Boosting Methods in Highly Downsized Diesel Engines

Boosting Methods in Highly Downsized Diesel Engines
Approved objectives:
Find out which boosting method might be the best for automotive applications. What next for Diesel engine technology?
1.
Understand the background of the Diesel (CI) engine. How does a Diesel engine work? What are the main components?
Explain what it means to downsize them.
2.
What are the different methods for boosting a Diesel engine? Identify the boosting methods. Consider these devices
individually, and then compare and contrast them. Also reflect on boosting using different combinations of the devices.
3.
Talk about less used technology. Hybrid electro-diesel motors. KERS. These are systems, which boost the engine, but are
not integral to the engine like the turbocharger. What next for the Diesel engine? Being already downsized, are they at their
downsizing limit?
4.
Conclude with answers to question: what is the best method to boost a downsized diesel CI engine? What is the next step
for automotive diesel?
1!
ABSTRACT
This review will analyse the technology currently available or under development (or research) that enables extreme diesel engine
downsizing. Although different methods will be specified, the focus will be on positive-displacement devices and their
derivatives, as they are they can help the engine provide significantly more boosted power. The advantages, disadvantages, and
any recently published literature of these systems will be considered in depth. Next, the different downsizing enablers will be
contrasted. Ultimately, there are two aims: to determine what might be the best existing boosting method, and to evaluate the
future of the downsized diesel engine. It is clear that the best boosting method for downsizing a diesel engine largely depends on
the application. Furthermore, the diesel engine - although fast approaching its downsize limit could benefit enormously from
complimentary downsizing enablers, such as KERS, and BREES.
2!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT!
2!
INTRODUCTION!
5!
DIESEL ENGINE: OVERVIEW & BACKGROUND!

BOOSTING & DOWNSIZING!
BASIC THEORY!
ANCILLARY SYSTEMS!
FUEL DELIVERY!
EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION!
VALVETRAIN!
5!
5!
6!
6!
6!
6!
6!
TURBOCHARGERS!
6!
WASTE-GATED TURBOCHARGER!
VARIABLE GEOMETRY TURBOCHARGERS!
VARIABLE GEOMETRY COMPRESSOR!
ACTIVE CONTROL TURBOCHARGER!
TWIN-SCROLL/DOUBLE ENTRY!
MULTI-STAGE TURBOCHARGING!
SERIES MULTI-STAGE!
PARALLEL MULTI-STAGE!
7!
7!
7!
7!
7!
8!
8!
8!
SUPERCHARGERS!
8!
ROOTS!
VARIABLE SPEED SUPERCHARGING!
LONTRA BLADE SUPERCHARGER!
8!
8!
9!
E-HYBRIDISATION!
9!
ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGING!
ELECTRICALLY ASSISTED TURBOCHARGER!
TURBOCHARGER WITH ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN COMPRESSOR!
ELECTRICALLY SPLIT TURBOCHARGER!
ELECTRIC SUPERCHARGING!
TURBOSUPERGENERATOR!
9!
9!
10!
10!
11!
11!
TURBO-COMPOUNDING!
12!
MECHANICAL!
ELECTRICAL!
12!
13!
DOWN-SPEEDING!
13!
COMPOUND BOOSTING!
13!
OTHER TECHNOLOGIES!
14!
AIR HYBRID!
TURBO-DISCHARGING!
RANKINE CYCLE!
KINETIC ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEMS!
14!
14!
14!
15!
DISCUSSION!
15!
CONCLUSION!
16!
3!
REFERENCES!
17!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS!
20!
APPENDIX!
21!
BIBLIOGRAPHY!
DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS!
21!
21!
4!
Increasing any of the variables in the nominator of the

equation would increase the power output. Reducing engine
displacement clearly reduces the power output. Decreasing
the Air-to-Fuel (AFR) ratio will also increase the power
output. The intake air density can be increased using a
number of different boosting devices, such as a
supercharger. However, certain parameters are hard to
increase beyond a certain level. For example, maximum
engine speed is inherently limited by piston inertia, as well
as reduced mechanical efficiency (greater friction between
piston and cylinder). Reducing the AFR beyond a certain
point dramatically increases the levels of harmful pollutants
(3). This illustrates the incredible complexity of what affects
the diesel engine.
INTRODUCTION
DIESEL ENGINE: OVERVIEW &
BACKGROUND
Pioneered by Dr Rudolf Diesel in 1893, the diesel engine is
a compression ignition (CI), internal combustion (IC)
engine, which can operate on a 2- or 4-stroke cycle (1). The
diesel engine differs from the gasoline engine because it
uses diesel fuel, and does not ignite the fuel/air mixture with
a spark. Instead, the diesel engine draws in air from the
intake manifold into the cylinder and compresses it, which
causes its temperature to rise. The fuel is then injected
directly into the combustion chamber (cylinder), and ignites
due to the extreme temperature. The fuel/air mixture burns,
which releases energy and forces the piston down (1).
Regulating the amount of fuel injected in each cycle controls
the speed of the diesel engine. This is much unlike its
gasoline-fuelled counterpart, which throttles the air supply
in order to control its speed.
The European Commission publishes directives for engine

manufacturers stipulating emissions requirements. The most
recent of these is called Euro 6, which comes into force
January 2015 (4). Diesel engines inherently produce more
emissions, and therefore it is more difficult for
manufacturers to adhere to the requirements. Euro 6 requires
passenger diesel engines to produce no more than 80mg/km
of NOX less than half the level required in the previous
Euro 5 directive (5). The limit for hydrocarbons and nitrous
oxide emissions will be 170mg/km (6). Of course there are
several tax incentives for manufacturers and customers of
these vehicles, but producing a vehicle, which adheres to the
Euro standards, remains technically challenging and
expensive.
The diesel engine has several advantages over the petrol

engine. Initially only air is compressed, and the overall
compression ratio is much higher. As a result, it has a higher
maximum efficiency (2). Furthermore, due to the high
specific energy content of diesel fuel, it is inherently more
fuel-efficient. The diesel engine is also far more simple and
easier to maintain (due to the absence of spark plugs, coils,
etc.). They are also more durable, and are often considered
to have a far longer running life (1).
It is important to note that such regulations affect all cars big or small. Downsizing seems to be the industrys main
solution, although designing a highly downsized engine with
acceptable driveability is a concern to manufacturers. This,
in general, is resolved by integrating a downsizing enabler,
such as a turbocharger.
However, the diesel engine has a number of shortcomings.

The temperature of diesel fuel can greatly affect the power
output of the engine. This can result in having to include
special fuel heaters, in order to maintain a necessary
temperature range. Petrol engines can run at much faster
speeds, and tend to have better acceleration (or transient
response) (1). However, as will be explored in this literature
review, several solutions to this exist.
Downsizing simply means using a smaller displacement

engine in favour of a larger engine. Doing this reduces
internal losses (friction, thermal) (7). Downsizing an engine
alone would improve the engine fuel economy, however, it
greatly degrades the transient response of a diesel engine
(8). The proven limit for acceptable downsizing of a diesel
is 400cm3 per cylinder (9) Downsizing also reduces the
amount of CO2 the engine produces. An engine can be
downsized by reducing the volume of the cylinders, or by
reducing the number of cylinders, or by a combination of the
two (10). In fact, Bosch engineers have shown (11) that,
with the appropriate ancillary technology, and boosting
methods, a 3-cylinder diesel could adequately replace a 4cylinder engine (a more common configuration). Such an
engine would benefit from far lower NOX emissions and a
13% improvement of fuel efficiency. Naturally, Bosch
GmbH has also stated that the key enabler for this degree of
downsizing is an advanced fuel injection system, but the
study also acknowledges other key technologies, such as
BOOSTING & DOWNSIZING

An engine is boosted in order to increase its output power
and torque. Boosting is not so straightforward to define, as
there are many different methods. An automotive engineer
can look at modifying the air intake, the fuel injection
system, the combustion process, or even the entire engine
design in order to achieve the same thing (3).
It is worthwhile looking at the governing power equation for
an internal combustion engine, in order to visualise where
the power/torque increases could come from (3):
! = ! !!
!
!!!!
!!
!
!
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!
2!!60
!"# !"#. !"#$. !!!"#. !"#!.
EQUATION 1
5!
EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION
stop-start, and mild-hybridisation. Another separate study

(12) has identified the air charging system (i.e.
turbochargers and superchargers) as a key proponent of the
future of downsized diesel engines.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is a widely used

technique to reduce engine emissions, and improve fuel
consumption, although it lowers BMEP(14). As the name
suggests, the system cools and recirculates some of the
exhaust back to the engine cylinders, reducing effective
displacement volume. EGR works optimally in traffic,
where the vehicle often drives in low gear, with the engine
speed high. EGR also reduces pumping losses by helping
the piston to pump out the exhaust gas in the cylinder. NOX
emissions are reduced because combustion temperature is
lowered (13). EGR rates are important when designing the
turbocharging system, as recirculation requires high engine
boost pressure (15).
This review will analyse the technology currently available

or under development (or research) that enables extreme
diesel engine downsizing. Although different methods will
be specified, the focus will be on positive-displacement
devices and their derivatives, as they are they can help the
engine provide significantly more boosted power. The
advantages, disadvantages, and any recently published
literature of these systems will be considered in depth. Next,
the different downsizing enablers will be contrasted.
Ultimately, there are two aims: to determine what might be
the best existing boosting method, and to evaluate the future
of the downsized diesel engine.
VALVETRAIN
The valve timing of the engine is instrumental as it governs
the entire combustion process. Variable Valve Timing
(VVT) allows the engine to operate the valves with different
timings depending on engine speed. This increases power
and torque output. It is obvious to see why this is relevant to
downsizing. VVT also enables better exhaust gas
recirculation, which improves fuel efficiency. The engine
control unit (ECU) is used to regulate the VVT in many
modern engines (13).
BASIC THEORY
For the sake of clarity, it would help to define some
important terminology often used to quantify engines.
Pumping losses is the energy lost through compression and
moving the air in and out of the cylinder (13). The break
mean effective pressure (BMEP; N/m2) is the engine work
output, measured by a brake. It is the work, per cylinder, per
mechanical cycle, divided by the swept volume per cylinder.
The BMEP can be used to compare engines regardless of
displacement (2). The volumetric efficiency is the volume of
ambient air per cylinder, per cycle, divided by cylinder
volume it measures the effectiveness the induction and
exhaust processes (2). The break specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) measures the fuel efficiency of the engine (2).
Probably the most well known recent development in

valvetrain technology is Fiats MultiAir system (16). This
technology has been applied to Fiats (gasoline) spark
ignition (SI) engines, allowing downsizing to 0.9l
displacement. There has been some speculation (17) on the
company decision to apply the system to diesel models in
order to reduce NOX emissions, but so far this has not been
done. A recent study (16) has mentioned the possibility of
combining MultiAir with the alternative Homogeneous
Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engine but claims
that the benefits are outweighed by complicated
implementation.
ANCILLARY SYSTEMS
FUEL DELIVERY
As the fuel injection system controls the engine speed, its
design is paramount. The systems used in automotive
applications have varied from being mechanically or
electronically controlled.
The common rail injection system, pioneered by Bosch
GmbH, has been instrumental in facilitating very efficient,
high-speed automotive diesel engine (1). Diesel fuel is best
injected at very high pressure, which in a common rail
system is produced by a pump. The pressurised fuel is fed to
a common pipe (or rail) whilst its pressure is maintained.
Individual injectors, which are connected to the rail, feed the
fuel to the cylinders. High-pressure fuel is constantly
available, and can be injected with unparalleled timing
precision. The common rail injection increases fuel
efficiency, torque, and power, whilst reducing CO, CO2, and
particle pollutants (13). It has been proposed that in the
future, for downsizing purposes, very high-pressure
common rail systems will be developed (7).
!
TURBOCHARGERS
A turbocharger (or turbo) is a forced induction device,
integrated with an internal combustion engine, with the view
to improve its performance. It converts waste exhaust
energy into engine power (13). In its most basic form, the
turbocharger is a turbine (coupled to the engine exhaust),
and a compressor (coupled to the engine intake) on a
common shaft. As the turbine expands the exhaust gas, it
extracts energy and rotates. This causes the compressor to
also rotate and increase the density of air charge in the
combustion chamber (cylinder). The most basic design of
the turbocharger is the Fixed Geometry Turbocharger
(FGT). The FGT suffers from a major drawback: turbo-lag.
At low engine speed, the exhaust gas mass flow rate is low,
which means that the turbine is not able to draw sufficient
6!
power to drive the compressor. This is of particular concern

to diesel engines, which have notoriously poor transient
response. This issue is further compounded when the engine
is downsized.
impeller, or a variable geometry diffuser. Effectively, the

VGC allows the surge line to be moved, optimising control
over the turbocharger. Testing of a VGC engine shows
improved BSFC against a baseline during mild acceleration.
Turbo-lag is also reduced. In a study conducted, a VGC was
used in conjunction with a variable geometry turbine, and
EGR (21).
WASTE-GATED TURBOCHARGER
Following the development of the turbocharger, a major
problem became evident. As the engine speed increases, so
does the exhaust mass flow rate. The turbine spins faster
and, as a result, so does the compressor. It is clear that boost
pressure is proportional to engine speed (13). Typically, a
turbocharger will be designed in order to boost low speed
power/torque, and therefore the compressor will be geared
to provide high pressure at low speed. However, when the
engine is at high speed, the compressor can over-boost the
engine, potentially causing damage to the engine and
turbomachinery. The wastegate acts as a valve, allowing the
exhaust gas to bypass the turbocharger under these
conditions. The wastegate is often controlled by the ECU
(13).
ACTIVE CONTROL TURBOCHARGER

The Active Control Turbocharger (ACT) is a new type of
turbocharger, which could be the successor to the VGT. The
ACT accounts for what the VGT and previous turbochargers
could not account for: engine exhaust energy is not constant,
but pulsating. The ACT does this by varying its inlet area
through optimum amplitudes, mimicking the frequencies
of the incoming exhaust pulses. The benefit of such a system
is that exhaust energy can be harnessed more efficiently, and
thus the turbocharger would produce more energy.
A recent study concluded that in testing the current design
benefits from 15% more recovered power when compared
with a VGT.
This could be further improved if
modifications are made (22).
VARIABLE GEOMETRY TURBOCHARGERS

The Variable Geometry Turbocharger (VGT) was designed
to eliminate turbo-lag, and improve low engine speed output
power and torque (18). Today, most automotive diesel
engines are equipped with one (19). In fact, the VGT diesel
is often used to define the baseline automotive diesel engine.
Gasoline SI engines tend to produce comparatively higher
exhaust gas temperature than the diesel engine, typically
making them unsuitable candidates for heat-sensitive VGTs
(13,20).
Single stage turbocharger applications are essentially limited

to a pressure ratio of 4.5 as it is hard to balance them with
either end of the engine speed range. This means that multistage turbochargers are better suited to downsized diesel
engines (3).
Various techniques are employed in order to improve
turbocharging a downsized diesel engine. Implementing
different turbocharging arrangements (i.e. single, multi-,
parallel-turbocharging) (19) is the most common example.
However improving the rotating components of the
turbomachinery by reducing their inertia, as well
introducing ways to enhance the air supply (through
electrical energy) are other methods used in the automotive
industry (8).
The VGT allows very precise control over the pressure

difference across the engine (18). It works by changing the
geometry in the turbine stage of the turbocharger, allowing
control over the power transferred to the compressor.
Activating moving guide vanes or sliding nozzles enables
the inlet geometry to vary (19). Low engine output rpm
translates to low exhaust gas mass flow rate; the inlet area is
reduced. At high engine speed (high flow rate), the area is
increased to slow down the rotating turbine (13).
TWIN-SCROLL/DOUBLE ENTRY
The turbocharger can benefit from either twin or double
entry turbines. Double entry turbines have 2 entry ports.
Twin scroll turbines emulate a two-turbocharger system by
using one turbine fed by two exhaust pipes (23). At high
speed, the double entry turbine is more efficient, but at
partial load the twin scroll is better (19).
VARIABLE GEOMETRY COMPRESSOR

VGT turbochargers generally consist of a single-stage
turbine, which has variable geometry, and a fixed geometry
compressor. The downside to this design is that careful
consideration must be given to the operating point of the
compressor, as at high engine speeds compressor surge may
occur. This is when the airfoil of the compressor stalls, and
the intake airflow is disrupted, causing a loss of engine
power. This limits the efficiency of the compressor. A
variable geometry compressor (VGC) has been proposed, as
a method to resolve this issue. The VGC can either be
composed of variable inlet guide vanes before the
!
A variable geometry twin-scroll turbocharger is under

development by Integral Powertrains, which could be
applied a downsized diesel. It combines the technologies of
the VGT and twin-scroll entry. The turbochargers main
advantage is its ability to reduce backpressure and excess
EGR (24).
7!
A simple supercharger would typically be designed to boost

an engine at low speeds. This works as a double-edged
sword, as the engine could experience potentially damaging
over-boosting when it runs faster. This is overcome by
bypassing the supercharger when it is no longer required
(14). Alternatively, an electromagnetic clutch could be
deployed in order to de-couple it (Mercedes Kompressor
engine) (13). However, due to its parasitic design, at high
speeds the typical supercharger still saps engine power. This
is highly inefficient. A solution to this would be a variable
drive system (26), which would allow the supercharger to
run independently of the engine; always allowing it to
operate in ideal conditions (14).
MULTI-STAGE TURBOCHARGING
A multi-stage turbocharger (or twin-turbocharger, and
sometimes bi-turbocharger) has more than one compressor
or turbine stage. There are, of course, many different
arrangements of compressors/turbines, with the aim of the
system being to boost the engines intake pressure and
improve transient response. It is a commonly used
technology in the automotive industry. Multi-stage
turbocharging can be split into categories of series or
parallel, as well as continuous or sequential. The different
stages of the turbocharger can also be identical or different
sizes, depending on the desired characteristics (19).
However, a multi-stage turbo system implies that the use of
multiple turbochargers for which a downsized diesel engine
might not produce enough exhaust power. Manufacturers
have used such systems in engines of 2.0 litres displacement
or larger (Subaru, Mitsubishi, and Nissan are examples).
However as turbine compressor inertias become
progressively lower, this displacement threshold is dropping
(25).
ROOTS
The Roots is a positive-displacement device (pump). It is
comprised of two rotors, which rotate in order to compress
the air. The rotors do not mesh, which means that the
supercharger does not have to be lubricated in the
compression chamber (27). It is a reliable and simple
design. However, the original design of the Roots blower
made it noisy, low isentropic efficiency
(27).
A Roots-based supercharger in production is the Eaton TVS,
which is significantly more efficient, quieter, and operates
faster than the original design (28). Other aspects, which
will be considered later, make Eatons supercharger
attractive in compound boosting for downsized engines.
SERIES MULTI-STAGE
In series multi-stage turbos, there are two turbines fed by the
exhaust serially, which power either a small, high-pressure
compressor and a large, low-pressure compressor. The type
of compressor being powered depends on the engine
speed/load. The series multi-stage system does not produce
very high boost, and is thus not appropriate for high power
output diesel engines (19).
VARIABLE SPEED SUPERCHARGING

In work by McBroom et al. (14) an investigation was made
into the benefits of variable speed supercharging of a 2.2
litre diesel engine. This compares supercharging the engine
with an Eaton R570 against supercharging with a smaller
Eaton R410 equipped with a Continuously Variable
Transmission (CVT). A CVT has no fixed gear ratios. The
results show that the smaller supercharger could be used
with no engine power losses when compared with the larger
supercharger. The Eaton R410 was then compared with a
baseline turbocharged engine which effectively represents
current, production diesel engines. It was determined that
the engines BSFC was improved (by 5-10 g/kW-h) with the
R410 fitted. Further studies in this particular work
concluded that a CVT supercharger increased drivability.
PARALLEL MULTI-STAGE
Parallel twin-turbocharging uses turbochargers of the same
size, which are powered by different exhaust lines. As
exhaust gas is pulsating, an exhaust manifold is connected to
a group of sequentially firing cylinders, in order to maintain
suitable energy levels. This manifold is linked to one
turbine. There are at least two turbochargers in this
arrangement. The air is compressed by the turbochargers
independently, and then mixed (19).
Sequential and Continuous
There are a number of CVTs currently in development for

automotive application. Torotrak have developed a toroidal
cavity variable drive system, which has a transmission
efficiency of 83-89% (26). When used in a supercharger
configuration this system has a rated power capacity of
45kW. Another system is Fallbrook Technologies NuVinci
Continuously Variable Planetary (CVP) transmission, which
uses planetary kinematics. Purportedly, the main
advantage of this set-up is its compactness in the engine bay,
saving space. The CVP has been designed for use with a
SUPERCHARGERS
The supercharger is another device, which boosts the engine
intake air density. It is best described as a compressor,
which is directly driven by the engine output (crankshaft).
Notably - unlike the turbocharger - the supercharger does
not suffer from turbo-lag. This is very desirable in the
downsized diesel engine where, in order to attain a higher
efficiency, it should be boosted when running at low loads
(14).
!
8!
supercharger, and is designed to run at high BMEP even

when it is at its gear ratio limit (14).
with an additional electrically driven compressor, and the

electrically split turbocharger. These designs were compared
with a baseline VGT-equipped engine.
LONTRA BLADE SUPERCHARGER
ELECTRICALLY ASSISTED TURBOCHARGER
The Blade is another type of supercharging device. It can

produce high volumetric and thermal efficiency (29). Key,
however, is its ability to vary output flow and pressure
without the need for a CVT. Furthermore, when compared
with an Eaton TVS R900, the Blade demonstrated a far
better isentropic efficiency for a given pressure ratio. It also
has a superior pressure ratio to the Eaton, which is
advantageous in downsizing (30). So far, the blade
compressor has only proved interesting to the water
industry. It has yet to be used in a production motor vehicle.
The EAT can be used to mildly hybridise an engine. It is a

turbocharger with a motor/generator built into the bearing
house (33). It can work as an ideal short-term solution as it
can be installed in current turbocharged engines with
minimal modification (34). It significantly reduces turbolag (34). Importantly, the EAT is capable of energy transfer
in two directions. The energy can either be transferred to
power the turbos shaft, or it can be directed towards some
form of energy storage system. As a result, the EAT is very
dynamic version of the traditional turbocharger. It can
maintain turbocharger speed during gear changes.
Importantly, it can control turbocharger speeds under high
E-HYBRIDISATION
FIGURE!2!DIFFERENT!CONFIGURATIONS!OF!ELECTRICALLY!HYBRIDIZED!TURBOCHARGER!!(60)
engine speed conditions, whilst recovering exhaust energy

(no need for a waste-gate) (35). The EAT is useful for
downsizing the diesel engine as it will build torque output
quickly, and maintain
higher steady-state torque
at low engine speeds (32).
ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGING
The electrical hybridisation of a turbocharger has a number
of benefits. Notably, during a transient (i.e. acceleration or
load change), it would provide improved air delivery to the
engine (15), which would reduce turbo-lag
(31). A
hybridised
turbocharger
involves
including
a
motor/generator at some stage it can be integrated in a
number of different arrangements. Electric turbochargers
could allow the diesel engine to operate in a smaller, slower
speed range (15). Additionally, all electric turbocharger
configurations would allow the engine to benefit from
increased power output (32,33).
A limitation of the EAT is

that it is not possible to use
the full power of the
electric motor in some
cases (transient) as it could
cause compressor surge
FIGURE!
1!
EAT!
DESIGN! (32). Electrical energy is
CONFIGURATION!!(35)
lost when it is produced
and stored. There are also
mechanical losses from having to use a larger turbocharger
shaft (32). Also, when the motor is not in use electrical
energy is wasted due to the voltage induced on its shaft
(33).
In reference (32), a number of different arrangements of

electric turbocharging (e-turbo) are identified. Results of
this study show that the ideal electric turbocharger
arrangement depends largely on the application. However, it
was shown that all e-turbo arrangements contributed to
increased transient response (and thus driveability), as well
as improving steady-state torque (32). The study considers
the electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT), a turbocharger
!
In a study (35) investigating the acceleration performance

of the EAT-equipped diesel engine, it was found that the
9!
EAT can reduce turbo-lag without expending energy during

a transient engine acceleration. Furthermore, it was found
that particulate emissions and smoke levels were lowered,
without having affected the engine performance. Primarily,
the gains were attributed to increased airflow, smaller
manifold pressure difference, and reduced pumping losses
(35).
downsized diesel engine. However, BorgWarner have stated

in their study on eBoosting (33) that the TEDC has the
advantage of using inherently smaller electronics, whilst
consuming a comparable thermo-mechanical load.
ELECTRICALLY SPLIT TURBOCHARGER

The electrically split turbocharger (EST), by virtue of its
design and integration of electronics, allows the individual
control of the constituent mechanisms (36).
Importantly, the ESTs ability to independently control the
compressor and turbine means that their functions can be
optimised for the required engine performance (see
references (32,33) for further details).
In (32), two major disadvantages are highlighted. The use
of an EST causes experiences larger losses than in a
traditional turbocharger when transferring energy between
the turbine and compressor. It is also a heavy system and far
more costly to install.
FIGURE! 4! BLADE! SUPERCHARGER! VS! EATON! EFFICIENCY! OVER!

PRESSURE!RATIO!!(30)
Aeristech have developed an EST known as a full electric

turbocharger (36). Their technology supposedly allows full
control of the turbochargers constituent parts (compressor
and turbine). This also offsets the mechanical losses
introduced by having a heavier turbocharger shaft. In an
effort to improve the combustion process, the full electric
turbocharger matches the required charged air throughout
the engine speed range (36). The key advantages of this
device are the reduced cost of building a downsized engine,
a highly efficient turbocharger, and fuel consumption
reduced by 25%. Driving the full electric turbocharger is
Aeristechs highly electrically efficient (95%) permanentmagnet motor (36).
TURBOCHARGER WITH ELECTRICALLY

DRIVEN COMPRESSOR
The turbocharger with an additional electrically driven
compressor (TEDC) is another hybridized turbocharger
where the compressor is multi-staged; the first stage
compressor is powered by an electric motor, and the second
stage
powered
by
the
exhaust-driven
turbine.
This configuration has a number of features, which are
beneficial to the engine (32). The electrically driven
(smaller) first compressor will operate at high boost pressure
ratio when the engine is at low speeds, far away from its
surge limit. This compressor is also driven to the required
boost pressure faster. The use of two compressors makes
this e-turbo arrangement offers significant improvements to
transient response, and multiplies the pressure ratio (32,33).
At high engine speed this compressor is bypassed - it is
limited to operating at a smaller mass flow rate. The
compressor can be made from a different material as it is
detached from the turbine and not exposed to excess heat.
Critically, using a lighter material would contribute to a
lower inertia.
Tavcar et al. (32) made a comprehensive analysis of the

EAT, TEDC, and EST compared with a baseline VGTturbocharged diesel and came to a number of interesting
conclusions. There is no superior e-turbo; the results simply
help to select the appropriate e-turbo depending on the
application. The TEDC-equipped engine showed the highest
torque output at low engine speeds, and faster transient
response compared with the other two technologies. The
EAT, on the other hand, showed high torque output when
the engine speed was higher. The EST had a similar
The disadvantages found in using the TEDC is that the

electric compressor must be ultimately powered by the
engine shaft (32). It can be interpreted that this would cause
a parasitic leach of engine power at high speed, when the
TEDC is not in use.
As cited by Tavcar et al. (32), a study into the comparison
of the EAT and TEDC concluded that it was unresolved
which of the two arrangements is better suited to the
!
FIGURE! 3! AERISTECH! E@TURBO!

SYSTEM!!(36)
10!
transient response as the EAT; both were limited by the

compressor surge limit.
Further research must be made into the development of

optimised control methods (40). George et al (39) detail a
number of optimal methods for an electric supercharger. In
this study, a gasoline engine was electrically supercharged,
and it was identified that the system would improve torque
at low engine speed. The optimal control methods in this
case were SOC monitoring (state of charge) and smart
alternator charging. It is worth highlighting that the paper
states that 42V vehicle architecture would likely improve
the e-supers efficiency.
E-Turbos are not yet widely used in production vehicles.

Mild-hybridisation is catching on (see 2014 Buick Regal
(37)), but the technology is still under development. The
primary concern seems to be with reducing the mass
TURBOSUPERGENERATOR
Integral Powertrain (IP) (43) have developed a novel
technology known as the TurboSuperGenerator (TSG),
which seems to allow aggressive diesel downsizing. This
system is based on IPs SuperGen - a device that replaces
the engine alternator while providing mild-hybrid boosting.
It is predicted that the SuperGen will be integrated in
production cars some time between 2013-2015. The TSG
system consists of a low-pressure (VGT) turbocharger, and
the SuperGen device (essentially a hybridised supercharger).
The SuperGen is placed after the turbocharger, and acts as
the high-pressure compressor stage, making it a series
two-stage boosting system. Crucially, the TSG allows
greater range of EGR rates, which reduces emissions so that
Euro 6 targets can be met. The system also greatly increases
transient response of fitted diesel vehicles. Integral
Powertrain promises that the TSG can allow for an
aggressive downsizing by a ratio of up 2.5 without
compromising on driveability. Also the TSG offers modest
fuel saving benefits. IP have demonstrated that a TSG
prototype-fitted downsized engine generated a faster vehicle
acceleration time than a normal-sized naturally aspirated or
a sequentially turbocharged engine. When compared with an
Eaton supercharger, allegedly the SuperGen is significantly
more efficient at all boost conditions. (43).
FIGURE!6!BORGWARNER!EBOOSTER!DESIGN!!(33)
moment of inertia in the machinery. Compressor impellors

can be produced in (lighter) plastic instead of metal. A more
suitable electric motor could be used. It is probably also
necessary to switch to a vehicle electrical architecture using
a higher voltage (33).
ELECTRIC SUPERCHARGING
The electric supercharger (e-super) is a compressor driven
by an electric motor. It should not be mistaken with a device
commonly sold on the Internet with highly dubious
performance claims (38). It is likened to an e-turbo without
a turbine (19). Like its predecessor the supercharger the
e-supers impeller increases the intake manifold pressure
(39). Unlike the original supercharger, it is not mechanically
connected to the engine (belt or gear). Nor does it harvest
energy from the exhaust (40). Typically, the e-super will
consist of a centrifugal compressor, inverter, high-speed
motor (permanent magnet or otherwise), and an electrical
energy storage device (battery). Currently, models under
development are designed to work on 12V (40,41), 24V
(42), or 42V (39) vehicle architecture. The e-super can be
used standalone for boost in naturally aspirate engines, or in
conjunction with a turbocharger (42).
The electric supercharger eliminates turbo-lag in a
turbocharged engine, as well as increases the boost pressure.
The device also provides boost at low engine speed, making
it beneficial to downsized diesel applications (39). It is also
very compact, and easy to install into existing vehicle
platforms (42). An electric supercharger developed by
CPT/Valeo boasts fuel consumption savings of up to 10%
(42).
A current problem facing the development of the e-super is
the fact that presently, cars are being designed to work on
12V architecture. This is a problem also faced by e-turbos.
!
FIGURE! 5! GRAPH! SHOWING! TRANSIENT! RESPONSE! OF! TSG! VS!

N/A!ENGINE!AND!SEQUENTIAL!TURBO!!(43)
11!
power turbine (typically downstream from the

turbocharger), and the CVT connects straight to the engine
crankshaft. Purportedly, the CVT provides a suitable gearing
ratio, which can convert the high-speed rotation of the
turbine to the low-speed rotation of the crankshaft. Notably,
the Torotrak variator can control the direction of torque
and thus energy. This has interesting effects, because; it
allows the turbo-compound to act as a supercharger when
the mass flow rate in the exhaust is low; the variator
operates as a normal turbocharger during medium flow
rates; it recovers energy from the turbocharger at high flow
rates, also increasing engine braking. With the ability to
transfer 130kW at 90% efficiency, Torotrak have claimed
that this system is now suitable for turbo-compound
applications. The weight/dimensions of the CVT also justify
this (5kg; 1.6 litres). Obviously further in-vehicle studies
should be made to see the true effects/benefits of
implementing this system.
TURBO-COMPOUNDING
Turbo-compounding was commonly used in large
displacement aero engines (Napier Nomad, Case Steiger and
Detroit Diesel DD15 (26)). It is now making a comeback as
promising technology for automotive engines. Much of the
fuel energy consumed by a diesel engine (30-40%) is lost to
its environment (44). It is therefore possible to recoup a
considerable amount of work through the exhaust, which
would increase the engines efficiency. Turbo-compounding
a diesel engine would increase the BSFC and lower
pollutant levels (such as CO2) (44). There are two methods
to turbo-compound an engine: mechanical and electrical.
The primary issue with turbo-compounding is an increase in
backpressure on the exhaust system, which increases
pumping losses. Also in order to drive both the turbocharger
and downstream turbine, exhaust manifold pressure must be
raised. However the effects of this can affect engine balance
(45). This causes a loss of engine power. Clearly this limits
the amount of energy extractable from the exhaust.
A mechanical turbo-compound can be in series or

parallel. In series, the power turbine is downstream of the
turbocharger. There must be a considerable pressure ratio
over the powertrain. This requires a heightened pressure in
the exhaust manifold. This negatively affects the engine
(45). In parallel, the power turbine is placed in parallel with
the turbocharger turbine. This splits the mass flow rate
between both turbines (46).
Although, the turbo-compound isnt the only method for

increasing engine efficiency through extracting exhaust heat.
Other approaches include Rankine cycle-based systems
(using steam or organic fluids), and thermoelectric
generators (44).
MECHANICAL
Ismail et al. (45) considered the possibility of a series

turbo-compound in a small displacement engine. Simulating
an engine, with a converging nozzle in the exhaust line
representing the turbo-compound, it was found that a section
ratio of 0.4 represented the highest drop in pressure over the
engine. The baseline engine and the turbo-compounded (0.4
ratio nozzle) were compared. This simulation aimed to
evaluate the responsiveness of the engine with varying
backpressure. The study showed negative gains from turbocompounding in urban operating conditions. This effect
was from pumping losses and residual gases degrading
combustion. Under certain modifications, it was found that
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) increased the engines
BSFC. Ultimately, the gain from turbo-compounding was
only found when the engine was operating at high speed.
This is clearly not advantageous. This study would indicate
that turbo-compounding in series is not appropriate for
improving a downsized diesel engine for a vehicle.
Mechanical turbo-compounding involves installing with the

diesel engine an additional energy-recovery turbine along
with a turbocharger (44). This energy-recovery turbine, or
power turbine, extracts mechanical power from the exhaust
and feeds it back into the engine crankshaft via a gearbox.
Alternatively, an electrical generator can be used (44). It is
clearly very important to consider two aspects when
designing a turbo-compound: the power turbine efficiency
and how the power is fed back to the engine. A highly
efficient turbocharger turbine can result in more power
supplied to the compressor, whilst maintaining a high
pressure for the recovery power turbine to extract the highavailability work (46).
However, Ismail et al. (46) further studied the effects of

turbo-compounding in a parallel architecture. The authors
found that, although series turbo-compounding is more
capable at extracting energy, the parallel system produced
lower backpressure on the engine. In a parallel turbocompound it was found that a VGT was more appropriate,
whereas an FGT was suited to series turbo-compounding.
Additionally, it was observed that a parallel turbocompounding system could overcome aforementioned
FIGURE!7!MECHANICAL!TURBOCOMPOUND!SCHEMATIC!!(44)
Torotrak (26) are developing a CVT, which can be used in

turbo-compound applications. This system bypasses the
!
12!
engine losses if an adequately efficient turbocharger was

used.
DOWN-SPEEDING
A technique, which has recently garnered attention in
research literature, is engine down-speeding. Downspeeding is when the engine is run at a lower average speed
in order to make it operate at a higher efficiency. For
example, when a car is driven at low engine revs (i.e. very
low velocity, or in high gear), the engine consumes far less
fuel. Essentially down-speeding imitates this. Used
alongside downsizing, and forced induction/boosting, downspeeding improves drive cycle fuel consumption. It is
particularly relevant in downsized engine design, because
current production models of the diesel are quickly
approaching the industry accepted downsizing limit (49).
The turbo-compound can be applied mechanically in other

forms. For example, VanDyne have developed a mechanical
SuperTurbocharger (47). This novel, albeit complex, device
has a lot of potential for use in downsized diesel engines.
The SuperTurbo extracts heat from the exhaust using a
turbine and another shaft draws torque from the engine to
drive a compressor, which increases the engines power and
eliminates turbo-lag. It also directs excess energy straight to
the engine crankshaft. Another mechanism allows the
SuperTurbo to act as the engines supercharger. The
SuperTurbo makes use of a CVT to maximise efficiency.
Essentially, it is an innovative combination of
turbocharging, supercharging, and turbo-compounding (19)
The SuperTurbo increases overall engine efficiency
(capturing 30% of exhaust energy). Its ability to eliminate
turbo-lag is clearly extremely advantageous in downsizing
diesel engines (47).
However, an immediate, obvious drawback of downspeeding a modern (VGT-equipped) diesel would be an

unacceptable increase in turbo-lag. The transient
performance and driveability of the engine would be greatly
compromised. Therefore it is clear that certain other
technologies must be used in order to maintain acceptable
engine performance (49).
ELECTRICAL
There are two acknowledged ways for down-speeding a

drivetrain (49). The first is to down-speed the engine at all
times, by increasing the gearing ratio and extending the final
drive range. Despite being efficient in transient and steadystate situations, it minimises the output torque. The second
strategy requires a gear-shift strategy. This means upshifting
a lot earlier than normal and holding the engine in high gear
for longer; both of these techniques can grossly effect
driveability. Using a supercharger or turbocharger (or
similar) is a solution to this problem.
The electric turbo-compound features a turbocharger with an

integrated high-speed generator (44). The turbines output
power, however, is not limited, and the excess is used to
drive the generator. The generator is used to power the
vehicles electric loads.
The electrical turbo-compound has advantages over its
mechanical equivalent. Namely, in the electrical turbocompound, the turbine speed can run optimally (maximum
efficiency) as the torque generated can be varied (45).
Furthermore, the mechanical turbo-compound suffers from
slip (in the fluid coupling), and runs with limited efficiency
due to its direct gearing to the engine crankshaft.
It is clear that down-speeding does, and will continue to play

an important role alongside downsizing.
Control Power Technologies (CPT) have developed an

exhaust gas energy recovery turbine, known as a
Turbogenerator Integrated Gas Energy Recovery System, or
TIGERS. This device (under development) converts waste
gas into electrical power and can run on 12V or 48V
architecture. What sets TIGERS apart from other electrical
turbo-compound devices is that it uses special control
methods which allow it to only harvest energy under optimal
conditions, with minimal effect on the engine performance
(48).
COMPOUND BOOSTING
It is possible to combine the use turbochargers and
superchargers as a multistage system on an engine in order
to achieve certain transient and steady state characteristics.
The different configurations enable aggressive engine
downsizing and down-speeding.
Keidel et al. (50) conducted a study on supercharging and
down-speeding a heavy-duty diesel engine. The
investigation considered the effects of different boosting
arrangements, down-speeding, and EGR on the engine. The
findings of this work determined an increase in drive cycle
fuel economy, while transient efficiency improvements leapt
dramatically. Two forms of compound boosting are
identified: the Super-Turbo, and the Turbo-Super. These
compound boosting methods both use a supercharger and
turbocharger, but in each case the devices serve slightly
different purposes. In the Super-Turbo system, the
supercharger is the low-pressure compressor, and the
13!
FIGURE!8!VANDYNE!SUPERTURBO!!(47)
turbocharger provides high-pressure boost. In the TurboSuper, this is the opposite (51). The reason for using either
the Super-Turbo (S-T) or Turbo-Super (T-S) is so that the
boosting system can be optimised for certain engine load
points. Furthermore, the turbocharger and supercharger
complement each other by compensating for when either is
not functioning optimally (e.g. turbocharger inefficient at
low engine rpm). It is noted that in such an arrangement, a
FGT can substitute a VGT while still meeting EGR and
power requirements (50).
TURBO-DISCHARGING
This technology is designed to work auxiliary to a
turbocharger. It is the installation of turbine to extract
energy from the exhaust in order to depressurise the exhaust
manifold. The depressurisation is caused by a compressor
pump located downstream of the turbine, with its output is
connected to the exhaust. This design reduces pumping
losses, reduces the residual gas fraction, and improves
engine fuel consumption. It does not affect the combustion
process. It can be applied to most internal combustion
engines, and does not alter the engine design significantly.
Turbo-discharging works by isolating the exhaust blowdown
from the displacement pulse. The exhaust blowdown pulse
is the energy in the exhaust from the expanding gases in the
cylinder. The pistons movement causes the displacement
pulse in the exhaust flow. The pressure ratio across the
turbocharger is increased (52).
A further study (49) of sequential twin-turbocharger, turbosuper, super-turbo applications on a passenger car diesel
found that the supercharged systems produced better fuel
consumption figures. The T-S system displayed better drive
cycle fuel economy than the S-T.
OTHER TECHNOLOGIES
Turbo-discharging is most effective when the engine is at

part-load. The authors (52) found that turbo-discharging
increased the low-speed torque in a gasoline engine by 2
BMEP. Furthermore, the part-load fuel consumption was
improved by up to 7%. Due to the effect turbo-discharging
has on the turbocharger, it was suggested that the method
could improve the engines transient response.
There are numerous other novel technologies under

development, which aim to increase the ability to further
downsize the diesel engine. The improvements these
technologies offer include increased fuel efficiency,
transient response, and output power and torque. These
technologies can complement available boosting machines
(turbochargers, superchargers, etc.) but are not integral to
the engine, or provide boost by themselves.
RANKINE CYCLE
AIR HYBRID
It is possible to increase the thermal efficiency of a

downsized diesel engine by adding a closed steam Rankine
cycle. This technology is still very much in a research phase.
However, it has shown some promising results. Like other
boosting methods, the Rankine cycle recovers energy lost as
heat through the exhaust gases. The set-up requires the use
of specially optimised heat exchangers: one for
superheating, and one for vapour generation (53).
The air-assist hybrid or Breaking Exhaust Energy Storage

(BREES) is a solution to turbo-lag in a downsized
turbocharged diesel. Compressed air is injected into the
exhaust manifold when the exhaust mass flow rate is low, in
order to respond to a transient torque requirement. The air
injected is regulated by a control valve, and is stored in
compressed gas tank. Due to the high pressures in the
exhaust manifold during engine overrun, the gas tank is
recharged. The overall system is very simple to fit, as it only
requires an additional gas tank, control valve, and additional
exhaust manifold connection. However, in its current form,
BREES recharges unacceptably slowly; the clutch must be
disengaged for about 3 seconds. Furthermore - of particular
relevance to automotive applications - the gas tank is
relatively large (20).
A study (53) that combined the Rankine cycle with a 3.4

litre Toyota 13B diesel engine, demonstrated a 23.7%
increase in power. Although, the heat recovery was most
effective when the engine was operating at high output
power, integrating a Rankine cycle translated to an increase
of the engines BSFC by 20%, while increasing the overall
efficiency by an additional 11%.
Briggs et al. (54) found that a light-duty VGT-equipped
diesel engine demonstrated a thermal efficiency of 45%
when using a combined Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
system. The authors did not see it suitable to investigate
transient effects, but instead concentrated on peak
efficiency. Importantly, Briggs et al found specified that a
downsized diesel would increase exhaust gas and EGR
temperatures, thus making an ORC system more effective.
However, it is questionable how effective it will be to
integrate ORC technology into a passenger car, as current
work has not yet demonstrated its feasibility.
Cieslar et al. (20) studied the prospect of BREES. The study

considered a light-duty 2.0 litre diesel of 120kW maximum
output, equipped with a VGT and EGR. The experiments
reviewed the transient response of BREES when turbo-lag is
generally more pronounced: when the transmission is in
high gear. 3rd gear tip-in acceleration to a set torque was
improved by 60%. The authors also explain that the system
could be integrated with a wastegated FGT, instead of a
VGT.
!
14!
Earlier work by Endo et al (55) found that a Rankine cycleequipped hybrid vehicle (using power recovered through a
configuration of heat exchangers and a turbine to generate
electricity) exhibited a sizeable (13.8%) increase in thermal
efficiency.
characteristics. However, these devices add an incredible

amount of complexity to the engine architecture.
The supercharger has never played an individual role in
diesel engines as it does not provide adequate boost to the
engine. The trade-off between the increase in power and its
parasitic effect on engine power is not acceptable. However,
KINETIC ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEMS

Popularised in Formula 1, Kinetic Energy Recovery
Systems (KERS) recovers energy otherwise lost through
braking. It is beneficial particularly in stop-start driving
conditions, where a vehicle accelerates and decelerates
frequently. The energy recovered is fed back to the
drivetrain when the vehicle next accelerates. As well as
reducing fuel consumption, KERS can provide a temporary
torque boost (56). The use of regenerative braking
presupposes that the system has been charged (i.e. it only
functions following vehicle braking), so it can be assumed
that the system is geared to the improvement of transients.
FIGURE!9!FUEL!CONSUMPTION!AND!CO2!PROJECTION!FOR!DIESEL!
&!GASOLINE!ENGINES!!(19)
KERS can either be mechanical or electrical. Mechanical

KERS uses the recovered braking energy to spin a flywheel,
which is connected to the drivetrain via a CVT only when
extra power is needed. Electrical KERS uses the recovered
energy to charge a battery with a motor/generator. The
electrical energy stored in the battery is converted back to
mechanical energy, which powers the wheels when required
(57). Electrical KERS suffer from poor efficiency (about
35%) given that energy is transferred and its form converted
several times (56). Mechanical KERS benefits from 70%
efficiency, as the form of energy does not change, allowing
for a 30% reduction in fuel consumption (26,58,59).
Additionally, the system charges very quickly (50ms), and
the engine is turned off during braking (56).
new designs, such as the blade supercharger, offer some

promising possibilities. The advent of variable speed
systems such as CVTs and CVPs also provide
unprecedented returns for the supercharger.
E-hybridisation (mild-hybrid) of turbos and superchargers,
as a new technology, has displayed some extremely
interesting results in the lab. Some automotive
manufacturers have already chosen to incorporate various,
simple e-turbos into their production models. E-turbos and
e-supers both offer simple, yet effective solutions to issues
such as turbo-lag and turbocharger over-boosting. The
technology eliminates moving parts in favour of
regenerative motor/generators. The design of e-hybrid
devices allow for two-way flow of energy. E-turbochargers
and e-superchargers will clearly play an important roll in the
future of boosting for diesel engine downsizing.
A study (56) into downsizing a 1.2 litre diesel with the help
of a KERS powertrain concluded that the engine showed a
reduction of CO2 emissions and improved fuel energy use by
more than 10% when compared with than current, modern
hybrid electric vehicles. The study compared a baseline
1.6TDI diesel engine with the aforementioned 1.2TDI
downsized KERS-equipped engine, and showed the smaller
engine used 30% less fuel.
There are benefits from using a mechanical turbo-compound

on a diesel engine. However, in general the mechanical
turbo-compound is large and would be impractical in a small
passenger vehicle. VanDynes SuperTurbo is an exception,
and provides the ability to downsize an engine by 50%. The
SuperTurbo offers many advantageous qualities to a
downsized engine. The electrical turbo-compound also
offers very favourable abilities for downsizing.
DISCUSSION
It is clear that the VGT reigns supreme for current diesel
engine technology. However, to enable further, aggressive
downsizing, the VGT is not well equipped. Perhaps the
variable geometry compressor will play a roll in the next
generation of turbochargers, as it is a straightforward
method to increase control over the turbocharger. Also it is
evident that the best turbocharged system to downsize the
diesel with is the multi-stage turbocharger. The multi-stage
turbocharger offers ideal transient and steady state
!
It is clear that down-speeding will play an increasingly

important role as a downsizing enabler. Although the
difficulty is that, alongside downsizing, down-speeding an
engine compromises on engine driveability. The decrease in
engine performance is overcome by boosting devices.
However, these devices evidently have a harder job to do.
Optimal down-speeding and downsizing engines will likely
have to wait for boosting devices which are suited for the
posed challenges.
15!
As previously stated, the downsized engine is limited by the

acclaimed limit of 400cm3 per cylinder. However there are
continuously advances in various technologies which
complement downsizing. Rankine-Diesel combined cycle
engines may be feasible for passenger cars. BREES
charging of the air intake also offers exceptional results.
KERS is undoubtedly a future technology as traffic levels
rise, and stop-start travel becomes the global norm.
FIGURE! 10! POTENTIALS! OF! VEHICLE! MEASURES! AND! MILD@

HYBRID!FOR!FURTHER!DECREASING!OF!FUEL!CONSUMPTION!AND!
NOX!EMISSIONS!!(11)
CONCLUSION
It is clear that the best boosting method for downsizing a
diesel engine largely depends on the application.
Furthermore, the diesel engine - although fast approaching
its downsize limit could benefit enormously from
complimentary downsizing enablers, such as KERS, and
BREES.
16!
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INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

PART D-JOURNAL OF AU 2011;225 1167-1185.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge and thank Professor
R. F. Martinez-Botas for his continued support and guidance
throughout this literature review project.
20!
APPENDIX
DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AFR Air-to-fuel ratio

Autozine
BMEP Break mean effective pressure
www.autozine.org
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
Torotrak
www.torotrak.com
CI Compression Ignition
Fallbrook Tech NuVinci

CVP Continuously Variable Planetary Transmission
www.fallbrooktech.com
CVT Continuously Variable Transmission
BorgWarner
www.borgwarner.com
EAT Electrically Assisted Turbocharger
Eaton
Volumetric/Combustion/Thermal/Mechanical Efficiency
www.eaton.com
VanDyne
EST Electrically Split Turbocharger
www.vandynesuperturbo.com
HCCI Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
Lontra
IC Internal Combustion
www.lontra.co.uk
! Engine Speed
Valeo/CPT
www.valeo.com
ORC Organic Rankine Cycle
Aeristech
www.aeristech.co.uk
P Engine Power Output
Integral Powertrain
!! Intake Ambient Air Density
www.integralp.com
!!!! - Fuel Lower Heating Value

SI Spark Ignition
TEDC Turbocharger with Electrical
TSG -TurboSuperGenerator
!! -Engine Displacement
VGC Variable Geometry Compressor
VVT Variable Valve Timing
21!

Boosting Methods in Highly Downsized Diesel Engines

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