1 Scope and History of Microbiology

Why Study Microbiology?

1. Impact on Human Health
2. Balance of Nature - food source, play a role in decomposition, help other
animals digest grass (cattle, sheep, termites).
3. Environmental provide safe drinking water; development of biodegradable
products; use bacteria to clean up oil spills, etc. called bioremediation.
4. Industrial foodstuffs (beer, wine, cheese, bread), antibiotics, insulin, genetic
engineering
5. Agricultural - research has led to healthier livestock and disease-free crops.

I.

Microbiology defined - The study of microbiology is the study of

microorganisms, which are organisms that are invisible to the naked eye.

II. Classification of Microorganisms

The 5 major groups of microorganisms: bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. We will
also study some other smaller groups such as prions and viroids. The one property that links
these groups together is their very small size!
2 types of cells (viruses, prions and viroids are acellular without a cell):
1.

Prokaryotic ("before nucleus") these guys are cells, but they have no
internal membrane bound structures (no membrane-bound nucleus or
membrane-bound organelles); includes only the bacteria.

2.

Eukaryotic ("true nucleus") do have internal membrane bound structures

(membrane bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles); includes
organisms such as protozoans, fungi, algae, animals, plants.

A. Bacteria (singular - bacterium) (study of bacteria bacteriology)

1. prokaryotic
2. unicellular
3. size: 1/1000 the volume of a typical eukaryotic cell
4. 2 groups (discovered in 1970's) - we'll discuss more later
a. Archaeobacteria - ancient bacteria
b. Eubacteria - true bacteria
5. some shapes: bacillus (rod), coccus (spherical), spirillum (spiral),
vibrio (curved rod)
6. motile or nonmotile
7. how do they obtain their energy?
a. photosynthetic autotrophs - use energy from the sun to
produce their own carbohydrates for energy.
b. chemosynthetic autotrophs - process inorganic molecules
for energy (ex. sulfur or iron).
c. heterotrophs - depend on outside sources of organic
molecules (ex. carbohydrates or sugars) for energy
8. temperature extremes: -20oC to 110oC (thats really cold & really
hot! freezing is OoC and boiling is 100oC)
9. examples of diseases?

B. Algae

(singular - alga) - not a focus in this course.

1.

eukaryotic

2. unicellular or multicellular
3. size: some microscopic, some macroscopic (ex. kelp)
4. motile or nonmotile
5. how do they obtain their energy? photosynthetic autotrophs
6. disease causing? no

C.

Fungi (singular - fungus)

1.

(study of fungi mycology)

eukaryotic

2. unicellular or multicellular (yeasts are unicellular, molds are

multicellular)
3. nonmotile
4. how do they obtain their energy?
a. heterotrophs
b. Why are they ecologically important? Scavengers; they live
off dead matter and thus, decompose it.
5. examples of diseases (called mycoses)?
examples of nonpathogenic fungi?

D. Protozoa ("first animals")

1.

eukaryotic

2. unicellular

3. motile or nonmotile
4. how do they obtain their energy?

Heterotrophs

5. disease causing 2 examples: malaria & giardiasis (one of the

dont drink the water diseases)

E. Viruses - (study of viruses virology)

1.

acellular, so not considered prokaryotic or eukaryotic; obligate

intracellular parasites; when they are outside of a host cell, there
is no evidence that these guys are alive.

2. basic structure of a virus - a piece of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA)

enclosed by a protein coat (capsid); possess no nucleus, organelles,
cell membrane, or cytoplasm.
3. size - 1/10 to 1/1000 the size of an ordinary bacterial cell.
4. nonmotile
5. examples of diseases?

III.

A Brief History of Microbiology

A.

Leeuwenhoeck (lived 1632-1723)

1.

B.

What discovery is he credited with? First person to use

microscopes to observe microbes; as a hobby he made small
handheld microscopes; he called microorganisms animalcules.

Hooke
1.

What discovery is he credited with? He first described

cellulae (small rooms) in cork in 1665. His discovery led to the
formulation of the cell theory, which states that cells are the
basic organizational unit of all living things.

C.

Redi and Spontaneous Generation

1.

What is this theory? Living organisms arise from nonliving things

(ex. maggots come from rotting meat)

2. Who disproved this theory and how? In the late 1600s Francisco
Redi showed that maggots developed only in meat that flies could
reach to lay eggs on.
3. Many insisted that he only disproved spontaneous generation for
macroorganisms; maybe microbes were an exception.
D. Needham vs. Spallanzani - still trying to prove or disprove the theory of
spontaneous generation.
1.

What was Needham's hypothesis, experiment, & conclusions?

Everyone knew boiling killed microbes; so, he would boil chicken
broth, put it in a flask, & seal it; if microbes grew, then it could
only be because of spontaneous generation; they did grow. [We
now know that microbes grew because the flask was not sterilized
before he poured in the broth!]

2. What was Spallanzani's hypothesis, experiment, & conclusions? He

was not convinced by Needham's experiment. He put broth in a
flask, sealed it (creating a vacuum), & then boiled it. There were
no microbes in the cooled broth! Critics said he didn't disprove
spontaneous generation - they said he just proved that
spontaneous generation required air.
E. Pasteur's Epic Experiments (1859)
1.

What was his experimental method? To offset the argument that

air was necessary for spontaneous generation, Pasteur allowed the
free passage of air, but prevented the entry of microbes. He
boiled meat broth in a flask & then drew out & curved the neck of
the flask in a flame. No microbes developed in the flask. When he
tilted the flask so some broth flowed into the curved neck & then
tilted it back so the broth was returned to the base of the flask,

microbes grew. Gravity had caused the microbes that had entered
the flask in air & dust to settle at the low point of the neck, never
reaching the broth in the base until the broth washed them in.
2. Pasteur's success was partly due to good luck. He used meat,
which contains few bacterial endospores (endospores are resistant
to heat; many experiments done prior to Pasteur's used vegetable
broths - plants contains many endospore-forming bacteria.)
3. What 3 things did Pasteur's experiments prove?
a.

No living things arise by spontaneous generation.

b.

Microbes are everywhere - even in the air and dust

c.

The growth of microbes causes dead plant & animal tissue

to decompose & food to spoil (this led him to develop the
technique of pasteurization - he developed it to keep wine
from spoiling).

4. Pasteur also contributed to the development of vaccines.

F. The Germ Theory of Disease
1.

What is the germ theory of disease? Microbes (germs) cause

disease and specific microbes cause specific diseases.

2. Who proved this theory? Robert Koch in the late 1870's.

3. What disease was he studying? anthrax - disease of cattle/sheep;
also in humans
4. What was his experimental method? He observed that the same
microbes were present in all blood samples of infected animals. He
isolated and cultivated these microbes (now known to be Bacillus
anthracis ). He then injected a healthy animal with the cultured
bacteria & that animal became infected with anthrax & its blood
sample showed the same microbes as the originally infected
animals.

5. What did his experiments prove? Particular microbes cause

particular diseases.
6. What are Koch's 4 Postulates?
1.) The causative agent must be present in every individual with
the disease.
2.) The causative agent must be isolated & grown in pure
culture (how did he invent pure cultures?; with Frau Hesse's
help, he developed the agar plate method (see p. 13).
3.) The pure culture must cause the disease when inoculated
into an experimental animal.
4.) The causative agent must be reisolated from the
experimental animal & reidentified in pure culture.
G. What are Some Ways that We Can Control Infectious Diseases?
1.

Immunity - stimulating the body's own ability to combat infection;

from ancient times it was a recognized fact that people who
suffered from certain diseases never got them again; infection
could produce immunity.
a. Immunization defined: produce immunity by providing
exposure to altered organisms that do not cause disease.
b. Jenner & Smallpox - observed that dairymaids that
contracted a mild infection of cowpox seemed to be immune
to smallpox. He inoculated a boy with fluid from a cow pox
blister and he contracted cowpox; he then inoculated him
with fluid from a smallpox blister; the boy did not contract
smallpox; the term vaccination came from vacca for cow.
c. The first vaccines:
1.) Pasteur's discovery? attenuated bacteria can produce
immunity

2.) Attenuated defined - weakened virus or bacteria that

is unable to cause the disease (it was later discovered
that killed microbes can also produce immunity)
3.) What vaccines did Pasteur develop? anthrax, rabies
2. Public Hygiene
a. Improving sewage disposal.
b. Assuring a clean public water supply.
c. Food preservation & inspection.
ex. Pasteurization - kills most microbes by exposing to heat.
d. Improving personal hygiene.
Semmelweiss & childbed fever
e. Developing antiseptic techniques.
Lister & carbolic acid he developed the first aseptic
techniques.
3. Chemotherapy
a. Who is the father of chemotherapy? Paul Ehrlich - he
discovered a drug treatment for syphilis; he developed the
guiding principle of chemotherapy, which is selective toxicity
(the drug must be toxic to the infecting microbe, but
relatively harmless to the hosts cells).
b. What was the first major class of drugs to come into
widespread clinical use? sulfa drugs
c. Who discovered the first antibiotic? Flemming discovered
(penicillin); antibiotics are antibacterial compounds produced
by fungi and bacteria.

Chapter 4 Characteristics of Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

All cells have:

1. Cell or plasma membrane (separates the cell from the outer environment)
2. Genetic material (DNA)
3. Cytoplasm.
I.

TWO GENERAL TYPES OF CELLS:

A. Prokaryotic ("before nucleus") - a cell lacking a membrane-bound nucleus &

membrane-bound organelles (ex. bacteria); these cells do have some organelles,
but they are not membrane-bound; all prokaryotic cells have a cell wall, its
primary component being peptidoglycan; prokaryotic cells are much smaller than
eukaryotic cells (about 10 times smaller); their small size allows them to grow
faster & multiply more rapidly than eukaryotic cells (they have a higher surface
area to volume ratio than larger cells; thus, because they are small, they can
easily meet their modest nutritional needs and grow rapidly). This group
includes all bacteria.

B. Eukaryotic ("true nucleus") - a cell having a membrane-bound nucleus &

membrane-bound organelles (little organs specialized structures that
perform specific functions within the cell); evolved about 2 million years after
the prokaryotes; cell walls are sometimes present, but they are composed of
cellulose or chitin; organisms with eukaryotic cells include fungi, algae, protozoa,
plants, & animals.
It is important to know the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; allows
us to control disease-causing bacteria without harming our own cells.
II. PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
A. Appendages
1. Pili - straight hairlike appendages; they are usually short; all gram negative
bacteria have pili; function is to attach bacteria to other bacteria, other cells,
or other surfaces (not for locomotion):

a. sex pili allow one bacterial cell to adhere to another (cells can actually
exchange genetic material through the pili - this is the closest bacteria
get to sexual reproduction!); called conjugation.
b. other types of pili attach bacteria to plant or animal cells to maintain
themselves in a favorable environment; if pili have been lost (maybe due
to a mutation) in disease-causing bacteria, the bacteria will not be able to
establish an infection.

2. Flagella (singular flagellum) - long, thin structures that extend outward from
the surface of the envelope; function is locomotion - bacteria with flagella are
motile; flagella rotate to propel the bacterium. Bacteria can have 1, 2, or many
flagella (ex. of a bacteria with many flagella Salmonella).

3. Axial Filaments - bundles of flagella which wrap around the cell body between
the cell wall and the outer membrane; together they form a helical bulge that
moves like a corkscrew as the entrapped flagella turn & propel the cell; found
only in one type of bacteria called the spirochetes; this unique form of
movement is well suited to the viscous environment (mud & mucous) where the
bacteria is generally found. Ex. of bacteria with a.f. Treponema (causes
syphilis) and Borrelia (causes Lyme disease).

B. Cell Envelope (layers from outside to inside) (BE ABLE TO DIAGRAM!)

1. Glycocalyx - found in most bacteria; slimy or gummy substance that becomes

the outermost layer of the cell envelope; a thick glycocalyx is often called a
capsule; a thin glycocalyx is often called a slime layer; functions:
a. protection from drying out
b. helps a cell adhere to a surface where conditions are favorable for
growth
c. provide protection against phagocytosis (engulfment & destruction by
cells such as white blood cells) - a slippery glycocalyx makes it difficult

for the phagocyte to grab hold of the bacterium.

2. Outer Membrane - primarily found in gram negative bacteria (ex. E. coli,
Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae ); composed
of a bilayer membrane; the inner layer is composed of phospholipids; the outer
layer is composed of lipopolysaccharides (LPSs), a compound that's not found in
any other living organism!; part of the LPS is hydrophobic, part is hydrophilic;
most molecules are transported across the outer membrane and into the cell
through special proteins called porins; these porins create small pores or
channels in the outer membrane that allow molecules to diffuse in; function of
the outer membrane is mainly protection - because of the outer membrane,
gram negative bacteria are generally more resistant than gram positive bacteria
to many toxic compounds, including antibiotics (antibiotics are too large to
diffuse through the porins).

More about LPSs These compounds are endotoxins and are only released when
the bacteria die and their cell walls are broken down. Endotoxins cause fever
and dilate blood vessels (drop in blood pressure results). Killing the bacteria
may increase the concentrations of this toxin!

3. The Cell Wall - The structure described below is found in all eubacteria
except the mycoplasmas (these bacteria lack a cell wall); in archaeobacteria, the
cell walls are composed of a different type of peptidoglycan or protein & some
do not have cell walls. In gram negative bacteria, the cell wall lies just inside
the periplasm; in gram positive bacteria, it lies just inside the glycocalyx, if one
exists.
a. Structure & Composition of Cell Wall in Eubacteria
1.) The chief component is peptidoglycan.
2.) Peptidoglycan is composed of long chains of polysaccharides
(glycan) cross-linked by short proteins (peptides).
3.) When linked together these chains create the single rigid meshlike molecule that forms the bacterial cell wall (resembles a chain
link fence!)
4.) A major difference between G(+) & G(-) bacterial cell walls:

a.) G(-): peptidoglycan mesh is only one layer thick.

b.) G(+): peptidoglycan wall is many layers thick.

b. Cell Wall Function In many cases, the cell wall is very porous and does
not regulate the transport of substances into the cell. Two major
functions of the cell wall are maintaining shape and withstanding turgor
pressure. Both are discussed below.

1.) Cell Shape - one fxn. of the cell wall is to confer shape on the
bacterium; most bacteria fall into one of these general groups.
However, some bacteria have irregular shapes. Even bacteria of
the same kind or within the same culture sometimes vary in size
and shape (especially in aging cultures).
a.) cocci (singular - coccus) - spherical
b.) bacilli (singular - bacillus) - rod-shaped
c.) spirilli (singular - spirillum) - spiral-shaped
d.) vibrio - comma-shaped

In addition to these characteristic cell shapes, cells can also be

found in distinctive groups of cells: pairs, chains, tetrads (cubes),
grape-like clusters, etc.

2.) Withstanding Turgor pressure A cell's turgor pressure is the

internal pressure from its contents. Ordinarily, a bacterium is in
a hypotonic solution (a more dilute solution that has less solute
and more water than the inside of the bacterium) and water tries
to move from a high water concentration to a low water
concentration; that is, water tries to move inside the bacterium
(see tonicity under osmosis later in the handout). Without the

cell wall, the water would continue to more inside the cell, and the
cell would lyse or burst; the cell wall withstands turgor pressure,
so that the cell does not lyse.

Action of some antibiotics (ex. penicillin) - Bacteria produce

enzymes that reseal breaks in the peptidoglycan cell wall that
occur during normal growth and division; penicillin binds to these
enzymes, inactivating the enzymes so that the breaks cannot be
resealed. The bacteria then lyse.

Lysozyme, an enzyme found in tears, digests (breaks down)

peptidoglycan.
c. Mycoplasmas - group of bacteria that lack a cell wall; they avoid lysis
from turgor pressure by maintaining a nearly equal pressure between
their cytoplasm and their external environment by actively pumping
sodium ions out of the cell; additionally, their cell membranes are
strengthened because they contain cholesterol, a lipid found in
eukaryotic cell membranes.

4. Periplasm - used to be called a space, because of the way it looked in electron

micrographs; found between the cell membrane and the peptidoglycan cell wall;
therefore, only found in gram negative cells; composed of a gelatinous material
containing proteins; one function of these proteins is that break down certain
nutrients into smaller molecules that can pass through the cell membrane.

5. Plasma or Cell Membrane - membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of any cell;
major function is to contain the cytoplasm and to transport and regulate what
comes in and what goes out of the cell. Many prokaryotic cell membranes are
similar to eukaryotic cell membranes. Its structure is referred to as the Fluid
Mosaic Model, because the structure behaves more like a fluid than a solid.
Contains:
Membrane Lipids: (composed primarily of phospholipid molecules)

a.) phospholipid bilayer (hydrophobic fatty acid tails & hydrophilic

phosphate heads review chemistry handout on phospholipids)

Membrane Proteins: (proteins float in the fluid lipid bilayer)

a.)

Integral proteins - inserted in the bilayer; mainly involved in

transport.
1.) carrier proteins - bind to specific substances & transport
them across the cell membrane.
2.) channel proteins - proteins with a channel through which
small, water soluble substances move across the cell
membrane.

b.) Peripheral proteins - usually attached to membrane surface; some

are enzymes; some are involved in the electron transport chain
and/or photosynthesis (well talk about these processes in the
metabolism chapter); others are involved in the changes in cell
shape that occur during cell division.

Note: Archaeobacteria Cell Membranes - there are different kinds of

bonds in the phospholipid molecules that link the lipids (tails) to the glycerol
molecule (head); these bonds are stronger and may help these bacteria
survive extreme temperature and pH.

Cell Membrane Invaginations - the cell membrane sometimes invaginates or

folds back on itself, forming structures that extend into the cytoplasm;
since prokaryotic cells lack organelles, these invaginations provide increased
surface area for peripheral proteins (enzymes) to catalyze chemical
reactions.

C. Cytoplasm - matrix composed primarily of water (90%) & proteins. Contains the
following:

1. Nucleoid - or nuclear region is a mass of DNA; well defined, although it is not

surrounded by a membrane; most of a bacterium's DNA is arranged in a single
circular molecule called a chromosome; some bacteria also contains smaller
circular DNA molecules called plasmids (to be discussed later).

2. Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis; prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller than

eukaryotic ribosomes. Antibiotics such as tetracycline, erythromycin, and
streptomycin can specifically target bacterial ribosomes & not harm the host's
eukaryotic ribosomes.

3. Endospores - extremely hardy, resting (non-growing) structures that some

bacteria, principally G(+), produce through the process of sporulation when
nutrients are exhausted; when favorable conditions return, endospores
germinate to produce new vegetative cells, which grow & reproduce; they are
able to withstand harsh environmental conditions because they contain so little
water and high concentrations of calcium and dipicolinic acid; when favorable
conditions return, the spore germinates into a new vegetative cell.

Some of endospore-producing bacteria are pathogenic to humans. Ex.

Clostridium tetani causes tetanus (other species of this genus cause
botulism and gas gangrene). Bacillus is another genus of bacteria that forms
spores. We will learn how to stain bacteria so you may observe these
spores.
III. EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
A. Appendages
1. Cilia - short, hairlike, motile cellular extensions that occur on the surfaces of
certain cells; ex. some protozoa (called Ciliates) use cilia for motility & feeding.
2. Flagella - in humans, the single, long, hairlike cellular extension that occurs in
sperm cells; beat in waves (prokaryotic flagella rotate!); some protozoans use
flagella for motility.

B. Cell Wall
1. Animal cells - no cell wall!
2. Plant cells - made of cellulose
3. Fungi - in most made of cellulose; some made of chitin (polysaccharide
containing nitrogen - similar to exoskeletons of insects) and cellulose.
4. Algae - made of cellulose
5. Protozoans - no cell wall!

C. Glycocalyx - A glycocalyx may exist outside the plasma membrane; composed of

carbohydrate chains from glycoproteins in cell membrane.

D. Plasma Membrane - already described; differences are between prokaryotes &

eukaryotes:
1. proteins involved in electron transport chain and photosynthesis are not found
in cell membrane, but are found in cytoplasmic organelles (mitochondria and
chloroplast respectively), and
2. cell membrane contains cholesterol (in prokaryotes, only mycoplasmas have
cholesterol in their cell membrane).

E. Cytoplasm

1. Cytoskeleton (not found in prokaryotes)

a. structure - network of filamentous protein structures.
b. functions - give the cell shape (support & rigidity); anchor the organelles;
transport substances through the cell (cytoplasmic streaming),
cytoplasmic streaming also enables some eukaryotes to move (formation

of pseudopods); involved in cell division; involved in cell motility (flagella).

F. Nucleus
1. Structure in eukaryotic cells:
a. nuclear envelope - double membrane with nuclear pores that surrounds
the nucleus.
b. chromosomes - genetic material composed of DNA & associated;
chromosomes are linear.
2. Function:
a. carrier of the hereditary information, which exerts a continuing
influence over the ongoing activities of the cell through protein
synthesis; "control center of the cell."
b. isolates the DNA in eukaryotic cells.

G. Ribosomes (may be free in the cytoplasm or attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum &
the nucleus)
1.

Structure - not membrane-bound; made up of RNA & protein.

2.

Function - sites of protein synthesis (where amino acids are assembled into
polypeptides).

H. Membrane-bound Organelles - Eukaryotic cells have specializes membrane-bound

organelles that carry out specific functions such as photosynthesis (chloroplasts), ATP
production (mitochondria), lipid & protein synthesis (endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
complex), cellular digestion (lysosomes), & transport (vesicles). We will not discuss
these organelles in detail, since the focus of this class will be on prokaryotes. You will
discuss these organelles in detail in Anatomy & Physiology I.

a. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
1.)

Structure: interconnecting flattened sacs, tubes, & channels.

2.)

Types & Functions: (both types support the cytoplasm & provide more
surface area inside the cell for chemical reactions to take place)
a.)

rough E. R. - (ribosomes are attached to it) - function: initial

modification of proteins; process: polypeptide chains are formed at
the ribosome & some of them are transported into the r. e. r. for
modification; the polypeptides are then packaged in transport vesicles
or sacs (a piece of the e. r. pinches off around the polypeptide); these
vesicles transport the polypeptides to the golgi complex for further
modification into proteins.

b.) smooth E. R. - (no ribosomes attached) - function: main site of lipid

synthesis; lipids are then sent to the golgi body in transport vesicles
for further modification & distribution.
b. GOLGI COMPLEX
1.) Structure - 4 to 8 flattened, membrane-bound sacs loosely stacked on top of
one another surrounded by vesicles; looks like a stack of pancakes.
2.) Function - final modification of proteins & lipids.
3.) Process: transport vesicles from the r.e.r. or s.e.r. fuse with the golgi complex;
proteins & lipids are processed in the golgi complex; the finished product is
pinched off in a piece of golgi membrane (another vesicle) & is transported to
the part of the cell where it is needed; the golgi complex processes, packages,
& distributes the material the cell manufactures (the Wal-Mart distribution
center).

c. VESICLES
1.) Structure - membrane-bound sacs that could be pinched off pieces of golgi
complex, E.R., or cell membrane
2.) Function - transport material within the cell & into & out of the cell.
3.) Some specialized vesicles:

a.) Lysosomes - contain enzymes for breaking down proteins, lipids, etc.
(digestion within the cell); they fuse with other vesicles (such as phagocytic
vesicles) to degrade or digest their contents.
b.) Peroxisomes contain enzymes (peroxisomes) that break down toxic
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen (you see the oxygen bubbles when
you apply hydrogen peroxide to tissue).

d. MITOCHONDRIA
1.) Structure - usually shown oval shaped; double membrane: smooth outer membrane

& a folded inner membrane (folds provide more surface area for chemical reactions to
take place).
2.) Function - break down energy containing organic molecules (ex. carbohydrates) &

repackage the energy into smaller units (ATP) that can be used by the cells; called the
"powerhouse" of the cell.

e. CYTOSKELETON
1.) Structure - network of filamentous protein structures called microtubules &
microfilaments.
2.) Functions - give the cell shape (support), anchor the organelles, transport
substances through the cell, involved in cell division.

f. CENTRIOLES
1.) Structure - paired cylindrical structures composed of protein filaments
2.) Function - during cell division, organize a microtubule network, called spindle
fibers; spindle fibers are responsible for moving the chromosomes around in the
cell during division.

IV. CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

A. PASSIVE TYPES OF TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE

1. Most passive transport processes depend on the process of DIFFUSION
a. Definition - the net movement of particles from a greater concentration
to a lower concentration (down a concentration gradient) to distribute
the particles uniformly; it's a passive process - molecules move by their
own kinetic energy - requires no energy expenditure by the cell (no ATP);
molecules will diffuse freely until an equilibrium is reached (equal
distribution on both sides)

b. Simple Diffusion through the Cell Membrane - The lipid interior of the
cell membrane is a barrier to simple diffusion; most polar molecules
(polar molecules get "stuck" in the nonpolar fatty acid tails). Small,
nonpolar, lipid soluble molecules like fats, carbon dioxide, oxygen, &
alcohol move easily through the cell membrane by simple diffusion. Polar
& charged molecules can diffuse through the membrane if they are small
enough to pass through pores in channel proteins.

c. Osmosis - a special case of diffusion; the movement of water across a

semipermeable membrane - water moves from a high water concentration
to a low water concentration (or from a low solute concentration to a high
solute concentration); water moves across cellular membranes through
pores in channel proteins or through momentary openings in the
membrane.
Tonicity: (describes the relative concentrations of solute in two
fluids, such as the fluid inside & outside a cell); 3 cases:
1.) isotonic solutions ("iso" = same) - two or more solutions that have
equal concentrations of solute.
2.) hypotonic solution ("hypo" = less) - one solution has less solute
(more water) than the other; a cell that is in a hypotonic
environment will lyse (burst); ex. placing a cell in distilled water
would cause the cell to lyse - water would move into the cell to
where the water concentration is lower.

3.) hypertonic solution ("hyper" = more) - one solution has more

solute (less water) than the other; a cell that is in a hypertonic
environment will crenate (shrink), because the water in the cell
moves out of the cell to an area of lower water concentration;
ex. placing a cell in water with a high salt or sugar concentration
would cause the cell to crenate water would move out of the cell
to where the water concentration is lower.

Note: The above examples describe the environment that the cell is
in (i. e., the solution is hypotonic or hypertonic to the cell). You can
also talk about the cell in relation to its environment (i. e., the cell is
hypertonic or hypotonic to its environment). You have to make this
distinction!! The cells in our bodies try to maintain the isotonic
condition so that they are not in danger of lysing or crenating.

d. Facilitated Diffusion - Again, only small, nonpolar molecules readily

diffuse across the cell membrane. Polar & charged molecules get "stuck"
in the fatty acid part of the lipid bilayer. Small, polar molecules, like
water, and some ions can diffuse through channel proteins. Most
biologically important molecules, however, are polar & are much larger
than water (ex. glucose) and cannot fit through channel proteins. Special
selective carrier proteins are located in the membrane to transport
molecules like glucose. In facilitated diffusion, carrier proteins move
molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration like in simple
diffusion; it is believed that changes in the shape of the carrier protein
allow it to envelop and then release the transported substance.
Note: Few prokaryotes transport in this way; but may compounds,
including most sugars, enter most eukaryotic cells in this way.
B. ACTIVE TYPES OF TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE
These processes use energy (ATP)!!!

1. Active Transport - Carrier proteins move molecules move from low concentration
to high concentration (against the concentration gradient). Example:

a. In prokaryotes - most nutrients are transported in this way because many

prokaryotes live in low nutrient environments; group translocation is a form of
active transport that occurs in some prokaryotes with certain molecules; in
group translocation, a molecule is transported into the cell and at the same time
chemically changed in to a slightly different molecule; this occur so that the
molecule cannot leave the cell.

2. Vesicle Mediated Transport by Eukaryotes - We will concentrate on the type of

vesicle mediated transport called endocytosis, since this is how white blood cells
eat bacteria, etc.

a. Endocytosis - substances are imported into the cell; vesicles (sacs) are formed
from the cell membrane, sometimes in response to the triggering of a receptor
membrane protein (called receptor-mediated endocytosis); the cell membrane
envelopes the substance to be imported & pinches off to form a vesicle that
moves into the cytoplasm; endocytic vesicles can then fuse with enzymecontaining vesicles called lysosomes to digest their contents.

When solid material is imported into the cell, this type of endocytosis is
specifically called phagocytosis ("cell eating"); ex. a white blood cell engulfing a
bacteria.