An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of

energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Theseismicity, seismism or seismic
activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period
of time.
Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the
most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire
globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national
seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as
the Richter magnitude scale. These two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity.
Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and
over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas, depending on their depth. The largest
earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no limit to the
possible magnitude. The most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0
magnitude earthquake in Japan in 2011 (as of March 2014), and it was the largest Japanese
earthquake since records began. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale.
The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal.[1]
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of
the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be
displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally
volcanic activity.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event whether
natural or caused by humans that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by
rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine
blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter.
The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.
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Naturally occurring earthquakes

Fault types

Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain
energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other
smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that
increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a
form of stick-slip behaviour. Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates
leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface.
This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing
sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy.[2] This energy is released as a
combination of radiated elastic strainseismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and
cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and
stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound
theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as
seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or
is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's
available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible
compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep interior.[3]

Earthquake fault types

Main article: Fault (geology)
There are three main types of fault, all of which may cause an interplate earthquake: normal, reverse
(thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement
along the fault is in the direction of dip and movement on them involves a vertical component.
Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is beingextended such as a divergent boundary.
Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent
boundary. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past

each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are
caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as
oblique slip.
Reverse faults, particularly those along convergent plate boundaries are associated with the most
powerful earthquakes, megathrust earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or
more. Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms can produce major earthquakes up to
about magnitude 8. Earthquakes associated with normal faults are generally less than magnitude 7.
This is so because the energy released in an earthquake, and thus its magnitude, is proportional to
the area of the fault that ruptures[4] and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the
wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the
Earth's crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle,
are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures. Rocks
hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in
earthquakes.[5][6] The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults, which may break in
one go are approximately 1000 km. Examples are the earthquakes in Chile, 1960; Alaska,
1957; Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults,
like the San Andreas Fault(1857, 1906), the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey (1939) and the Denali
Fault in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate
margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.

Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in the Carrizo Plain, northwest of Los Angeles

The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault is however
not the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20.
Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10
degrees.[7] Thus the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become 50 to
100 km (Japan, 2011; Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.
Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of 10 km within
the brittle crust,[8] thus earthquakes with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible. Maximum
magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because many of them are located
along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6 km.[9][10]
In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault types. Thrust faults are
generated by the highest, strike slip by intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress
levels.[11] This can easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest principal stress,
the direction of the force that 'pushes' the rock mass during the faulting. In the case of normal faults,

the rock mass is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (greatest principal
stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself. In the case of thrusting, the rock mass 'escapes' in
the direction of the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up, thus the
overburden equals the least principal stress. Strike-slip faulting is intermediate between the other
two types described above. This difference in stress regime in the three faulting environments can
contribute to differences in stress drop during faulting, which contributes to differences in the
radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions.

Earthquakes away from plate boundaries

Main article: Intraplate earthquake
Where plate boundaries occur within the continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out over a
much larger area than the plate boundary itself. In the case of the San Andreas faultcontinental
transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and are related to strains
developed within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault trace
(e.g., the "Big bend" region). The Northridge earthquake was associated with movement on a blind
thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary
between the Arabian and Eurasian plates where it runs through the northwestern part of
the Zagros mountains. The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly
pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and
nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself.
This is demonstrated by earthquake focal mechanisms.[12]
All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates
and sedimentary loading or unloading (e.g. deglaciation).[13] These stresses may be sufficient to
cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes.[14]

Shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes

Main article: Depth of focus (tectonics)

Collapsed Gran Hotel building in the San Salvador metropolis, after the shallow 1986 San Salvador earthquakeduring
mid civil war El Salvador.

Buildings fallen on their foundations after the shallow 1986 San Salvador earthquake, El Salvador.

leveled structures after the shallow1986 San Salvador earthquake, El Salvador.

The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of
kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70 km are classified as 'shallow-focus'
earthquakes, while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300 km are commonly termed 'midfocus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes. In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic
crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep-focus earthquakes may occur at much greater
depths (ranging from 300 up to 700 kilometers).[15] These seismically active areas of subduction are
known as Wadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth where the
subductedlithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A
possible mechanism for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused
byolivine undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure.[16]

Earthquakes and volcanic activity

Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by tectonic faults and the
movement of magma in volcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic
eruptions, as during the Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980.[17] Earthquake swarms can serve as
markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes. These swarms can be
recorded by seismometers and tiltmeters (a device that measures ground slope) and used as
sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions.[18]

Rupture dynamics
A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface, a process known as
nucleation. The scale of the nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture
dimensions of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m while other
evidence, such as a slow component revealed by low-frequency spectra of some earthquakes,
suggest that it is larger. The possibility that the nucleation involves some sort of preparation process
is supported by the observation that about 40% of earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks. Once

the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault surface. The mechanics of this process
are poorly understood, partly because it is difficult to recreate the high sliding velocities in a
laboratory. Also the effects of strong ground motion make it very difficult to record information close
to a nucleation zone.[19]
Rupture propagation is generally modeled using a fracture mechanics approach, likening the rupture
to a propagating mixed mode shear crack. The rupture velocity is a function of the fracture energy in
the volume around the crack tip, increasing with decreasing fracture energy. The velocity of rupture
propagation is orders of magnitude faster than the displacement velocity across the fault.
Earthquake ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in the range 7090% of the S-wave
velocity and this is independent of earthquake size. A small subset of earthquake ruptures appear to
have propagated at speeds greater than the S-wave velocity. These supershear earthquakeshave all
been observed during large strike-slip events. The unusually wide zone of coseismic damage
caused by the 2001 Kunlun earthquake has been attributed to the effects of the sonic
boom developed in such earthquakes. Some earthquake ruptures travel at unusually low velocities
and are referred to as slow earthquakes. A particularly dangerous form of slow earthquake is
the tsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt intensities, caused by the slow
propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert the population of the neighbouring coast,
as in the 1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake.[19]

Tidal forces
Research work has shown a robust correlation between small tidally induced forces and nonvolcanic tremor activity.[20][21][22][23]

Earthquake clusters
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and
time.[24] Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is
a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.[25]
Aftershocks
Main article: Aftershock
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An
aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. If an
aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the
original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the
displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock.
Floods
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry.[1] The European
Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by
water.[2] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide.
Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, in which the
water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries,[3] or it
may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood. While the size

of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, these
changes in size are unlikely to be considered significant unless they flood property or
drown domestic animals.
Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel,
particularly at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and
businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage can be
eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, people have traditionally lived and
worked by rivers because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy travel
and access to commerce and industry.
Some floods develop slowly, while others such as flash floods, can develop in just a few minutes and
without visible signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or
community, or very large, affecting entire river basins.
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Etymology
The word "flood" comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic
languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float; also
compare with Latin fluctus, flumen). Deluge myths are mythical stories of a great flood sent by
a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution, and they are featured in the
mythology of many cultures.

Principal types and causes

Areal (rainfall related)
Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when the ground is saturated and water either
cannot run off or cannot run off quickly enough to stop accumulating. This may be followed by a river
flood as water moves away from the floodplain into local rivers and streams.
Floods can also occur if water falls on an impermeable surface, such as concrete, paving or frozen
ground, and cannot rapidly dissipate into the ground.
Localized heavy rain from a series of storms moving over the same area can cause areal flash
flooding when the rate of rainfall exceeds the drainage capacity of the area. When this occurs on
tilled fields, it can result in a muddy flood where sediments are picked up by run off and carried as
suspended matter or bed load.

Riverine
River or rambla flows may rise to floods levels at different rates, from a few minutes to several
weeks, depending on the type of river or rambla and the source of the increased flow.
Slow rising floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchment areas. The increase in
flow may be the result of sustained rainfall, rapid snow melt, monsoons, ortropical cyclones.

Localized flooding may be caused or exacerbated by drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice,
or debris.
Rapid flooding events, including flash floods, more often occur on smaller rivers, rivers with steep
valleys, rivers that flow for much of their length over impermeable terrain or ramblas. The cause may
be localized convective precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or sudden release from an upstream
impoundment created behind a dam, landslide, orglacier.
Dam-building beavers can flood low-lying urban and rural areas, occasionally causing some
damage.

Estuarine and coastal

Flooding in estuaries is commonly caused by a combination of sea tidal surges caused by winds and
low barometric pressure, and they may be exacerbated by high upstream river flow.
Coastal areas may be flooded by storm events at sea, resulting in waves over-topping defenses or in
severe cases by tsunami or tropical cyclones. A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or
an extratropical cyclone, falls within this category.

Urban flooding
Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in a built environment, particularly in more
densely populated areas, caused by rainfall overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems, such
as storm sewers. Although sometimes triggered by events such as flash flooding or snowmelt, urban
flooding is a condition, characterized by its repetitive and systemic impacts on communities, that can
happen regardless of whether or not affected communities are located within formally designated
floodplains or near any body of water.[4] There are several ways in which stormwater enters
properties: backup through sewer pipes, toilets and sinks into buildings; seepage through building
walls and floors; the accumulation of water on property and in public rights-of-way; and the overflow
from water bodies such as rivers and lakes.
The flood flow in urbanized areas constitutes a hazard to both the population and infrastructure.
Some recent catastrophes include the inundations of Nmes (France) in 1998 and Vaison-laRomaine (France) in 1992, the flooding of New Orleans (USA) in 2005, and the flooding
in Rockhampton, Bundaberg, Brisbane during the 20102011 summer in Queensland (Australia).
Flood flows in urban environments have been studied relatively recently despite many centuries of
flood events.[5] Some researchers have mentioned the storage effect in urban areas. Several studies
have looked into the flow patterns and redistribution in streets during storm events and the
implication on flood modelling.[6] Some recent research has considered the criteria for safe
evacuation of individuals in flooded areas.[7] However, some recent field measurements during
the20102011 Queensland floods showed that any criterion solely based upon the flow velocity,
water depth or specific momentum cannot account for the hazards caused by velocity and water
depth fluctuations.[5] These considerations ignore further the risks associated with large debris
entrained by the flow motion.[7]

Catastrophic

Catastrophic flooding is usually associated with major infrastructure failures such as the collapse of
a dam, but they may also be caused by damage sustained in anearthquake or volcanic eruption.
See outburst flood.

Effects
Primary effects
The primary effects of flooding include loss of life, damage to buildings and other structures,
including bridges, sewerage systems, roadways, and canals.
Floods also frequently damage power transmission and sometimes power generation, which then
has knock-on effects caused by the loss of power. This includes loss of drinking water treatment and
water supply, which may result in loss of drinking water or severe water contamination. It may also
cause the loss of sewage disposal facilities. Lack of clean water combined with human sewage in
the flood waters raises the risk of waterborne diseases, which can
include typhoid, giardia, cryptosporidium, cholera and many other diseases depending upon the
location of the flood.
Damage to roads and transport infrastructure may make it difficult to mobilize aid to those affected or
to provide emergency health treatment.
Flood waters typically inundate farm land, making the land unworkable and preventing crops from
being planted or harvested, which can lead to shortages of food both for humans and farm animals.
Entire harvests for a country can be lost in extreme flood circumstances. Some tree species may not
survive prolonged flooding of their root systems [8]

Secondary and long-term effects

Economic hardship due to a temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, or food shortages
leading to price increases is a common after-effect of severe flooding. The impact on those affected
may cause psychological damage to those affected, in particular where deaths, serious injuries and
loss of property occur.
Urban flooding can lead to chronically wet houses, which are linked to an increase
in respiratory problems and other illnesses.[9] Urban flooding also has significant economic
implications for affected neighborhoods. In the United States, industry experts estimate that wet
basements can lower property values by 10-25 percent and are cited among the top reasons for not
purchasing a home.[10] According to the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),
almost 40 percent of small businesses never reopen their doors following a flooding disaster.[11]

Flood forecasting
Main articles: Flood forecasting and flood warning
Anticipating floods before they occur allows for precautions to be taken and people to
be warned [12] so that they can be prepared in advance for flooding conditions. For
example, farmers can remove animals from low-lying areas and utility services can put in place

emergency provisions to re-route services if needed. Emergency services can also make provisions
to have enough resources available ahead of time to respond to emergencies as they occur.
In order to make the most accurate flood forecasts for waterways, it is best to have a long timeseries of historical data that relates stream flows to measured past rainfall events.[13] Coupling this
historical information with real-time knowledge about volumetric capacity in catchment areas, such
as spare capacity in reservoirs, ground-water levels, and the degree of saturation of area aquifers is
also needed in order to make the most accurate flood forecasts.
Radar estimates of rainfall and general weather forecasting techniques are also important
components of good flood forecasting. In areas where good quality data is available, the intensity
and height of a flood can be predicted with fairly good accuracy and plenty of lead time. The output
of a flood forecast is typically a maximum expected water level and the likely time of its arrival at key
locations along a waterway,[14] and it also may allow for the computation of the likely statistical return
period of a flood. In many developed countries, urban areas at risk of flooding are protected against
a 100-year flood - that is a flood that has a probability of around 63% of occurring in any 100 year
period of time.
According to the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) Northeast River Forecast Center (RFC)
in Taunton, Massachusetts, a general rule-of-thumb for flood forecasting in urban areas is that it
takes at least 1 inch (25 mm) of rainfall in around an hour's time in order to start
significant ponding of water on impermeable surfaces. Many NWS RFCs routinely issue Flash Flood
Guidance and Headwater Guidance, which indicate the general amount of rainfall that would need to
fall in a short period of time in order to cause flash flooding or flooding on larger water basins.[15]

Control
Main article: Flood control
In many countries around the world, waterways prone to floods are often carefully managed.
Defenses such as detention basins, levees,[16] bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent
waterways from overflowing their banks. When these defenses fail, emergency measures such
as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are often used to try and stem flooding. Coastal
flooding has been addressed in portions ofEurope and the Americas with coastal defenses, such
as sea walls, beach nourishment, and barrier islands.
In the riparian zone near rivers and streams, erosion control measures can be taken to try and
slow down or reverse the natural forces that cause many waterways to meander over long
periods of time. Flood controls, such as dams, can be built and maintained over time to try and
reduce the occurrence and severity of floods as well. In the USA, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers maintains a network of such flood control dams.
In areas prone to urban flooding, one solution is the repair and expansion of man-made sewer
systems and stormwater infrastructure. Another strategy is to reduce impervious surfaces in
streets, parking lots and buildings through natural drainage channels, porous paving,
and wetlands (collectively known as green infrastructure or sustainable urban drainage systems
[SUDS]). Areas identified as flood-prone can be converted into parks and playgrounds that can

tolerate occasional flooding. Ordinances can be adopted to require developers to retain

stormwater on site and require buildings to be elevated, protected by floodwallsand levees, or
designed to withstand temporary inundation. Property owners can also invest in solutions
themselves, such as re-landscaping their property to take the flow of water away from their
building and installing rain barrels, sump pumps, and check valves.

Benefits
Floods (in particular more frequent or smaller floods) can also bring many benefits, such as
recharging ground water, making soil more fertile and increasing nutrients in some soils. Flood
waters provide much needed water resources in arid and semi-arid regions where precipitation
can be very unevenly distributed throughout the year and kills pests in the farming land .
Freshwater floods particularly play an important role in maintaining ecosystems in river corridors
and are a key factor in maintaining floodplain biodiversity.[17] Flooding can spread nutrients to
lakes and rivers, which can lead to increased biomass and improvedfisheries for a few years.
For some fish species, an inundated floodplain may form a highly suitable location
for spawning with few predators and enhanced levels of nutrients or food.[18] Fish, such as
the weather fish, make use of floods in order to reach new habitats. Bird populations may also
profit from the boost in food production caused by flooding.[19]
Periodic flooding was essential to the well-being of ancient communities along the TigrisEuphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the Indus River, the Ganges and the Yellow River among
others. The viability of hydropower, a renewable source of energy, is also higher in flood prone
regions.

Computer modelling
While flood computer modelling is a fairly recent practice, attempts to understand and manage
the mechanisms at work in floodplains have been made for at least six millennia.[20] Recent
developments in computational flood modelling have enabled engineers to step away from the
tried and tested "hold or break" approach and its tendency to promote overly engineered
structures. Various computational flood models have been developed in recent years;
either 1D models (flood levels measured in the channel) or 2D models (variable flood depths
measured across the extent of a floodplain). HEC-RAS,[21] the Hydraulic Engineering Centre
model, is currently among the most popular computer models, if only because it is available free
of charge. Other models such as TUFLOW[22] combine 1D and 2D components to derive flood
depths across both river channels and the entire floodplain. To date, the focus of computer
modelling has primarily been on mapping tidal and fluvial flood events, but the 2007 flood events
in the UK have shifted the emphasis there onto the impact of surface water flooding.[23]