Faculty of Engineering and Technology

(FET)

PCM 0035
General Chemistry
Foundation in Engineering

ONLINE NOTES

Chapter 1
THE COMPONENTS OF MATTER
AND STOICHIOMETRY

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General Chemistry

Contents
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10

Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

An atomic View of Matter
Daltons Atomic Theory
The Atomic Theory Today
Compounds; Formulas, Names, and Masses
Mixtures: Classification and Separation
The Mole
Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product

OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Classify matter and understand the changes it undergoes
2. Explain the structure of atom which consists of a very dense central nucleus
containing protons and neutrons, with electrons moving about the nucleus
3. Define atomic number and mass number.
4. Express the composition of molecules and ionic compound in terms of chemical
symbols and understand the rules of naming compounds
5. Understand the atomic mass and molecular mass.
6. Understand chemical reactions or called as chemical changes, represented by
chemical equations.
7. Understand stoichiometry, the quantitative study of products and reactants in
chemical reactions.
8. Understand the limiting reagent, the reactant that is present in the smallest
stoichiometric amount and explain reaction yield.

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Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Chemistry is often called
the central science, because a basic knowledge of chemistry is essential for students of
biology, physics, geology, ecology, and many other subjects. Indeed, it is central to our
way of life; without it, we would be living shorter lives in what we would consider
primitive conditions, without automobiles, electricity, computers, CDs, and many other
everyday conveniences.
Chemistry also helps us to comprehend the nature of our environment, our universe, and
ourselves. It provides essential information about issues such as atmospheric ozone
depletion, acid rain, and global warming. Chemistry plays a vital role in our
understanding and treatment of diseases such as cancer and AIDS, and it helps unravel
the mysteries of the human mind. In fact, the theories of chemistry illuminate our
understanding of the material world from tiny atoms to giant galaxies. It is a journey we
have barely begun, but we can be sure that a knowledge of chemistry will light the path
toward a better understanding of our natural world.
Moreover, if we cook, then we are a practicing chemist! From experience gained in the
kitchen, we know that oil and water do not mix and that boiling water left on the stove
will evaporate. We apply chemical and physical principle when we use baking soda to
leaven bread, choose a pressure cooker to shorten the time it takes to prepare soup,
squeeze lemon juice over sliced pears to prevent them from turning brown or over fish to
minimize its odor, and etc. Everyday we observe such changes without thinking about
their chemical nature. The purpose of this subject is to make you think like a chemist, to
look at the macroscopic world the things we can see, touch, and measure directly and
visualize the particles and events of the microscopic world that we cannot experience
without modern technology and our imaginations.

1.1

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, AND MIXTURES: AN ATOMIC

OVERVIEW

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter includes things we can see
and touch (such as water, earth, and tree), as well as things we cannot (such as air). The
classifications of matter include substances, mixtures, elements, and compounds.
Substances and Mixtures. A substance is a form of matter that has a definite (constant)
composition and distinct properties. Examples are water, table sugar, and gold.
Substances differ from one another in composition and can be identified by their
appearance, smell, taste, and other properties.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain
their distinct identities. Examples are air, soft drink, and cement. Mixtures do not have
constant composition. Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous. When a
spoonful of sugar dissolves in water we obtain a homogeneous mixture in which the
composition of the mixture is the same throughout. If sand is mixed with iron filings,
however, the sand grains and the iron filings remain separate. This type of mixture is
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called a heterogeneous mixture because the composition is not uniform. Any mixture,
whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, can be created and then separated by physical
means into pure components without changing the identities of the component.
Elements and Compounds. An element is a substance that cannot be separated into
simpler substances by chemical means. Table 1.1 shows the names and symbols of some
of the common elements. Compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or more
elements chemically united in fixed proportions. Compound can be separated only by
chemical means into their pure components.

The relationship among elements, compounds, and other categories of matter are
summarized in figure below.

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1.2

General Chemistry

AN ATOMIC VIEW OF MATTER

Mass Conservation
The most fundamental chemical observation of the 18th century was the law of mass
conservation: the total mass of substances does not change during a chemical reaction.
The number of substances may change, and by definition their properties must, be the
total amount of matter remains constant.
Even in a complex biochemical change within an organism, such as the metabolism of
the sugar glucose, which involves many reactions, mass is conserved:
180 g glucose + 192 g oxygen gas
264 g carbon dioxide + 108 g water
372 g material before change
372 g material after change
Mass conversion means that, based on all chemical experience, matter cannot be created
or destroyed.
Definite Composition
Another fundamental chemical observation is summarized as the law of definite (or
constant) composition: no matter what its source, a particular compound is composed of
the same elements in the same parts by mass. The mass fraction is that parts of the
compounds mass contributed by the element. It is obtained by dividing the mass of each
element by the total mass of compound. The percent by mass (mass %) is the fraction by
mass expresses as a percentage.

1.3

DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY

Daltons atomic theory can be summarized as follows:

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms. All atoms of a
given element are identical, having the same size, mass and chemical properties.
The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
2. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound,
the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
3. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement
of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.
On the basis of Daltons atomic theory, we can define an atom as the basic unit of an
element that can enter into chemical combination. Dalton imagined an atom that was
both extremely small and indivisible.

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General Chemistry

THE ATOMIC THEORY TODAY

Structure of the Atom

A series of investigations later clearly demonstrated that atoms actually possess internal
structure; that is, they are made up of even smaller particles electrons, protons, and
neutrons.

Electron is a negatively charged particles

Proton is a positively charged particles in the nucleus. (Nucleus a dense central
core within the atom)
Neutron is an electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that
of protons

Figure below shows that the protons and neutrons of an atom are packed in an extremely
small nucleus. Electrons are shown as clouds around the nucleus.

Atomic Number, Mass number, and Atomic Symbol

The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an
element. In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons, so
the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons present in the atom.
The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus
of an atom of an element.
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number + number of neutrons

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The number of neutrons in ad atom is equal to the difference between the mass number
and the atomic number, or (A Z).
Atoms of a given element do not all have the same mass. Most elements have two or
more isotopes, atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers. For
example, there are three isotopes of hydrogen. One simply known as hydrogen, has one
proton and no neutrons. The deuterium isotope contains one proton and one neutron, and
tritium has one proton and two neutrons. The accepted way to denote the atomic number
and mass number of an atom of an element (X) is as follows:
Mass number
A
Z

Atomic number

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1.5

General Chemistry

COMPOUNDS: FORMULAS, NAMES, AND MASSES

Types of Chemical formula

Chemical formula is used to express the composition of molecules and ionic compound
in terms of chemical symbols. By composition we mean not only the elements present but
also the ratios in which the atoms are combined.
1. Molecular Formulas. A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each
element in the smallest unit of a substance. For example, H2 is the molecular formula for
hydrogen, O2 is oxygen, O3 is ozone, and H2O is water. The subscript numeral indicates
the number of atoms of an element present. Note that oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) are
allotropes of oxygen. An allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an element.
Another example, two allotropic forms of the element carbon are diamond and graphite.
2. Empirical Formulas. The molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide is H2O2. This
formula indicates that each hydrogen peroxide molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms
and two oxygen atoms. The empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO. Thus the
empirical formula tells us which elements are present and the simplest whole number
ratio of their atoms, but not necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given molecule.
In short, empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formulas; they are written by
reducing the subscript in molecular formula to the smallest possible whole numbers.
Molecular formulas are the true formulas of molecule.

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3. Structural Formulas. The structural formula shows the number of atom and the bond
between them. For instant, the structural formula of hydrogen peroxide is H O O H.

Formula of Ionic Compound

The formula of ionic compounds is usually the same as their empirical formulas because
ionic compounds do not consist of discrete molecular units. For example, a solid sample
of sodium chloride (NaCl) consists of equal number of Na+ and Cl ions. In such a
compound there is a 1 : 1 ratio of cations to anions so that the compound is electrically
neutral. In fact, each Na+ ion is equally held by six surrounding Cl ions and vice versa.
Thus NaCl is the empirical formula for sodium chloride.
In order for ionic compounds to be electrically neutral, the sum of the charges on the
cation and anion in each formula unit must be zero. If the charges on the cation and anion
are numerically different, the following rule to be applied : The subscript of the cation is
numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and the subscript of the anion is
numerically equal to the charge on the cation. This rule follows from the fact that
because the formulas of ionic compounds are empirical formulas, the subscript must
always be reduced to the smallest ratios.

Naming Compounds
To organize and simplify the venture into naming compounds, inorganic compounds can
be divided into four categories : ionic compounds, molecular compounds, acids and
bases, and hydrates.
A. Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of cations and anions. Refer to Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 for
the common anions and cations names. Many ionic compounds are binary compounds,
or compounds formed from just two elements.

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Certain metals, especially the trasition metals, can form more than one type of cation. Eg.
Iron can form two cations : Fe2+ and Fe3+. The name of the compounds that these iron
ions form with chloride would be ferrous chloride (FeCl2) and ferric chloride (FeCl3).
However, by using the Stock System, which provide information regarding the actual
charges of the two cations, ferrous chloride becomes iron (II) chloride; and ferric chloride
is called iron (III) chloride.

B. Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds are usually composed of nonmetallic elements. Many molecular
compounds are binary compounds. The name of the first element is placed in the formula
first, and the second element is named by adding ide to the root of the element name.
Eg. HCl (hydrogen chloride), HBr (hydrogen bromide), and SiC (silicon carbide). For
elements with several compounds, confusion in naming compound is avoided by the use
of Greek prefixes to denote the number of atoms of each element present. Eg. CO (carbon
monoxide), CO2 (carbon dioxide), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), SO3 (sulfur trioxide), NO2
(nitrogen dioxide), and N2O4 (dinitrogen tetroxide).

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C. Acids and Bases

An acids can be described as a substance that yields hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved
in water. In some cases, two different names seem to be assigned to the same chemical
formula. Eg. HCl
(hydrogen chloride), and HCl (hydrochloric acid).
The name assigned to the compound depends on its physical state. In the gaseous or pure
liquid state, HCl is a molecular compound called hydrogen chloride. When it is dissolved
in water, the molecules break up into H+ and Cl- ions; in this state, the substance is called
hydrochloric acid. Oxoacids are acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another
element (the central element). The formulas of oxoacids are usually written with the H
first, followed by the central element and then O, as illustrated by the following
examples:
HNO3
nitric acid
H2CO3
carbonic acid
H2SO4
sulfuric acid
A base can be described as a substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved
in water. Eg. NaOH (sodium hydroxide), and KOH (potassium hydroxide).

D. Hydrates
Hydrates are compounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached to
them. For example, in its normal state, each unit of copper (II) sulfate has five water
molecules associated with it. The systematic name for this compound is copper (II)
sulfate pentahydrate, and its formula is written as CuSO45H2O. The water molecule can
be driven by heating. When this occurs, the resulting compound is CuSO4, which is
sometimes called anhydrous copper (II) sulfate; anhydrous means that the compound
no longer has water molecules associated with it.

1.6

MIXTURES: CLASSIFICATION AND SEPARATION

There are two broad classes of mixtures. A heterogeneous mixture has one or more
visible boundaries between the components. Thus, its composition is not uniform. A
homogeneous mixture has no visible boundaries because the components are mixed as
individual atoms, ions, and molecules. Thus, its composition is uniform.
A homogeneous is also called a solution. They can exist in three physical states. For
example, air is a gaseous solution of mostly oxygen and nitrogen molecules, and wax is a
solid solution of several fatty substances. Solutions in water, called aqueous solutions, are
especially important in chemistry and comprise a major portion of the environment and
of all organism.

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Basic Separation Techniques

All the separation method depend on the physical properties of the substances in the
mixture; no chemical changes occur.
Filtration separates the components of a mixture on the basis of differences in particle
size. It is used most often to separate a liquid from a solid. In vacuum filtration, reduced
pressure within the flask speeds the flow of the liquid through the filter.
Crystallization is based on differences in solubility. The solubility of a substance is the
amount that dissolves in a fixed volume of solvent at a given temperature. The purified
compound crystallizes as the solution is cooled.
Distillation separates components through differences in volatility, the tendency of a
substance to become gas. Ether, for example, is more volatile than water, which is much
more volatile than sodium chloride.
Extraction is also based on differences in solubility. In a typical procedure, a natural
material is ground in a blender with a solvent that extracts (dissolves) soluble compounds
embedded in insoluble material. This extraction is separated further by the addition of a
second solvent that does not dissolve in the first. After shaking in a separatory funnel,
some component are extracted into the new solvent.
Chromatography is a third technique based on differences in solubility. The mixture is
dissolved in a gas or liquid called the mobile phase, and the components are separated as
this phase moves over a solid (or viscous liquid) surface called the stationary phase. A
component with low solubility in the stationary phase spends less time there, thus
moving faster than a component is highly soluble in that phase.

1.7

THE MOLE

The mole (abbreviated mol) is the SI unit for amount of substance. It is defined as the
amount of a substance that contains the same number of entities as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12. This number is called Avogadros number (NA). The currently
accepted value is
NA = 6.0221367 X 1023
Generally, it is rounded to 6.022 X 1023. Thus, 1 mole of hydrogen atoms contains 6.022
X 1023 H atoms.
1 mole of carbon-12 atoms has a mass of exactly 12 g and contains 6.022 X 1023 atoms.
This mass of carbon-12 is its molar mass, defined as the mass (in grams or kilograms) of
1 mole of units (such as atoms or molecules) of a substance. Note that the molar mass of
carbon-12 (in grams) is numerically equal to its atomic mass in amu. Thus, if we know
the atomic mass of an element, we also know its molar mass.
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Atomic mass is the mass of the atom in atomic mass units (amu). One atomic mass unit
is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope that has six protons and six neutrons. Setting the atomic
mass of carbon-12 at 12 amu provides the standard for measuring the atomic mass of the
other elements. For example, experiment have shown that, on average, a hydrogen atom
is only 8.400 percent as massive as the carbon-12 atom. Thus, if the mass of one carbon12 atom is exactly 12 amu, the atomic mass of hydrogen must be 0.084 X 12.00 amu or
1.008 amu.
Average Atomic Mass. Referring to the periodic table, the atomic mass for a carbon is
not 12.00 amu but 12.01 amu. The reason for the difference is that carbon has more than
one isotope. This means that when measuring the atomic mass of an element, the average
mass of the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes must be considered. Eg. The natural
abundances of carbon-12 and carbon-13 are 98.90 percent and 1.10 percent respectively.
The atomic mass of carbon-13 has been determined to be 13.00335 amu. Thus the
average atomic mass of carbon can be calculated as follows :
(0.9890)(12.00000 amu) + (0.0110)(13.00335 amu)
= 12.01 amu

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Molecular Mass. The molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses (in amu) in the
molecule. Eg. The molecular mass of H2O is
or

2(atomic mass of H) + atomic mass of O

2(1.008 amu) + 16.00 amu = 18.02 amu

From the molecular mass, the molar mass of a molecule or compound can be determined.
The molar mass of a compound (in grams) is numerically equal to its molecular mass (in
amu). For example, the molecular mass of water is 18.02 amu, so its molar mass is 18.02
g. Note that 1 mole of water weighs 18.02 g and contains 6.022 X 1023 H2O molecules.

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1.8

General Chemistry

DETERMINING THE FORMULA OF AN UNKNOWN COMPOUND

Empirical Formulas
An analytical chemist investigating a compound decomposes it into simpler substances,
finds the mass of each component element, converts these masses to numbers of moles,
and then arithmetically converts the moles to whole-number (integer) subscripts. This
procedure yields the empirical formula, the simplest whole-number ratio of moles of
each element in the compound.
Molecular Formulas
If we know the molar mass of a compound, we can use the empirical formula to obtain
the molecular formula, the actual number of moles of each element in 1 mol of
compound. In some cases, such as water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), the empirical and
molecular formulas are identical, but in many others the molecular formula is a wholenumber multiple of the empirical formula. Hydrogen peroxide, for example, has the
empirical formula HO and the molecular formula H2O2. dividing the molar mass of H2O2
(34.02 g/mol) by the empirical formula (17.01 g/mol) gives the whole-number multiple,
2.

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1.9

General Chemistry

WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Chemical reaction is a process in which a substance (or substances) is changed into one
or more new substances. To communicate with one another about chemical reactions, a
chemical equation is used. Chemical equation use chemical symbols to show what
happens during a chemical reaction.
For example, when hydrogen gas (H2) burns in air (which contains oxygen, O2) to form
water (H2O). This reaction can be represented by the chemical equation :
H2 + O2

H2O

Where the plus sign means reacts with and the arrow means to yield. Thus, this
symbolic expression can be read : Molecular hydrogen reacts with molecular oxygen to
yield water. The reaction is assumed to proceed from left to right as the arrow indicates.
However, the above equation is not complete. To confirm with the law of conservation of
mass, there must be the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the arrow,
that is we can balance the equation by placing the appropriate coefficient in front of H2
and H2O.
2H2 + O2
2H2O
This balanced chemical equation shows that two hydrogen molecules can combine or
react with one oxygen molecule to form two water molecules.
Base on the equation, H2 and O2 are referred as reactant, which are the starting materials
in a chemical reaction.H2O is the product, which is the substance formed as a result of a
chemical reaction.
To provide additional information, physical states of the reactants and products can be
indicated by using the letters g, l, and s to denote gas, liquid, and solid, respectively.

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General Chemistry

CALCULATING AMOUNTS OF REACTANT AND PRODUCT

Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Whether the units given for reactants (or products) are moles, grams, liters, or some other
units, moles can be used to calculate the amount of product formed in a reaction. This
approach is called the mole method, which means simply that the stoichiometric
coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number of moles of each
substance.

Limiting Reagents. In general, for a reaction, the reactant are usually not present in
exact stoichiometric amounts, that is , in the proportions indicated by the balanced
equation. Because the goal of a reaction is to produce the maximum quantity of a useful
compound from the starting materials, frequently a large excess of one reactant is
supplied to ensure that the more expensive reactant is completely converted to the desired
product. Consequently, some reactant will be left over at the end of the reaction. The
reactant used up first in a reaction is called the limiting reagent, because the maximum
amount of product formed depends on how much of this reactant was originally present.
Excess reagents are the reactants present in quantities greater than necessary to react
with the quantity of the limiting reagent.

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Reaction Yield. The amount of limiting reagent present at the start of a reaction
determines the theoretical yield of the reaction, that is, the amount of product that would
result if all the limiting reagent reacted. The theoretical yield, then is the maximum
obtainable yield, predicted by the balanced equation. In practice, the actual yield, or the
amount of product actually obtained from a reaction, is almost always less than the
theoretical yield.
Example:

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Answer:

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