametime,hewouldhavebeenfeedingyourchildishdesire
topleaseorimpresshim,andunderminingyourabilitytodealwiththetaskat
hand,whichwashowtodevelopyourownpowersofsensitivitytoputanendto
sufferingandstress.Asheoncetoldme,IfIhavetoexplaineverything,youll
getusedtohavingthingshandedtoyouonaplatter.Andthenwhatwillyoudo
whenproblemscomeupinyourmeditationandyoudonthaveanyexperience
infiguringthingsoutonyourown?
So,studyingwithhim,Ihadtolearntotakerisksinthemidstof
uncertainties.Ifsomethinginterestingcameupinthepractice,Idhavetostick
withit,observingitovertime,beforereachinganyconclusionsaboutit.Even
then,Ilearned,thelabelsIappliedtomyexperiencescouldntbechiseledin
rock.Theyhadtobemorelikepostitnotes:convenientmarkersformyown
referencethatImighthavetopeeloffandstickelsewhereasIbecamemore
familiarwiththeterritoryofmymind.Thisprovedtobeavaluablelessonthat
appliedtoallareasofmypractice.
Still,AjaanFuangdidntleavemetoreinventtheDharmawheeltotallyon
myown.Experiencehadshownhimthatsomeapproachestoconcentration
workedbetterthanothersforputtingthemindinapositionwhereitcould
exerciseitsingenuityandaccuratelyjudgetheresultsofitsexperiments,andhe
wasveryexplicitinrecommendingthoseapproaches.Amongthepointshe
emphasizedwerethese:
Strongconcentrationisabsolutelynecessaryforliberatinginsight.Withoutafirm
basisinconcentration,heoftensaid,insightisjustconcepts.Toseeclearlythe
connectionsbetweenstressanditscauses,themindhastobeverysteadyand
still.Andtostaystill,itrequiresthestrongsenseofwellbeingthatonlystrong
concentrationcanprovide.
Togaininsightintoastateofconcentration,youhavetostickwithitforalongtime.
Ifyoupushimpatientlyfromonelevelofconcentrationtothenext,orifyoutry
toanalyzeanewstateofconcentrationtooquicklyafteryouveattainedit,you
nevergiveitthechancetoshowitsfullpotentialandyoudontgiveyourselfthe
chancetofamiliarizeyourselfwithit.Soyouhavetokeepworkingatitasaskill,
somethingyoucantapintoinallsituations.Thisenablesyoutoseeitfroma
varietyofperspectivesandtotestitovertime,toseeifitreallyisastotally
blissful,empty,andeffortlessasitmayhaveseemedonfirstsight.
Thebeststateofconcentrationforthesakeofdevelopingallaroundinsightisonethat
encompassesawholebodyawareness.ThereweretwoexceptionstoAjaanFuangs

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usualpracticeofnotidentifyingthestateyouhadattainedinyourpractice,and
bothinvolvedstatesofwrongconcentration.Thefirstwasthestatethatcomes
whenthebreathgetssocomfortablethatyourfocusdriftsfromthebreathtothe
senseofcomfortitself,yourmindfulnessbeginstoblur,andyoursenseofthe
bodyandyoursurroundingsgetslostinapleasanthaze.Whenyouemerge,you
findithardtoidentifywhereexactlyyouwerefocused.AjaanFuangcalledthis
mohasamadhi,ordelusionconcentration.
ThesecondstatewasoneIhappenedtohitonenightwhenmyconcentration
wasextremelyonepointed,andsorefinedthatitrefusedsettleonorlabeleven
themostfleetingmentalobjects.IdroppedintoastateinwhichIlostallsenseof
thebody,ofanyinternal/externalsounds,orofanythoughtsorperceptionsat
allalthoughtherewasjustenoughtinyawarenesstoletmeknow,whenI
emerged,thatIhadntbeenasleep.IfoundthatIcouldstaythereformany
hours,andyettimewouldpassveryquickly.Twohourswouldseemliketwo
minutes.Icouldalsoprogrammyselftocomeoutataparticulartime.
Afterhittingthisstateseveralnightsinarow,ItoldAjaanFuangaboutit,
andhisfirstquestionwas,Doyoulikeit?MyanswerwasNo,becauseIfelt
alittlegroggythefirsttimeIcameout.Good,hesaid.Aslongasyoudont
likeit,youresafe.Somepeoplereallylikeitandthinkitsnibbanaorcessation.
Actually,itsthestateofnonperception(asaibhava).Itsnotevenright
concentration,becausetheresnowayyoucaninvestigateanythinginthereto
gainanysortofdiscernment.Butitdoeshaveotheruses.Hethentoldmeofthe
timehehadundergonekidneysurgeryand,nottrustingtheanesthesiologist,
hadputhimselfinthatstateforthedurationoftheoperation.
Inboththesestatesofwrongconcentration,thelimitedrangeofawareness
waswhatmadethemwrong.Ifwholeareasofyourawarenessareblockedoff,
howcanyougainallaroundinsight?AndasIvenoticedinyearssince,people
adeptatblottingoutlargeareasofawarenessthroughpowerfulonepointedness
alsotendtobepsychologicallyadeptatdissociationanddenial.Thisiswhy
AjaanFuang,followingAjaanLee,taughtaformofbreathmeditationthataimed
atanallaroundawarenessofthebreathenergythroughoutthebody,playing
withittogainasenseofease,andthencalmingitsothatitwouldntinterfere
withaclearvisionofthesubtlemovementsofthemind.Thisallaround
awarenesshelpedtoeliminatetheblindspotswhereignorancelikestolurk.
Anidealstateofconcentrationforgivingrisetoinsightisonethatyoucananalyze
intermsofstressandtheabsenceofstressevenwhileyoureinit.Onceyourmindwas
firmlyestablishedinastateofconcentration,AjaanFuangwouldrecommend
liftingitfromitsobject,butnotsofarthattheconcentrationwasdestroyed.
Fromthatperspective,youcouldevaluatewhatlevelsofstresswerestillpresent
intheconcentrationandletthemgo.Intheinitialstages,thisusuallyinvolved

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evaluatinghowyouwererelatingtothebreath,anddetectingmoresubtlelevels
ofbreathenergyinthebodythatwouldprovideabasisfordeeperlevelsof
stillness.Oncethebreathwasperfectlystill,andthesenseofthebodystarted
dissolvingintoaformlessmist,thisprocesswouldinvolvedetectingthe
perceptionsofspace,knowing,oneness,etc.,thatwouldappearinplaceof
thebodyandcouldbepeeledawaylikethelayersofanonioninthemind.In
eithercase,thebasicpatternwasthesame:detectingthelevelofperceptionor
mentalfabricationthatwascausingtheunnecessarystress,anddroppingitfora
moresubtlelevelofperceptionorfabricationuntiltherewasnothinglefttodrop.
Thiswaswhy,aslongasyourawarenesswasstillandalertallaround,it
didntmatterwhetheryouwereinthefirstorthefourteenthjhana,fortheway
youtreatedyourstateofconcentrationwasalwaysthesame.Bydirectingyour
attentiontoissuesofstressanditsabsence,hewaspointingyoutotermsby
whichtoevaluateyourstateofmindforyourself,withouthavingtoaskany
outsideauthority.And,asitturnsout,thetermsyoucanevaluateforyourself
stress,itscause,itscessation,andthepathtoitscessationaretheissuesthat
definethefournobletruths:therightviewthattheBuddhasayscanleadtototal
liberation.

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TheIntegrityofEmptiness

Forallthesubtletyofhisteachings,theBuddhahadasimpletestfor
measuringwisdom.Yourewise,hesaid,totheextentthatyoucangetyourself
todothingsyoudontlikedoingbutknowwillresultinhappiness,andto
refrainfromthingsyoulikedoingbutknowwillresultinpainandharm.
Hederivedthisstandardforwisdomfromhisinsightintotheradical
importanceofintentionalactioninshapingourexperienceofhappinessand
sorrow,pleasureandpain.Withactionsoimportantandyetsofrequently
misguided,wisdomhastobetactical,strategic,infosteringactionsthataretruly
beneficial.Ithastooutwitshortsightedpreferencestoyieldahappinessthat
lasts.
BecausetheBuddhaviewedallissuesofexperience,fromthegrosstothe
subtle,intermsofintentionalactionsandtheirresults,histacticalstandardfor
wisdomappliestoalllevelsaswell,fromthewisdomofsimplegenerositytothe
wisdomofemptinessandultimateAwakening.Wisdomonalllevelsiswise
becauseitworks.Itmakesadifferenceinwhatyoudoandthehappinessthat
results.Andtowork,itrequiresintegrity:thewillingnesstolookhonestlyatthe
resultsofyouractions,toadmitwhenyouvecausedharm,andtochangeyour
wayssothatyouwontmakethesamemistakeagain.
Whatsstrikingaboutthisstandardforwisdomishowdirectanddownto
earthitis.Thismightcomeasasurprise,formostofusdontthinkofBuddhist
wisdomassocommonsensicalandstraightforward.Instead,thephrase
Buddhistwisdomconjuresupteachingsmoreabstractandparadoxical,flying
inthefaceofcommonsenseemptinessbeingaprimeexample.Emptiness,
weretold,meansthatnothinghasanyinherentexistence.Inotherwords,onan
ultimatelevel,thingsarentwhatweconventionallythinkofasthings.Theyre
processesthatareinnowayseparatefromalltheotherprocessesonwhichthey
depend.Thisisaphilosophicallysophisticatedideathatsfascinatingtoponder,
butitdoesntprovidemuchobvioushelpingettingyouupearlyonacold
morningtomeditatenorinconvincingyoutogiveupadestructiveaddiction.
Forexample,ifyoureaddictedtoalcohol,itsnotbecauseyoufeelthatthe
alcoholhasanyinherentexistence.Itsbecause,inyourcalculation,the
immediatepleasurederivedfromthealcoholoutweighsthelongtermdamage
itsdoingtoyourlife.Thisisageneralprinciple:attachmentandaddictionare
notmetaphysicalproblems.Theyretacticalones.Wereattachedtothingsand
actions,notbecauseofwhatwethinktheyare,butbecauseofwhatwethinkthey

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candoforourhappiness.Ifwekeepoverestimatingthepleasureand
underestimatingthepaintheybring,westayattachedtothemregardlessof
what,inanultimatesense,weunderstandthemtobe.
Becausetheproblemistactical,thesolutionhastobetacticalaswell.Thecure
foraddictionandattachmentliesinretrainingyourimaginationandyour
intentionsthroughexpandingyoursenseofthepowerofyouractionsandthe
possiblehappinessyoucanachieve.Thismeanslearningtobecomemorehonest
andsensitivetoyouractionsandtheirconsequences,atthesametimeallowing
yourselftoimagineandmasteralternativeroutestogreaterhappinesswith
fewerdrawbacks.Metaphysicalviewsmaysometimesenterintotheequation,
butatmosttheyreonlysecondary.Manytimestheyreirrelevant.Evenifyou
weretoseethealcoholanditspleasureaslackinginherentexistence,youdstill
goforthepleasureaslongasyousawitasoutweighingthedamage.Sometimes
ideasofmetaphysicalemptinesscanactuallybeharmful.Ifyoustartfocusingon
howthedamageofdrinkingandthepeopledamagedbyyourdrinkingare
emptyofinherentexistence,youcoulddeveloparationaleforcontinuingto
drink.Sotheteachingonmetaphysicalemptinesswouldntseemtopassthe
Buddhasowntestforwisdom.
Theironyhereisthattheideaofemptinessaslackofinherentexistencehas
verylittletodowithwhattheBuddhahimselfsaidaboutemptiness.His
teachingsonemptinessasreportedintheearliestBuddhisttexts,thePali
Canondealdirectlywithactionsandtheirresults,withissuesofpleasureand
pain.Tounderstandandexperienceemptinessinlinewiththeseteachings
requiresnotphilosophicalsophistication,butapersonalintegritywillingto
admittheactualmotivationsbehindyouractionsandtheactualbenefitsand
harmtheycause.Forthesereasons,thisversionofemptinessisveryrelevantin
developingthesortofwisdomthatwouldpasstheBuddhascommonsensical
testformeasuringhowwiseyouare.
TheBuddhasteachingsonemptinesscontainedintwomajordiscourses
andseveralsmalleronesdefineitinthreedistinctways:asanapproachto
meditation,asanattributeofthesensesandtheirobjects,andasastateof
concentration.Althoughtheseformsofemptinessdifferintheirdefinitions,they
ultimatelyconvergeonthesameroutetoreleasefromsuffering.Toseehowthis
happens,wewillneedtoexaminethethreemeaningsofemptinessonebyone.
Indoingso,wellfindthateachofthemappliestheBuddhascommonsensical
testforwisdomtosubtleactionsofthemind.Buttounderstandhowthistest
appliestothissubtlelevel,wefirsthavetoseehowitappliestoactionsona
moreobviouslevel.Forthat,theresnobetterintroductionthantheBuddhas
advicetohisson,Rahula,onhowtocultivatewisdomwhileengaginginthe
activitiesofeverydaylife.

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EverydayWisdom

TheBuddhatoldRahulawhowassevenatthetimetousehisthoughts,
words,anddeedsasamirror.Inotherwords,justasyouwoulduseamirrorto
checkforanydirtonyourface,Rahulawastousehisactionsasameansof
learningwheretherewasstillanythingimpureinhismind.Beforeheacted,he
shouldtrytoanticipatetheresultsoftheaction.Ifhesawthattheydbeharmful
tohimselfortoothers,heshouldntfollowthroughwiththeaction.Ifheforesaw
noharm,hecouldgoaheadandact.If,inthecourseofdoingtheaction,hesaw
itcausingunexpectedharm,heshouldstoptheaction.Ifhedidntseeanyharm,
hecouldcontinuewithit.
If,afterhewasdone,hesawanylongtermharmresultingfromtheaction,he
shouldconsultwithanotherpersononthepathtogetsomeperspectiveonwhat
hehaddoneandonhownottodoitagainandthenresolvenottorepeatthat
mistake.Inotherwords,heshouldnotfeelembarrassedorashamedtorevealhis
mistakestopeopleherespected,forifhestartedhidinghismistakesfromthem,
hewouldsoonstarthidingthemfromhimself.If,ontheotherhand,hesawno
harmresultingfromtheaction,heshouldrejoiceinhisprogressinthepractice
andcontinuewithhistraining.
Therightnameforthisreflectionisnotselfpurification.Itsaction
purification.Youdeflectjudgmentsofgoodandbadawayfromyoursenseof
self,wheretheycantieyoudownwithconceitandguilt.Instead,youfocus
directlyontheactionsthemselves,wherethejudgmentscanallowyoutolearn
fromyourmistakesandtofindahealthyjoyinwhatyoudidright.
Whenyoukeepreflectinginthisway,itservesmanypurposes.Firstand
foremost,itforcesyoutobehonestaboutyourintentionsandabouttheeffectsof
youractions.Honestyhereisasimpleprinciple:youdontaddanyafterthefact
rationalizationstocoverupwhatyouactuallydid,nordoyoutrytosubtract
fromtheactualfactsthroughdenial.Becauseyoureapplyingthishonestyto
areaswherethenormalreactionistobeembarrassedaboutorafraidofthetruth,
itsmorethanasimpleregisteringofthefacts.Italsorequiresmoralintegrity.
ThisiswhytheBuddhastressedmoralityasapreconditionforwisdom,and
declaredthehighestmoralprincipletobethepreceptagainstlying.Ifyoudont
makeahabitofadmittinguncomfortabletruths,thetruthasawholewillelude
you.
Thesecondpurposeofthisreflectionistoemphasizethepowerofyouractions.
Youseethatyouractionsdomakethedifferencebetweenpleasureandpain.
Third,yougainpracticeinlearningfromyourmistakeswithoutshameor
remorse.Fourth,yourealizethatthemorehonestyouareinevaluatingyour

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actions,themorepoweryouhavetochangeyourwaysinapositivedirection.
Andfinally,youdevelopgoodwillandcompassion,inthatyouresolvetoact
onlyonintentionsthatmeannoharmtoanyone,andyoucontinuallyfocuson
developingtheskillofharmlessnessasyourtoppriority.
Alloftheselessonsarenecessarytodevelopthekindofwisdommeasuredby
theBuddhastestforwisdom;and,asitturnsout,theyredirectlyrelatedtothe
firstmeaningofemptiness,asanapproachtomeditation.Infact,thissortof
emptinesssimplytakestheinstructionsRahulareceivedforobservingeveryday
actionsandextendsthemtotheactofperceptionwithinthemind.

EmptinessasanApproachtoMeditation

Emptinessasanapproachtomeditationisthemostbasicofthethreekindsof
emptiness.Inthecontextofthisapproach,emptinessmeansemptyof
disturbanceor,toputitinotherterms,emptyofstress.Youbringthemindto
concentrationandthenexamineyourstateofconcentrationinordertodetectthe
presenceorabsenceofsubtledisturbanceorstressstillinherentwithinthatstate.
Whenyoufindadisturbance,youfollowitbacktotheperceptionthemental
labeloractofrecognitiononwhichtheconcentrationisbased.Then,youdrop
thatperceptioninfavorofamorerefinedone,oneleadingtoastateof
concentrationwithlessinherentdisturbance.
Inthediscourseexplainingthismeaningofemptiness(MN121),theBuddha
introduceshisexplanationwithasimile.HeandAnandaaredwellinginan
abandonedpalacethatisnowaquietmonastery.TheBuddhatellsAnandato
noticeandappreciatehowthemonasteryisemptyofthedisturbancesit
containedwhenitwasstillusedasapalacethedisturbancescausedbygold
andsilver,elephantsandhorses,assembliesofwomenandmen.Theonly
disturbanceremainingisthatcausedbythepresenceofthemonksmeditatingin
unity.
Takingthisobservationasasimile,theBuddhalaunchesintohisdescription
ofemptinessasanapproachtomeditation.(Thesimileisreinforcedbythefact
thatthePaliwordformonasteryordwellingviharaalsomeansattitude
orapproach.)Hedescribesamonkmeditatinginthewildernesswhoissimply
notingtohimselfthatheisnowinthewilderness.Themonkallowshismindto
concentrateonandenjoytheperception,wilderness.Hethenstepsback
mentallytoobserveandappreciatethatthismodeofperceptionisemptyofthe
disturbancesthatcomewithperceptionsofthevillagelifehehasleftbehind.The
onlyremainingdisturbancesarethoseassociatedwiththeperception,
wildernessforexample,anyemotionalreactionstothedangersthat
wildernessmightentail.AstheBuddhasays,themonkseesaccuratelywhich

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disturbancesarenotpresentinthatmodeofperception;asforthoseremaining,
heseesaccurately,Thereisthis.Inotherwords,headdsnothingtowhatis
thereandtakesnothingaway.Thisishowheentersintoameditativeemptiness
thatispureandundistorted.
Then,notingthedisturbancesinherentintheactoffocusingonwilderness,
themonkdropsthatperceptionandreplacesitwithamorerefinedperception,
onewithlesspotentialforarousingdisturbance.Hechoosestheearthelement,
banishingfromhismindanydetailsofthehillsandravinesoftheearth,simply
takingnoteofitsearthness.Herepeatstheprocessheappliedtotheperception
ofwildernesssettlingintotheperceptionofearth,fullyindulginginit,and
thensteppingbacktonoticehowthedisturbancesassociatedwithwilderness
arenowgone,whiletheonlyremainingdisturbancesarethoseassociatedwith
thesinglenessofmindbasedontheperceptionofearth.
Hethenrepeatsthesameprocesswithevermorerefinedperceptions,settling
intotheformlessjhanas,ormeditativeabsorptions:infinitespace,infinite
consciousness,nothingness,neitherperceptionnornonperception,andthe
objectlessconcentrationofawareness.
Finally,seeingthateventhisobjectlessconcentrationofawarenessis
fabricatedandwilled,hedropshisdesiretocontinuementallyfabricating
anythingatall.Inthiswayheisreleasedfromthementalfermentations
sensualdesire,becoming,views,ignorancethatwouldbubbleupintofurther
becoming.Heobservesthatthisreleasestillhasthedisturbancesthatcomewith
thefunctioningofthesixsensespheres,butthatitsemptyofallfermentation,all
potentialforfurthersufferingandstress.This,concludestheBuddha,istheentry
intoapureandundistortedemptinessthatissuperiorandunsurpassed.Itsthe
emptinessinwhichhehimselfdwellsandthat,throughouttime,hasneverbeen
noreverwillbeexcelled.
Throughoutthisdescription,emptinessmeansonething:emptyof
disturbanceorstress.Themeditatoristaughttoappreciatethelackof
disturbanceasapositiveaccomplishment,andtoseeanyremainingdisturbance
createdbythemind,howeversubtle,asaproblemtobesolved.
Whenyouunderstanddisturbanceasasubtleformofharm,youseethe
connectionsbetweenthisdescriptionofemptinessandtheBuddhasinstructions
toRahula.Insteadofregardinghismeditativestatesasameasureofselfidentity
orselfworthinhavingdevelopedaselfthatspurer,moreexpansive,moreat
onewiththegroundofbeingthemonkviewsthemsimplyintermsofactions
andtheirconsequences.Andthesameprinciplesapplyhere,onthemeditative
level,asapplyintheBuddhascommentstoRahulaonactioningeneral.
Here,theactionistheperceptionthatunderliesyourstateofmeditative
concentration.Yousettleintothestatebyrepeatingtheactionofperception

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continuallyuntilyouarethoroughlyfamiliarwithit.JustasRahuladiscovered
theconsequencesofhisactionsbyobservingtheobviousharmdonetohimself
ortoothers,hereyoudiscovertheconsequencesofconcentratingonthe
perceptionbyseeinghowmuchdisturbancearisesfromthementalaction.As
yousensedisturbance,youcanchangeyourmentalaction,movingyour
concentrationtoamorerefinedperception,untilultimatelyyoucanstopthe
fabricationofmentalstatesaltogether.
Atthecoreofthismeditationpracticearetwoimportantprinciplesderived
fromtheinstructionstoRahula.Thefirstishonesty:theabilitytobefreeof
embellishmentordenial,addingnointerpretationtothedisturbanceactually
present,whileatthesametimenottryingtodenythatitsthere.Anintegralpart
ofthishonestyistheabilitytoseethingssimplyasactionandresult,without
readingintothemtheconceitIam.
Thesecondprincipleiscompassionthedesiretoendsufferinginthatyou
keeptryingtoabandonthecausesofstressanddisturbancewhereveryoufind
them.Theeffectsofthiscompassionextendnotonlytoyourself,buttoothersas
well.Whenyoudontweighyourselfdownwithstress,yourelesslikelytobea
burdentoothers;yourealsoinabetterpositiontohelpshouldertheirburdens
whenneedbe.Inthisway,theprinciplesofintegrityandcompassionunderlie
eventhemostsubtleexpressionsofthewisdomleadingtorelease.
Thisprocessofdevelopingemptinessofdisturbanceisnotnecessarily
smoothandstraightforward.Itkeepsrequiringthestrengthofwillneededto
giveupanyattachment.Thisisbecauseanessentialstepingettingtoknowthe
meditativeperceptionasanactionislearningtosettleintoit,toindulgeinitin
otherwords,toenjoyitthoroughly,eventothepointofattachment.Thisisone
oftherolesoftranquilityinmeditation.Ifyoudontlearntoenjoythemeditation
enoughtokeepatitconsistently,youwontgrowfamiliarwithit.Ifyouarent
familiarwithit,insightintoitsconsequenceswontarise.
However,unlessyouvealreadyhadpracticeusingtheRahulainstructionsto
overcomegrosserattachments,thenevenifyougaininsightintothe
disturbancescausedbyyourattachmenttoconcentration,yourinsightwilllack
integrity.Becauseyouhaventhadanypracticewithmoreblatantattachments,
youwontbeabletoprylooseyoursubtleattachmentsinareliableway.You
firstneedtodevelopthemoralhabitoflookingatyouractionsandtheir
consequences,believingfirmlythroughexperienceintheworthofrefraining
fromharm,howeversubtle.Onlythenwillyouhavetheskillneededtodevelop
emptinessasanapproachtomeditationinapureandundistortedwaythatwill
carryyouallthewaytoitsintendedgoal.

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EmptinessasanAttributeoftheSensesandtheirObjects

Emptinessasanattribute,whenusedasadeparturepointforpractice,leads
toasimilarprocessbutbyadifferentroute.Whereasemptinessasanapproach
tomeditationfocusesonissuesofdisturbanceandstress,emptinessasan
attributefocusesonissuesofselfandnotself.Andwhereasemptinessasan
approachtomeditationstartswithtranquility,emptinessasanattributestarts
withinsight.
TheBuddhadescribesthiskindofemptinessinashortdiscourse(SN
XXXV.85).Again,Anandaishisinterlocutor,openingthediscoursewitha
question:Inwhatwayistheworldempty?TheBuddhaanswersthateachofthe
sixsensesandtheirobjectsareemptyofonesselforanythingpertainingtoones
self.
Thediscoursegivesnofurtherexplanation,butrelateddiscoursesshowthat
thisinsightcanbeputintopracticeinoneoftwoways.Thefirstistoreflecton
whattheBuddhasaysaboutselfandhowideasofselfcanbeunderstoodas
formsofmentalactivity.Thesecondway,whichwewilldiscussinthenext
section,istodeveloptheperceptionofallthingsbeingemptyofonesselfasa
basisforastateofrefinedconcentration.However,asweshallsee,bothofthese
tacticsultimatelyleadbacktousingthefirstformofemptiness,asanapproach
tomeditation,tocompletethepathtoawakening.
Whentalkingaboutself,theBuddharefusedtosaywhetheritexistsornot,
buthegaveadetaileddescriptionofhowtheminddevelopstheideaofselfasa
strategybasedoncraving.Inourdesireforhappiness,werepeatedlyengagein
whattheBuddhacallsImakingandmymakingaswaysoftryingto
exercisecontroloverpleasureandpain.BecauseImakingandmymakingare
actions,theyfallunderthepurviewoftheBuddhasinstructionstoRahula.
Wheneveryouengageinthem,youshouldchecktoseewhethertheyleadto
affliction;iftheydo,youshouldabandonthem.
Thisisalessonthat,onablatantlevel,welearnevenaschildren.Ifyoulay
claimtoapieceofcandybelongingtoyoursister,youregoingtogetintoafight.
Ifshesbiggerthanyou,youddobetternottoclaimthecandyasyours.Muchof
ourpracticaleducationaswegrowupliesindiscoveringwhereitsbeneficialto
createasenseofselfaroundsomething,andwhereitsnot.
IfyoulearntoapproachyourImakingandmymakinginthelightofthe
Rahulainstructions,yougreatlyrefinethisaspectofyoureducation,asyoufind
yourselfforcedtobemorehonest,discerning,andcompassionateinseeing
whereanIisaliability,andwhereitsaasset.Onablatantlevel,youdiscover
thatwhiletherearemanyareaswhereIandmineleadonlytouseless
conflicts,thereareotherswheretheyrebeneficial.ThesenseofIthatleadsyou

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tobegenerousandprincipledinyouractionsisanIworthmaking,worth
masteringasaskill.So,too,isthesenseofIthatcanassumeresponsibilityfor
youractions,andcanbewillingtosacrificeasmallpleasureinthepresentfora
greaterhappinessinthefuture.ThiskindofI,withpractice,leadsawayfrom
afflictionandtowardincreasinglevelsofhappiness.ThisistheIthatwill
eventuallyleadyoutopracticemeditation,foryouseethelongtermbenefits
thatcomefromtrainingyourpowersofmindfulness,concentration,and
discernment.
However,asmeditationrefinesyoursensitivity,youbegintonoticethe
subtlelevelsofafflictionanddisturbancethatImakingandmymakingcan
createinthemind.Theycangetyouattachedtoastateofcalm,sothatyou
resentanyintrusionsonmycalm.Theycangetyouattachedtoyourinsights,
sothatyoudeveloppridearoundmyinsights.Thiscanblockfurtherprogress,
forthesenseofIandminecanblindyoutothesubtlestressonwhichthe
calmandinsightsarebased.IfyouvehadtraininginfollowingtheRahula
instructions,though,youllcometoappreciatetheadvantagesoflearningtosee
eventhecalmandtheinsightsasemptyofselforanythingpertainingtoself.
Thatistheessenceofthissecondtypeofemptiness.Whenyouremovelabelsof
Iormineevenfromyourowninsightsandmentalstates,howdoyousee
them?Simplyasinstancesofstressarisingandpassingawaydisturbance
arisingandpassingawaywithnothingelseaddedortakenaway.Asyou
pursuethismodeofperception,youreadoptingthefirstformofemptiness,as
anapproachtomeditation.

EmptinessasaStateofConcentration

ThethirdkindofemptinesstaughtbytheBuddhaasastateof
concentrationisessentiallyanotherwayofusinginsightintoemptinessasan
attributeofthesensesandtheirobjectsasameanstoattainrelease.One
discourse(MN43)describesitasfollows:Amonkgoestositinaquietplaceand
intentionallyperceivesthesixsensesandtheirobjectsasemptyofselfor
anythingpertainingtoself.Ashepursuesthisperception,itbringshismindnot
directlytorelease,buttotheformlessjhanaofnothingness,whichis
accompaniedbystrongequanimity.
Anotherdiscourse(MN106)pursuesthistopicfurther,notingthatthemonk
relishestheequanimity.Ifhesimplykeepsonrelishingit,hismeditationgoesno
furtherthanthat.Butifhelearnstoseethatequanimityasanactionfabricated,
willedhecanlookforthesubtlestressitengenders.Ifhecanobservethisstress
asitarisesandpassesawaysimplyonitsownterms,neitheraddinganyother
perceptionstoitnortakinganythingaway,hesagainadoptingemptinessasan

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approachtohismeditation.Bydroppingthecausesofstresswhereverhefinds
theminhisconcentration,heultimatelyreachesthehighestformofemptiness,
freefromallmentalfabrication.

TheWisdomofEmptiness

Thusthelasttwotypesofemptinessultimatelyleadbacktothefirst
emptinessasanapproachtomeditationwhichmeansthatallthreetypesof
emptinessultimatelyleadtothesamedestination.Whethertheyinterpret
emptinessasmeaningemptyofdisturbance(suffering/stress)oremptyofself,
whethertheyencouragefosteringinsightthroughtranquilityortranquility
throughinsight,theyallculminateinapracticethatcompletesthetasks
appropriatetothefournobletruths:comprehendingstress,abandoningits
cause,realizingitscessation,anddevelopingthepathtothatcessation.
Completingthesetasksleadstorelease.
Whatsdistinctiveaboutthisprocessisthewayitgrowsoutoftheprinciples
ofactionpurificationthattheBuddhataughttoRahula,applyingthese
principlestoeverystepofthepracticefromthemostelementarytothemost
refined.AstheBuddhatoldRahula,theseprinciplesaretheonlypossiblemeans
bywhichpuritycanbeattained.Althoughmostexplanationsofthisstatement
definepurityaspurityofvirtue,theBuddhasdiscussionofemptinessasan
approachtomeditationshowsthatpurityheremeanspurityofmindandpurity
ofwisdomaswell.Everyaspectofthetrainingispurifiedbyviewingitinterms
ofactionsandconsequences,whichhelpstodeveloptheintegritythatswilling
toadmittounskillfulactions,andthematuregoodwillthatkeepsaimingat
consequencesentailingeverlessharm,disturbance,andstress.
Thisiswherethissortofemptinessdiffersfromthemetaphysicaldefinition
ofemptinessaslackofinherentexistence.Whereasthatviewofemptiness
doesntnecessarilyinvolveintegrityitsanattempttodescribetheultimate
truthofthenatureofthings,ratherthantoevaluateactionsthisapproachto
emptinessrequireshonestlyevaluatingyourmentalactionsandtheirresults.
Integrityisthusintegraltoitsmastery.
Inthisway,thehighestlevelsofwisdomanddiscernmentgrowprimarilynot
fromthetypeofknowledgefosteredbydebateandlogicalanalysis,norfromthe
typefosteredbybareawarenessormerenoting.Theygrowfromtheknowledge
fosteredbyintegrity,devoidofconceit,coupledwithcompassionandgoodwill.
Thereasonforthisissoobviousthatitsoftenmissed:ifyouregoingtoput
anendtosuffering,youneedthecompassiontoseethatthisisaworthwhile
goal,andtheintegritytoadmitthesufferingyouveheedlesslyandneedlessly
causedthroughoutthepast.Theignorancethatgivesrisetosufferingoccursnot

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becauseyoudontknowenoughorarenotphilosophicallysophisticatedenough
tounderstandthetruemeaningofemptiness.Itcomesfrombeingunwillingto
admitthatwhatyoureobviouslydoingrightbeforeyourveryeyesiscausing
suffering.Thisiswhyawakeningdestroysconceit:itawakensyoutothefull
extentofthewillfulblindnessthathaskeptyoucomplicitinunskillfulbehavior
allalong.Itsachasteningexperience.Theonlyhonestthingtodoinresponseto
thisexperienceistoopentorelease.Thatstheemptinessthatssuperiorand
unsurpassed.
Inbuildingthepathtothisemptinessonthesameprinciplesthatunderliethe
moreelementarylevelsofactionpurification,theBuddhamanagedtoavoid
creatingartificialdichotomiesbetweenconventionalandultimatetruthsinthe
practice.Forthisreason,hisapproachtoultimatewisdomhelpsvalidatethe
moreelementarylevelsaswell.Whenyourealizethatanundistorted
understandingofemptinessdependsontheskillsyoudevelopinadoptinga
responsible,honest,andkindattitudetowardallyouractions,youremorelikely
tobringthisattitudetoeverythingyoudogrossorsubtle.Yougivemore
importancetoallyouractionsandtheirconsequences,yougivemoreimportance
toyoursenseofintegrity,foryourealizethatthesethingsaredirectlyrelatedto
theskillsleadingtototalrelease.Youcantdevelopathrowawayattitudetoyour
actionsandtheirconsequences,forifyoudoyourethrowingawayyourchances
foratrueandunconditionalhappiness.Theskillsyouneedtotalkyourselfinto
meditatingonacold,darkmorning,orintoresistingadrinkonalazyafternoon,
arethesameonesthatwilleventuallyguaranteeanundistortedrealizationofthe
highestpeace.
ThisishowtheBuddhasteachingsonemptinessencourageyoutoexercise
wisdomineverythingyoudo.

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AVerbforNirvana

BackinthedaysoftheBuddha,nirvana(nibbana)hadaverbofitsown:
nibbuti.Itmeanttogoout,likeaflame.Becausefirewasthoughttobeina
stateofentrapmentasitburnedbothclingingtoandtrappedbythefuelon
whichitfeditsgoingoutwasseenasanunbinding.Togooutwastobe
unbound.Sometimesanotherverbwasusedparinibbutiwiththepari
meaningtotalorallaround,toindicatethatthepersonunbound,unlikefire
unbound,wouldneveragainbetrapped.
NowthatnirvanahasbecomeanEnglishword,itshouldhaveitsown
Englishverbtoconveythesenseofbeingunboundaswell.Atpresent,wesay
thatapersonreachesnirvanaorentersnirvana,implyingthatnibbanaisa
placewhereyoucango.Butnirvanaismostemphaticallynotaplace.Its
realizedonlywhenthemindstopsdefiningitselfintermsofplace:ofhere,or
there,orbetweenthetwo.
Thismayseemlikeawordchoppersproblemwhatcanaverbortwodoto
yourpractice?buttheideaofnirvanaasaplacehascreatedsevere
misunderstandingsinthepast,anditcouldeasilycreatemisunderstandings
now.TherewasatimewhensomephilosophersinIndiareasonedthatifnirvana
isoneplaceandsamsaraanother,thenenteringintonirvanaleavesyoustuck:
youvelimitedyourrangeofmovement,foryoucantgetbacktosamsara.Thus
tosolvethisproblemtheyinventedwhattheythoughtwasanewkindof
nirvana:anunestablishednirvana,inwhichonecouldbeinbothplaces
nirvanaandsamsaraatonce.
However,thesephilosophersmisunderstoodtwoimportantpointsaboutthe
Buddhasteachings.Thefirstwasthatneithersamsaranornirvanaisaplace.
Samsaraisaprocessofcreatingplaces,evenwholeworlds,(thisiscalled
becoming)andthenwanderingthroughthem(thisiscalledbirth).Nirvanaisthe
endofthisprocess.Youmaybeabletobeintwoplacesatonceifyoursenseof
selfisinfiniteenough,youcanoccupytheentiretyofspaceallatoncebutyou
cantfeedaprocessandexperienceitsendatthesametime.Youreeither
feedingsamsaraoryourenot.Ifyoufeeltheneedtocoursefreelythroughboth
samsaraandnirvana,youresimplyengaginginmoresamsaraingandkeeping
yourselftrapped.
Thesecondpointisthatnirvana,fromtheverybeginning,wasrealized
throughunestablishedconsciousnessonethatdoesntcomeorgoorstayin

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place.Theresnowaythatanythingunestablishedcangetstuckanywhereatall,
foritsnotonlynonlocalizedbutalsoundefined.
Theideaofareligiousidealaslyingbeyondspaceanddefinitionisnot
exclusivetotheBuddhasteachings,butissuesoflocalityanddefinition,inthe
Buddhaseyes,hadaspecificpsychologicalmeaning.Thisiswhythenon
localityofnirvanaisimportanttounderstand.
Justasallphenomenaarerootedindesire,consciousnesslocalizesitself
throughpassion.Passioniswhatcreatesthethereonwhichconsciousnesscan
landorgetestablished,whetherthethereisaform,feeling,perception,
thoughtconstruct,oratypeofconsciousnessitself.Onceconsciousnessgets
establishedonanyoftheseaggregates,itbecomesattachedandthenproliferates,
feedingoneverythingarounditandcreatingallsortsofhavoc.Wherevertheres
attachment,thatswhereyougetdefinedasabeing.Youcreateanidentitythere,
andinsodoingyourelimitedthere.Evenifthethereisaninfinitesenseof
awarenessgrounding,surrounding,orpermeatingeverythingelse,itsstill
limited,forgroundingandsoforthareaspectsofplace.Wherevertheres
place,nomatterhowsubtle,passionlieslatent,lookingformorefoodtofeedon.
If,however,thepassioncanberemoved,theresnomoretherethere.One
suttaillustratesthiswithasimile:thesunshiningthroughtheeasternwallofa
houseandlandingonthewesternwall.Ifthewesternwall,thegroundbeneath
it,andthewatersbeneaththegroundwereallremoved,thesunlightwouldnt
land.Inthesameway,ifpassionforform,etc.,couldberemoved,consciousness
wouldhavenowheretoland,andsowouldbecomeunestablished.This
doesntmeanthatconsciousnesswouldbeannihilated,simplythatlikethe
sunlightitwouldnowhavenolocality.Withnolocality,itwouldnolongerbe
defined.
Thisiswhytheconsciousnessofnirvanaissaidtobewithoutsurface
(anidassanam),foritdoesntland.Becausetheconsciousnessaggregatecovers
onlyconsciousnessthatisnearorfar,past,present,orfuturei.e.,inconnection
withspaceandtimeconsciousnesswithoutsurfaceisnotincludedinthe
aggregates.Itsnoteternalbecauseeternityisafunctionoftime.Andbecause
nonlocalalsomeansundefined,theBuddhainsistedthatanawakenedperson
unlikeordinarypeoplecantbelocatedordefinedinanyrelationtothe
aggregatesinthislife;afterdeath,he/shecantbedescribedasexisting,not
existing,neither,orboth,becausedescriptionscanapplyonlytodefinablethings.
Theessentialsteptowardthisnonlocal,undefinedrealizationistocutback
ontheproliferationsofconsciousness.Thisfirstinvolvescontemplatingthe
drawbacksofkeepingconsciousnesstrappedintheprocessoffeeding.This
contemplationgivesurgencytothenextsteps:bringingthemindtoonenessin
concentration,graduallyrefiningthatoneness,andthendroppingittozero.The

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drawbacksoffeedingaremostgraphicallydescribedinSNXII.63,ASonsFlesh.
TheprocessofgraduallyrefiningonenessisprobablybestdescribedinMN121,
TheLesserDiscourseonEmptiness,whilethedroptozeroisbestdescribedinthe
BuddhasfamousinstructionstoBahiya:Inreferencetotheseen,therewillbe
onlytheseen.Inreferencetotheheard,onlytheheard.Inreferencetothe
sensed,onlythesensed.Inreferencetothecognized,onlythecognized.Thatis
howyoushouldtrainyourself.Whenforyoutherewillbeonlytheseenin
referencetotheseen,onlytheheardinreferencetotheheard,onlythesensedin
referencetothesensed,onlythecognizedinreferencetothecognized,then,
Bahiya,thereisnoyouinconnectionwiththat.Whenthereisnoyouin
connectionwiththat,thereisnoyouthere.Whenthereisnoyouthere,youare
neitherherenoryondernorbetweenthetwo.This,justthis,istheendofstress.
Withnohereorthereorbetweenthetwo,youobviouslycantusetheverb
enterorreachtodescribethisrealization.Maybeweshouldmaketheword
nirvanaintoaverbitself:Whenthereisnoyouinconnectionwiththat,you
nirvana.Thatwaywecanindicatethatunbindingisanactionunlikeanyother,
andwecanheadoffanymistakennotionaboutgettingstuckintotalfreedom.

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ThePracticeinaWord

TheBuddhacouldhaveconcludedhisteachingcareerwithsomeinspiring
wordsontheblissofnirvanaoremptiness,buthedidnt.Heendedwiththis
pieceofadvice:Achievecompletionthroughappamada.CommonEnglish
translationsofthroughappamadasuchasuntiringly,earnestly,with
diligenceconveythenotionofsustained,determinedeffort.Thesegivethe
impressionthattheBuddhaslastmessagewastostickwiththepractice.
TranslationsofthephraseintovariousAsianlanguages,though,giveita
differenttwist.SriLankancommentariestranslateappamadaasunrelaxed
mindfulness;Thaisinterpretitasheedfulness,vigilance,wariness,care.Inthese
interpretations,theBuddhawasntsimplysayingtopersevere.Hewassaying,
Dontbecomplacent.Watchoutfordanger.Dontgetcaughtwithyourguard
down.
TheseinterpretationshelpmakesenseofotherinstanceswheretheBuddha
stressedtheimportanceofappamada,aswhenhesaidthatappamadaisthepath
totheDeathless,orthatallskillfulqualitiesofmindarerootedinappamada,
convergeinappamada,andhaveappamadaastheforemostamongthem.Mere
sustainedeffortcantfilltheroleofappamadainthesepassages,foreffort
withoutwisdomcanwreakallsortsofhavoc.Vigilanceandheedfulness,
however,providetheperspectiveneededtokeepeffortontherighttrack:
keepinguswaryofourpotentialforcausingpointlesssufferingforourselves
andothers,andteachingustotrustinourabilityifwetaketheappropriate
caretobringthosesufferingstoanend.
Thiscombinedsenseofwarinessandtrustisbasedonconvictionofthe
principleofkarma:thatouractionsreallydomakeadifference,thatthe
differencebetweencausingandnotcausingsufferingreallydoesmatter,and
thattheprinciplesofskillfulandunskillfulactionarepatternedenoughthatwe
reallycanlearnusefullessonsfromourmistakes.Atthesametime,this
combinationofwarinessandtrustiswhatallowsappamadatoplaysuchan
importantroleinthepractice,providingthemotivationtogetonthepathof
skillfulactioninthefirstplace,andtheinnerchecksandbalancesthatcankeep
usonthepathallthewaytotheDeathless.Withoutastrongsenseoftrustinthe
path,itshardtoattemptit;withoutastrongsenseofthedangersinherentinany
conditionedhappiness,itseasytofalloff.
Thechiefdanger,ofcourse,liesinthemindscreativecapacityforself
deception.ButunlikemanyotherreligiousfigurestheBuddhadidntsimply
recommendthatifwecanttrustourselvesweshouldplaceourtrustinhim.

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Instead,heprovidedwaysforustotrainourselvestobetrustworthyby
investigatingtheareaswherewetendtolietoourselvesmost:ourintentionsand
theresultsofouractions.Inhisfirstinstructionstohisson,Rahula,hetold
Rahulatoreflectonhisintentionsbeforeactingonthem,andtocarrythrough
withthemonlyifhesawthathisintendedactionwouldcausenoharm.While
acting,heshouldreflectontheimmediateresultsofhisactions;iftheywere
causinganyunintendedharm,heshouldstop.Afteracting,heshouldreflecton
thelongtermresultsofhisactions.Ifhesawthattheyactuallydidcauseharm,
heshouldresolvenevertorepeatthem.Iftheydidnt,heshouldtakejoyand
continueonthepath.
Thesearebasicinstructionsinintegrity:learningtoseewhereyoucanand
canttrustyourself,andbyrepeatedlytestingyourselfagainsttheprincipleof
actionandresultmakingyourselfapersonyoucanconsistentlytrust.Asyou
developthisinnerintegrity,itbecomeseasiertogaugetheintegrityofany
teachingorteacheryouencounter,forhere,too,theBuddharecommends
vigilance,testingthingsthroughactionandresult.Gaugeteachingsbytheharm
theydoordontcreatewhenyouputthemintopractice.Gaugeteachers,notby
theirspecialpowers,divineauthority,orenlightenedtransmission,butbythe
harmtheydoordontdothroughtheiractions.
Thispatternofheedfulscrutinyappliesnotonlytoblatantactionsbutalsoto
themostsubtleworkingsofthemind:yourresponsetosensorystimuli,your
deepestmeditativeandnonmeditativeexperiences.Whateveryouredoing
andespeciallywhenyoudontseemtobedoinganythingatalldontbe
complacent.Lookcarefully,againandagain,foreventheslighteststressor
disturbanceyoumightbecausinginadvertently,andlearnhowtodrop
whateveryouredoingthatscausingit.Keepatthisuntiltheresnothingmoreto
bedropped.
Inthisway,yoursenseofappamadahelpstoensurethatyourpathgoesall
thewaytotheDeathless.Toborrowanoldanalogy:ifthepracticeislikea
building,thenappamadaisnotonlythefoundation.Italsoactsasthewallsand
theroofaswell.