CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Water is essential for life. People, animals, and plants all need water to live and to grow. But in
many parts of the world people lack enough water to stay healthy. Many people have to travel
long distances to collect water. And often the water that is available is not safe to drink. If
people do not have enough water for their daily needs, they face hardship and serious illnesses,
on the contrary, when a community has a water supply that is accessible and safe, everyones
health is improved.

Water is natures gift, but there is a limit to what nature can provide. In many places the
amount of water for drinking is becoming dangerously low. Where land has been paved and
trees cut down, rain that once soaked the ground and was stored as ground water now runs off
into the ocean and becomes salt water. Much of the water that is left is too polluted for human
use (Conant 2009).

Benefits of improved water availability

There a number of potential benefits of improved access to water supply, some of which are
listed below:

1. Convenience.
2. The time saved by having a safe water source closer to the household can be very
significant.
3. The physical requirement of having to fetch water from far is eliminated.

4. Measures that improve the availability of water eliminate vendors from the picture and
thus directly benefiting families.
5. Water becomes available even for agricultural activities.
6. Sanitation is improved with water availability.

1.1 Statement of the problem and problem analysis

Lack of water for personal consumption and farming is the most urgent problem in Ukambani
and is for most a matter of basic survival. Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink
may be a famous saying, but it is a reality in Ukambani. A mention of water in this country more
often than not brings to mind the problems facing many Kenyans including people from
Nzeveni. Water in the study area is a rare commodity; this is because though it is essential to
human beings, it is not as equally available to all everywhere as it should be.
Currently, accessibility to water remains a major problem in the Nzeveni. The task of collecting
water from the only available source (private borehole) which is approximately 5km away is left
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to women and girls. The number of people trying to get water from the source creates
congestion and very long queues thus wasting most of their day time. This means that no other
work is done during the day except fetching water. Also in this private borehole, water is sold
and thus making it difficult for the poor families to access enough water.
The chronic water shortage is causing a serious concern to all: water crisis is due not only in the
wave of drought but also poor management and conservation of the water, under investment
and rampant deforestation. Though, the potential water resources available in the study area
are abundant, it is under- exploited. An area that suffers frequent water stress and water
scarcity is said to experience water shortage that causes serious production problems and
economic development.

*Pictures showing residents of Nzeveni queuing for water

1.2 Site analysis and inventory

Makueni County is an agricultural zone. Almost all rivers are seasonal. As a result, Makueni
often endures serious droughts, triggering poverty and destabilizing entire communities.
Scarcity of water is the over-arching theme in Makueni. Makueni has a population density of
110.4 people per km2. Temperatures in the county range from a minimum of 12C to a
maximum of 28C and rainfall ranges from 150 mm to 650 mm per annum, typical of ASALs in
Kenya. The county has two rainy seasons with two peaks in March / April (long rains) and
November/December (short rains). From June to October is a long dry period, while January to
March is a short one. The high temperature experienced in the low-lying areas cause high
evaporation.
Nzeveni is an area within this county. It is located at the west of Makueni, specifically in
Itumbule sub-location, Ngaamba, Kilome constituency. It borders Kajiado County. The major
activity in Nzeveni is subsistence agriculture.
Within Nzeveni is River Kiu, a seasonal river passing through the area. During the rainy season
this river has a lot of water and people use it for domestic purposes. However, this water does
not last for a long time; it dries off about a month after the rains. People therefore go back to
their normal hustle of getting water. This therefore calls for a measure to store this water for
use during the dry season.

FIGURE 1

1.3 Objectives
1.3.1

Overall objective

The overall objective of this project is design a multipurpose dam to enable communities in
Nzeveni ,a typical ASAL in Kenya, gain access to water for their utilization and also have enough
to practice small scale farming and thus generate income for their families and alleviate poverty
within the community

1.3.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives are to:1. Estimate the water demand in the study area.
2. Identify the type and suitable location for the dam
3. Establish the amount of water that can be stored in the reservoir
4. Establish the specifications of the dam

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Sources of water
There are basically three categories of naturally occurring water resources as given by Keast
&Gray (1999).
1. Groundwater: occurs under most of the worlds land surface, but there are great
variations in the depths at which it is found, its mineral quality, the quantities present
and the rates of infiltration (thus yields potential) and the nature of the ground above it
(thus accessibility).
2. Rainwater collection, from roofs or larger catchment areas ,can be utilized as a source of
drinking water, particularly where there are no other safe water sources available (for
example in areas where ground water is polluted or too deep to economically tap). In
extreme situations, small quantities of water can be condensed from the atmosphere
(as dew) on screens or similar devices.
3. Surface water, in streams, lakes and ponds it is readily available in many populated
areas, but it is almost always polluted. It should only be used after an elaborate
treatment process.

2.1.1 Factors to be considered in selecting a suitable water source

While water is a very essential commodity for life, careful considerations are needed in
selecting an appropriate source for community water supply. House, Reed & Shaw (1997)
outlined some of the pertinent considerations as discussed below:

1) Socio- political and cultural considerations. If the water supply is not culturally
appropriate, and causes security difficulties or restricts access for certain groups the
benefits of the new system will be limited
2) Water committees. Water committees are set up in many areas to manage water supply
systems. Care must be taken to ensure that all groups in the community are represented
and can make their concerns and needs heard and understood
3) Operation and maintenance. Care must be taken when identifying personnel both to
undertake training and to be responsible for operation and maintenance.
4) Yield versus demand. The yield must be adequate. If a more convenient supply is
developed, then consideration must be given to the potential increase in demand and
the possible migration of outsiders into the community, particularly in areas where
water is scarce
5) Water quality. The water quality must also be acceptable and treatment methods suited
to the community concerned
6) Technical requirements. The development of the source must be technically feasible
and the operation and maintenance requirements for the source abstraction and supply
system must be appropriate to the resources available
7) Economic considerations. Care must be taken to ensure that funds are available for both
the construction and the operation and maintenance of the system over the longer term
8) Legal and management requirements. Current ownership of the land and the legal
requirements of obtaining permission to impound or abstract are also factors to
consider when selecting a source. Sources of private land may cause access problems

for certain groups which may not be apparent at the outset. The consequences of sitting
decisions must be considered carefully
9) Impacts of development. The use of a particular water source will have impacts on the
people who use it, on animals, and on the environment. The impacts on people may be
negative or positive and maybe related amongst other things, to health, economic
status or time. If a surface water source is used there may be impacts on remote users
and, likewise, if waste water enters surface water sources there may be similar impacts.
Impacts on the environment may include loss of vegetation, erosion, or draining of an
aquifer.

2.2 Need for dams

In ancient times, dams were built for the single purpose of water supply or irrigation. As
civilizations developed, there was a greater need for water supply, irrigation, flood control,
navigation, water quality, sediment control and energy. Therefore, dams are constructed for a
specific purpose such as water supply, flood control, irrigation, navigation, sedimentation
control, and hydropower. A dam is the cornerstone in the development and management of
water resources development of a river basin. The multipurpose dam is a very important
project for developing countries, because the population receives domestic and economic
benefits from a single investment.

Demand for water is steadily increasing throughout the world. There is no life on earth without
water, our most important resource apart from air and land. During the past three centuries,
the amount of water withdrawn from freshwater resources has increased by a factor of 35,
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world population by a factor of 8. With the present world population of 5.6 billion still growing
at a rate of about 90 million per year, and with their legitimate expectations of higher standards
of living, global water demand is expected to rise by a further 2-3 percent annually in the
decades ahead.
But freshwater resources are limited and unevenly distributed. In the high-consumption
countries with rich resources and a highly developed technical infrastructure, the many ways of
conserving, recycling and re-using water may more or less suffice to curb further growth in
supply. In many other regions, however, water availability is critical to any further development
above the present unsatisfactorily low level, and even to the mere survival of existing
communities or to meet the continuously growing demand originating from the rapid increase
of their population. In these regions man cannot forego the contribution to be made by dams
and reservoirs to the harnessing of water resources.

2.2.1 The purposes of dams

Most of the dams are single-purpose dams, but there is now a growing number of multipurpose
dams. Using the most recent publication of the World Register of Dams, irrigation is by far the
most common purpose of dams. Among the single purpose dams, 48 % are for irrigation, 17%
for hydropower (production of electricity), 13% for water supply , 10% for flood control, 5% for
recreation and less than 1% for navigation and fish farming.

Irrigation:

Presently, irrigated land covers about 277 million hectares i.e. about 18% of world's arable land
but is responsible for around 40% of crop output and employs nearly 30% of population spread
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over rural areas. With the large population growth expected for the next decades, irrigation
must be expanded to increase the food capacity production. It is estimated that 80% of
additional food production by the year 2025 will need to come from irrigated land. Even with
the widespread measures to conserve water by improvements in irrigation technology, the
construction of more reservoir projects will be required

Hydropower:
Hydroelectric power plants generally range in size from several hundred kilowatts to several
hundred megawatts, but a few enormous plants have capacities near 10,000 megawatts in
order to supply electricity to millions of people. World hydroelectric power plants have a
combined capacity of 675,000 megawatts that produces over 2.3 trillion kilowatt-hours of
electricity each year; supplying 24 percent of the world's electricity.
In many countries, hydroelectric power provides nearly all of the electrical power. In 1998, the
hydroelectric plants of Norway and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire)
provided 99 percent of each country's power; and hydroelectric plants in Brazil provided 91
percent of total used electricity.
Electricity generated from dams is by very far the largest renewable energy source in the world.
More than 90% of the world's renewable electricity comes from dams. Hydropower also offers
unique possibilities to manage the power network by its ability to quickly respond to peak
demands. Pumping-storage plants, using power produced during the night, while the demand is
low, is used to pump water up to the higher reservoir. That water is then used during the peak

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demand period to produce electricity. This system today constitutes the only economic mass
storage available for electricity.
Water supply for domestic and industrial use:
It has been stressed how essential water is for our civilization. It is important to remember that
of the total rainfall falling on the earth, most falls on the sea and a large portion of that which
falls on earth ends up as runoff. Only 2% of the total is infiltrated to replenish the groundwater.
Properly planned, designed and constructed and maintained dams to store water contribute
significantly toward fulfilling our water supply requirements. To accommodate the variations in
the hydrologic cycle, dams and reservoirs are needed to store water and then provide more
consistent supplies during shortages.
Inland navigation:
Natural river conditions, such as changes in the flow rate and river level, ice and changing river
channels due to erosion and sedimentation, create major problems and obstacles for inland
navigation. The advantages of inland navigation, however, when compared with highway and
rail are the large load carrying capacity of each barge, the ability to handle cargo with largedimensions and fuel savings. Enhanced inland navigation is a result of comprehensive basin
planning and development utilizing dams, locks and reservoirs which are regulated to provide a
vital role in realizing regional and national economic benefits. In addition to the economic
benefits, a river that has been developed with dams and reservoirs for navigation may also
provide additional benefits of flood control, reduced erosion, stabilized groundwater levels
throughout the system and recreation.
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Flood control:
Natural river conditions, such as changes in the flow rate and river level, ice and changing river
channels due to erosion and sedimentation, create major problems and obstacles for inland
navigation. The advantages of inland navigation, however, when compared with highway and
rail are the large load carrying capacity of each barge, the ability to handle cargo with largedimensions and fuel savings. Enhanced inland navigation is a result of comprehensive basin
planning and development utilizing dams, locks and reservoirs which are regulated to provide a
vital role in realizing regional and national economic benefits. In addition to the economic
benefits, a river that has been developed with dams and reservoirs for navigation may also
provide additional benefits of flood control, reduced erosion, stabilized groundwater levels
throughout the system and recreation.

2.3 Reservoirs
A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a dam across a river. Broadly
speaking, any water pool or a lake may be termed a reservoir. However, the term reservoir in
water resources engineering is used in a restricted sense for a comparatively large body of
water stored on the upstream of a dam constructed for this purpose. Thus a dam and a
reservoir exist together. The discharge in a river generally varies considerably during different
periods of a year. If a reservoir serves only one purpose, it is called a single-purpose reservoir.
On the other hand, if it serves more than one purpose, it is termed a multipurpose reservoir.
The various purposes served by a multipurpose reservoir include :irrigation, municipal and

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industrial water supply, flood control, hydropower, navigation, recreation, development of fish
and wild life, soil conservation, pollution control and mosquito control.
Types of Reservoirs
Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be broadly classified into five types:
1. Storage (or conservation) reservoirs
2. Flood control reservoirs
3. Multipurpose reservoirs
4. Distribution reservoirs.
5. Balancing reservoirs
1. Storage reservoirs
Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs because they are used to conserve
water. Storage reservoirs are constructed to store the water in the rainy season and to release
it later when the river flow is low. Storage reservoirs are usually constructed for irrigation,
municipal water supply and hydropower. Although the storage reservoirs are constructed for
storing water for various purposes, incidentally they also help in moderating the floods and
reducing the flood damage to some extent on the downstream. However, they are not
designed as flood control reservoirs.
2. Flood control reservoirs
A flood control reservoir is constructed for the purpose of flood control it protects the areas
lying on its downstream side from the damages due to flood. However, absolute protection
15

from extreme floods is not economically feasible. A flood control reservoir reduces the flood
damage, and it is also known as the flood-mitigation reservoir. Sometimes, it is called flood
protection reservoir. In a flood control reservoir, the floodwater is discharged downstream till
the outflow reaches the safe capacity of the channel downstream. The excess water is stored in
the reservoir. The stored water is subsequently released when the inflow to reservoir
decreases. Care is, however, taken that the discharge in the channel downstream, including
local inflow, does not exceed its safe capacity. A flood control reservoir is designed to moderate
the flood and not to conserve water. However, incidentally some storage is also done during
the period of floods. Flood control reservoirs have relatively large sluice-way capacity to permit
rapid drawdown before or after the occurrence of a flood.
3. Multipurpose Reservoirs
A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed to serve two or more purposes. Most of
the reservoirs are designed as multipurpose reservoirs to store water for irrigation and
hydropower, and also to effect flood control.
4. Distribution Reservoir
A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to tide over the peak demand of water for
municipal water supply or irrigation. The distribution reservoir is helpful in permitting the
pumps to work at a uniform rate. It stores water during the period of lean demand and supplies
the same during the period of high demand. As the storage is limited, it merely helps in
distribution of water as per demand for a day or so and not for storing it for a long period.
Water is pumped from a water source at a uniform rate throughout the day for 24 hours but
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the demand varies from time to time. During the period when the demand of water is less than
the pumping rate, the water is stored in the distribution reservoir. On the other hand, when
the demand of water is more than the pumping rate, the distribution reservoir is used for
supplying water at rates greater than the pumping rate. Distribution reservoirs are rarely used
for the supply of water for irrigation. These are mainly used for municipal water supply.
5. Balancing reservoir
A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed downstream of the main reservoir for
holding water released from the main reservoir.

2.4 Multipurpose Reservoirs

A reservoir is formed when a dam is constructed across a river. A multipurpose reservoir is a
manmade lake which is managed for multiple purposes. The multipurpose nature of these
facilities dictates that the agencies which manage them are responsible for balancing
competing demands. For example, managers responsible for hydroelectric power generation
often want to keep lake levels as high as possible, since the water stored in the reservoir serves
as a kind of "fuel" for their generators. However, managers responsible for flood control often
want to keep lake levels as low as possible to provide the maximum amount of storage capacity
for rainwater runoff.

However, there is a considerable choice of types of hydraulic structures, and deciding which
particular one to adopt will largely depend on the uses it will be put to, and on the overall
conditions of the area where it will be installed. In choosing a structure type, the on-site

17

availability of building materials and the skills and experience of local workers should also be
verified, with an eye to future maintenance requirements.

The specific characteristics of each structure type should be taken into account to select a
structure that meets the demands and conditions of the particular site under consideration.
Therefore, it will be useful to provide a general classification of hydraulic works before moving
on to the analysis of the site selection procedure.

2.5 Location of site selection of reservoir

In selecting the site for a reservoir the following points are to be considered:

(i). It is located in the area of minimum percolation and maximum runoff.

(ii). Leakage in the selected area should be minimal to minimize the grouting works.
(iii). It should not be located on highly permeable rocks like shales, slates, gneisses,
granite, etc
(iv). Suitable dam site with water tight rock base should be available in the located area.
(v). To reduce the length of the dam, narrow opening of the basin is essential.
(vi). Site should be easily accessible by road and railway and if required to construct them,
cost of construction should be minimum.
(vii). Topography of the location should have adequate capacity without submerging
excessive land and other properties.

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(viii). Located area should provide sufficient water depth with smaller water area. Higher
depth provides lower submerged area/unit capacity and decreases the possibility of
weed growth. Smaller surface causes less evaporation losses.
(ix). Reservoir site should exclude water from tributaries which carry high percentage of silt
and sediment.
(x). Reservoir location should be free from objectionable solution of minerals and salts.
(xi). Construction materials for the dam and other allied works should be locally available.
(xii). Suitable area near the location should be available for construction of staff quarters,
labor colonies, go downs, stack yards, etc.
(xiii). Mitchell emphasized that site should be selected after investigation, so that cost of
construction should be economic.

2.6 Reservoir Levels

1. Full reservoir level (FRL)
The full reservoir level (FRL) is the highest water level to which the water surface will rise during
normal operating conditions. The effective storage of the reservoir is computed up to the full
reservoir level. The FRL is the highest level at which water is intended to be held for various
uses without any passage of water through the spillway. In case of dams without spillway gates,
the FRL is equal to the crest level of the spillway. However, if the spillway is gated, the FRL is
equal to the level of the top of the gates. The full reservoir level is also called the full tank level
(FTL) or the normal pool level

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2. Normal conservation level (NCL)

It is the highest level of the reservoir at which water is intended to be stored for various uses
other than flood. The normal conservation level is different from the FRL as the latter may
include a part of the flood. However, if there is no storage for flood up to FRL, the normal
conservation level and the FRL become identical.
3. Maximum water level (MWL)
The maximum water level is the maximum level to which the water surface will rise when the
design flood passes over the spillway. The maximum water level is higher than the full reservoir
level so that some surcharge storage is available between the two levels to absorb flood. The
maximum water level is also called the maximum pool level (MPL) or maximum flood level
(MFL).
4. Minimum pool level
The minimum pool level is the lowest level up to which the water is withdrawn from the
reservoir under ordinary conditions. The minimum pool level generally corresponds to the
elevation of the lowest outlet (or sluiceway) of the dam. However, in the case of a reservoir for
hydroelectric power, the minimum pool level is fixed after considering the minimum working
head required for the efficient working of turbines. The storage below the minimum pool level
is not useful and is called the dead storage.

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5. Useful storage
The volume of water stored between the full reservoir level (FRL) and the minimum pool level is
called the useful storage. The useful storage is available for various purposes of the reservoir. In
most of the reservoirs, the useful storage is the conservation storage of the reservoir. However,
in the case of multipurpose reservoirs in which the flood control is also a designed function, the
useful storage is subdivided into (a) the conservation storage for other purposes and (b) the
flood control storage for the flood control, in accordance with the adopted plan of operation of
the reservoir. The useful storage is also known as the live storage.
6. Surcharge storage
The surcharge storage is the volume of water stored above the full reservoir level up to the
maximum water level. The surcharge storage is an uncontrolled storage which exists only when
the river is in flood and the flood water is passing over the spillway. This storage is available
only for the absorption of flood and it cannot be used for other purposes.
7. Dead storage
The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called the dead storage. The dead
storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating conditions.
8. Bank storage
If the banks of the reservoir are porous, some water is temporarily stored by them when the
reservoir is full. The stored water in banks later drains into the reservoir when the water level in
the reservoir falls. Thus the banks of the reservoir act like mini reservoirs. The bank storage
21

increases the effective capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by the elevation-storage
curve. However, in most of the reservoirs, the bank storage is small because the banks are
usually impervious.
9. Valley storage
The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley up to the top of its banks
before the construction of a reservoir is called the valley storage. The valley storage depends
upon the cross section of the river, the length of the river and its water level. The net increase
in the storage capacity after the construction of a reservoir is equal to the total capacity of the
reservoir up to FRL minus the valley storage. However, this distinction between the net storage
capacity and the total storage capacity is not of much significance in a conservation or storage
reservoir where the main concern is the total water available for different purposes. But in the
case of a flood control reservoir, the difference between the net storage capacity and the total
storage capacity is quite important because the effective storage for flood control is reduced
due to the valley storage. The effective storage is equal to the sum of the useful storage and the
surcharge storage minus the valley storage in the case of a flood control reservoir.
10. Yield from a reservoir
Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of
time. The time period for the estimation of yield is selected according to the size of the
reservoir. It may be a day for a small reservoir and a month or a year for a large reservoir. The
yield is usually expressed as ha/year or Mm3/year for large reservoirs. As discussed later, the
yield is determined from the storage capacity of the reservoir and the mass inflow curve.
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11. Safe yield (Firm yield)

Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water which can be supplied from a reservoir in a
specified period of time during a critical dry year. Generally, the lowest recorded natural flow of
the river for a number of years is taken as the critical dry period for determining the safe yield.
However, there is a possibility that a still drier period may occur in future and the yield available
may be even less than that determined on the basis of past records. This factor should be kept
in mind while fixing the safe yield. There is generally a firm commitment by the organization to
the consumers that the safe yield will be available to them. It is therefore also called the firm
yield or the guaranteed yield.
12. Secondary yield
Secondary yield is the quantity of water which is available during the period of high flow in the
rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield. There is no firm commitment (or guarantee)
to supply the secondary yield. It is supplied on as and when basis at the lower rates. The
hydropower developed from secondary yield is sold to industries at cheaper rates. However,
the power commitment for domestic supply should be based on the firm yield.
13. Average yield
The average yield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the secondary yield over a long
period of time.
14. Design yield

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The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The design yield is usually fixed
after considering the urgency of the water needs and the amount of risk involved. The design
yield should be such that the demands of the consumers reasonably met with, and at the same
time, the storage required is not unduly large. Generally, a reservoir for the domestic water
supply is planned on the basis of firm yield. On the other hand, a reservoir for irrigation may be
planned with a value of design yield equal to 1 - 2 times the firm yield because more risk can be
taken for the irrigation water supply than for domestic water supply.

2.7 Dams
2.7.1 Types of dams
Structures that are created as obstructions across rivers with an intention to store some of the
water for future use are called storage dams; they are functionally slightly different from
structures used for flow diversion. IIT, Kharagpur (2010) has broadly classified dams according
to construction materials as follows
1) Embankment dams
This are dams constructed of natural materials excavated or obtained from the vicinity of the
dam site. Two main types of Embankment dams that are commonly constructed include:
i.

Earth-fill dams- these are dams that use compacted soil for constructing the
bulk of the dam volume. An earth-fill dam is constructed primarily of selected
engineering soil compacted uniformly and intensively in the relatively thin
layers and controlled moisture content

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ii.

Rock fill dams- in these types of dams there is an impervious core of

compacted earth fill or a slender concrete or bituminous membrane but the
bulk of the dam volume is made of coarse grained gravels, crashed rocks or
boulders

2) Concrete dams
The use of mass concrete in dam construction started from about 1900 for reasons of ease of
the construction and to suite complex designs like having a spillway within the dam body. From
about 1950 onwards mass concrete came to be strengthened by the use of additives like slag or
pulverized fuel ash in order to reduce temperature induced problems or avoid undesirable
cracking or reduce the total cost of the project. Amongst concrete dams there are many
varieties the principal types of which are described below:
i.

Gravity dams- a gravity dam is one which depends entirely on its own weight for
stability it may be constructed of either masonry or concrete

ii.

Buttress dams- these types of dams consist of a continuous upstream face supported at
regular intervals by buttress walls and the downstream side

iii.

Arch dam- these types of dams have considerable upstream curvature in plan and rely
on an arching action on the abutments through which of the water loads is passed onto
the walls of the river valley

2.7.2 Choice of site and type of dam

During the early stages of planning and design the selection of site and type of dam should be
carefully considered. Emiroglu (2008) states that the selection of the best type of the dam for a

25

particular site calls for thorough considerations of the characteristic of each type, as related to
physical features if the site and the adoption to the purposes the dam is supposed to serve as
well as safety, economy and other pertinent limitations. The final choice of type of dam is
made after consideration of these factors. Some of the factors are discussed below as given by
Pierre, degoutte, & lautrin (n.d).
1) Topography and inflow in the catchment area
Topographic considerations include the surface configurations of the dam site and the reservoir
are and accessibility to construction materials. Topography in large measure dictates the first
choice of the dam. The accompanying task will then be to check whether conditions in the
catchment area are such that the reservoir will be filled and to calculate the risk of shortfall
2) Morphology of the river valley
A dam is by nature linked to an environment. The morphology of the river valley therefore plays
a vital role in the choice of a dam site and the most suitable type of dam. As a first approach a
wide valley is more suitable for the construction of a fill dam a narrow site for a gravity dam
and a very narrow site for an arch provided that the foundation is acceptable.
3) Geology and foundation conditions
Foundation conditions depend upon the geology character and the thickness of the structure
which are to carry the weight of the dam, their inclination, permeability and relation to
underlying strata, existing faults and fissures. The foundation will limit the choice of type to a
certain extent although such limitations can be frequently be modified considering the height

26

of the proposed dam. If a high dam is being considered the compressive of the foundation is an
important consideration the selection of the type of dam
4) Available materials
Availability, on the site or near it, of suitable materials to build the dam has a considerable
influence and one that is often decisive in choosing the type of dam:

Soil that can be used for earth fill

Rock for rock fill or slope protection(rip-rap)

Concrete aggregate(alluvial or crushed materials)

Cementitious materials(cement, fly ash etc)

If it is possible to extract the materials from the reservoir itself, reservoir storage can be
increased. These also usually keeps the cost of transport and restoring borrow areas to a
minimum
5) Floods and flood discharge structures
The cost of flood discharge structures depend on the hydrological characteristics of the
catchment area. When the catchment area is large and floods are likely to be high, it may be
advantageous to combine the dam and spillway functions and build an overspill dam. On the
other hand if the spillway can be kept small a fill will be preferred if all other conditions are
equal. When construction of the spillway would require significant excavation, the possibility of
using the excavated materials is also a factor in favor of building a fill dam

27

6) Economic criteria
After safety and fulfillment of the purpose of which the project is designed, cost is usually the
most important factor in the selection of the dam type.

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CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Determination of design population and demand
3.1.1 Population Estimates and Projections
Standards of service provide important assessments of existing public facilities and programs in
light of desired objectives and the population/client groups to be served. Estimates of future
population, including demographic and geographic distribution, are required to translate these
standards into future capital improvement needs.

Demographic Techniques

Until very recently demographic projections (frequently known as "conditional forecasts") have
had no predictive pretensions. Demographers often apply a range of projections in lieu of more
definitive estimates of future population characteristics. Such parameters usually are
extrapolated from current data with insufficient detail to be of much utility to the capital
facilities planner.

The basic demographic equation is P2 = P1 + B - D + I - O, which indicates that the population at

any given point in time (P2) is a function of the population at a previous point in time (P1) plus
the amount of natural increase (births minus deaths) and the net migration (in-migration minus
out-migration) during the interim.

Population estimates are used to update population data gathered from the last census to
approximate the current situation. Population projections refer to future population levels and
indicate what changes might occur, given assumptions inherent in the projection method and
29

data. Analysts typically develop more than one set of projections, each set embodying different
assumptions. A population forecast is the set of projections deemed most likely to occur.
Projections do not necessarily lead to forecasts.

Sets of projections often are prepared, ranging from slow growth to rapid growth, so
that users may select the forecast that most closely approximate their needs.

Alternative projections may be based on the same method, differing only in their
designated growth rates, birth rates, population densities, and so forth.

Population change involves three separate components: births, deaths, and migration.

Component models consider the separate effects of each of these factors.

Non component models use the net effects of the three components.

Non component models may be based on past patterns of net population growth or may relate
net growth to some indicator, such as changes in housing or the economic base of the
community. Symptomatic data are used to determine a correlation between population size
and various other events, such as tax returns, voter registration, school enrollments, utility
connections, telephone installations, occupancy permits issued, and motor vehicle licenses.
Non component models lack detailed age-sex breakdowns which are useful in planning for
schools, community services, and different housing types.

Most models that project population below the state scale are usually of the non component
variety because of data limitations (and demographic skills).Births and deaths are referred to
as vital statistics, usually available on an annual basis.
30

Natural increase (or decrease) is numerical difference between births and deaths.

A crude death rate is a gross statistic which indicates the number of deaths per 1,000 of
population; it provides no age-sex detail.

A crude birth rate indicates births per 1,000 population, but provides no age-sex
information.

General fertility rate is the ratio of births to women of child-bearing age (15 to 44 years
of age).

Age specific fertility rate provides a greater level of specification by calculating fertility
rates for each 5-year age cohort of women.

Birth rates and fertility rates change fairly slowly, and are subject to regional, racial, and
ethnic differences.

Birth rates used in population projections often are determined empirically for the area
under analysis.

Migration is subject to relatively rapid fluctuations and is influenced by the location, size, shape,
and economic base of the locality. A large county or city will have a lower proportion of
migrants than will a small one, since many moves cover a relatively short distance.
The intercensal component method of estimating migration makes use of the population
balancing equation which rewrites the basic population equation as follows: I - O = P2 - P1 - B
+D

The reverse survival rate method may be used to produce net migration estimates by age, race,
and sex groups.
31

Estimates of net migration are produced by applying 10-year survival rates to the
number of individuals recorded in a particular cohort in the earlier census in order to
predict members in that cohort who should have survived to the current census.

The difference between the actual number of individuals in the cohort that has been
"aged" by 10 years and the estimated number based on the survival rate is assumed to
be the estimated migration.

Types of Population Models

In choosing a population model, it is important to consider its relative accuracy, the type of
data available, the quality of available data, the scale of the analysis, the length of the
projection period, the purpose of the projections, and the budget and time frame implications
of the study.

Trend extrapolation is involved, to some extent, in nearly all projection methods.

This model uses historical growth patterns to project the future pattern, dealing with
the net effects of births, deaths, and migration rather than with individual components.

The primary disadvantage is the lack of detail regarding the components of population.

Comparative forecasting examines the locality's past growth pattern in conjunction with growth
patterns of older, larger, civil divisions, the assumption being that the locality's pattern will
match that of communities more advanced in their stage of growth.

32

Ratio trend or step-down techniques assume that the relationship of a locality to some larger
geographic entity--county or state--will prevail in the future and that population projections at
the larger scale represent degrees of reliability and component detail that are not possible to
achieve at the smaller scale of analysis.

Density ceiling models use capacity constraints by assuming that when a given density is
reached, population will either stabilize or decline.

The density model may utilize linear, exponential, or logistic curves to express
population density growth rates.

Maximum population levels typically determined via zoning and land use development
patterns that affect population density.

The ratio correlation method is similar to the ratio trend method except that population is
treated as a function of some other independent variables--employment, housing units, motor
vehicles registered, or other symptomatic data. Multiple regression may be used to determine
the population's historic relationship to the independent variables.

The housing unit method establishes a relationship between the number of dwelling units and
population via a family-size multiplier.

Net changes in dwelling units presumed to indicate net changes in population.

Dwelling units can be estimated by utility or telephone connections, building permit

data, land use surveys, vacancy rates, home interviews, and other local records.

33

Market force methods include: deterministic regression models, holding capacity, multiplier
studies, and mathematical programming.

Linear regression may be used to formulate equations that will relate population
distribution to such factors as vacant land, the presence of minority group populations,
accessibility to work, land values, and other important variables.

Employment forecasts made by shift and share, economic base, and input-output
techniques may be converted by the use of multipliers to population forecasts.

The future population distributions may be modeled to represent improved conditions

in which a specific objective is sought--such as minimizing travel time to work--subject
to equations representing constraints on supply and demand for developable land,
avail-ability of services, and other factors.

The Greenberg-Kruckeberg-Mautner (GKM) model combines historical extrapolation, ratio

trend, and density ceiling alternatives at the local scale, constrained by federal-state-county
projections developed by component and market force techniques, and provides the option of
five separate sub models to project local population.

The residual method--through an examination of the records of births and deaths, the known
population (based on the last census) is adjusted accordingly to produce an estimate of current
population--the difference between this anticipated population and the actual population is
assumed to be the result of net migration.

The vital rates method is a ratio technique that relates total population to births and deaths.

34

Ratios between state and local births and deaths are derived from the historical records
and are then used to develop estimated populations based on births and deaths.

Estimates based on the ratio are averaged to reduce errors involved in each of the
projections.

Rapid migration, which affects the age structure, will impact the vital statistics, resulting
in inaccurate estimates.

Cohort-survival models project future population based on growth due to natural increase.

The population is disaggregated into male and female age five-year cohorts, and agespecific death rates (or survival rates) are developed and applied to each cohort.

Age-specific fertility rates are applied to female cohorts between the ages of 15 and 44.

Each cohort group is then "aged forward" towards the final projection year, with
mortality and fertility rates applied to the survivors at five year intervals.

Births are added to the bottom of the pyramid and aged forward accordingly.

Various cohort-component methods have been developed by the Bureau of the Census.

Method I uses school enrollment data to estimate the migration component--net

migration is assumed to be the difference between the growth rate of school-age
cohorts at the national level and the growth rate of school-age population at the scale
of analysis.

Method II assumes that the migration component is the difference between the
anticipated school-age population, based on natural increase, and the actual population
35

of school age. A variation of Method II is the grade progression method that breaks
down school enrollment by grades.

The composite model applies various techniques to different segments of the total population.

Instead of analyzing the components of change, the population is projected for different
age groups using different methods and then summed for a total population figure.

It takes advantage of the fact that different methods are better focused for estimating
population of different groups.

The choice of the methods employed to develop population estimates or projections usually
involves a trade-off of some sort with the level of accuracy required, the availability of data,
and the composition of the final product as the chief determining factors.

3.1.2 Population projection

A population projection is an extrapolation of historical data into the future. It is an attempt to
describe what is likely to happen under certain explicit assumptions about the future as related
to the immediate past. A set of calculations, which show the future course of fertility, mortality
and migration depending on the assumptions used
Projection Linear growth
It implies that there is a constant amount of increase per unit of time. A straight line is used to
project population growth. It is expressed as
Pt = P0 + bt

36

where
P0 = initial population
Pt = population t years later
b = annual amount of population change
Assumptions:

Growth rate is constant

Change is only experienced at the end of unit time

Resultant change (i.e. interest) does not yield any change

Projection Geometric growth

This growth assumes a geometric series. It is expressed as
Pt = P0 (1+ r)t
where
P0 = initial population
Pt = population t years later
Assumptions:

Growth rate is constant

Change is only experienced at the end of unit time

37

Compounding takes place at specified intervals

Projection Exponential growth

This is the equivalent to the growth of an investment with compound interest. Growth is
constant, but compounding is continuous. It is expressed as
Pt = P0(ert)
where
P0 = initial population
Pt = population t years later
r = annual rate of growth
e = base of the natural logarithm

3.2 Design Period

Projection Years
Water demand projections should normally, be made for the initial the future and the
ultimate year. The initial year is the year when the supply is expected to be taken into
operation that may be assumed to be 0-5 years from the date of the commencement of the
preliminary design. The future is 10 years and the ultimate year 20 years from the initial
year. Once the initial, future and ultimate
years have been determined for a project they should not normally be changed during the
design period.
38

Design Demand
A water supply should normally be designed for the ultimate demand. However phasing of the
implementation will often become a financial necessity and the possibilities of phasing should
therefore be examined using the initial and future demand projections. Mechanical equipment
is often designed for shorter periods.
Water demand formula

   =      

3.3 Rainfall analysis

3.3.1 Rainfall characteristics
Precipitation in arid and semi-arid zones results largely from convective cloud mechanisms
producing storms typically of short duration, relatively high intensity and limited areal extent.
Rainfall intensity is defined as the ratio of the total amount of rain (rainfall depth) falling during
a given period to the duration of the period It is expressed in depth units per unit time, usually
as mm per hour (mm/h).

The statistical characteristics of high-intensity, short-duration, convective rainfall are essentially

independent of locations within a region and are similar in many parts of the world. Analysis of
short-term rainfall data suggests that there is a reasonably stable relationship governing the
intensity characteristics of this type of rainfall.

39

3.3.2 Variability of annual rainfall

Water harvesting planning and management in arid and semi-arid zones present difficulties
which are due less to the limited amount of rainfall than to the inherent degree of variability
associated with it. In temperate climates, the standard deviation of annual rainfall is about 1020 percent and in 13 years out of 20, annual amounts are between 75 and 125 percent of the
mean. In arid and semi-arid climates the ratio of maximum to minimum annual amounts is
much greater and the annual rainfall distribution becomes increasingly skewed with increasing
aridity. With mean annual rainfalls of 200-300 mm the rainfall in 19 years out of 20 typically
ranges from 40 to 200 percent of the mean and for 100 mm/year, 30 to 350 percent of the
mean. At more arid locations it is not uncommon to experience several consecutive years with
no rainfall.

For a water harvesting planner, the most difficult task is therefore to select the appropriate
"design" rainfall according to which the ratio of catchment to cultivated area will be
determined.

3.3.3 Design rainfall

Design rainfall is defined as the total amount of rain during the cropping season at which or
above which the catchment area will provide sufficient runoff to satisfy the crop water
requirements. If the actual rainfall in the cropping season is below the design rainfall, there will
be moisture stress in the plants; if the actual rainfall exceeds the design rainfall, there will be
surplus runoff which may result in a damage to the structures.

40

The design rainfall is usually assigned to a certain probability of occurrence or exceedance. If,
for example, the design rainfall with a 67 percent probability of exceedance is selected, this
means that on average this value will be reached or exceeded in two years out of three and
therefore the crop water requirements would also be met in two years out of three.

The design rainfall is determined by means of a statistical probability analysis.

Probability analysis

The first step is to obtain annual rainfall totals for the cropping season from the area of
concern. In locations where rainfall records do not exist, figures from stations nearby may be
used with caution. It is important to obtain long-term records. As explained above, the
variability of rainfall in arid and semi-arid areas is considerable. An analysis of only 5 or 6 years
of observations is inadequate as these 5 or 6 values may belong to a particularly dry or wet
period and hence may not be representative for the long term rainfall pattern.

The next step is to rank the annual totals and to rearrange the data accordingly.

The probability of occurrence P (%) for each of the ranked observations can be calculated from
the equation:

% =

 0.375
100
 + 0.25

where:

41

 = probability in % of the observation of the rank m

 = the rank of the observation

 = total number of observations used

The above equation is recommended for N = 10 to 100 (Reining et al. 1989). There are several
other, but similar, equations known to compute experimental probabilities.

The next step is to plot the ranked observations against the corresponding probabilities. For
this purpose normal probability paper must be used or a program (CumFreq)

Finally a curve is fitted to the plotted observations in such a way that the distance of
observations above or below the curve should be as close as possible to the curve .The curve
may be a straight line.

From this curve it is now possible to obtain the probability of occurrence or exceedance of a
rainfall value of a specific magnitude. Inversely, it is also possible to obtain the magnitude of
the rain corresponding to a given probability.

The return period T (in years) can easily be derived once the exceedance probability P (%) is
known from the equations.

!=

100
"


42

3.3.4 Rainfall-runoff relationship

When rain falls, the first drops of water are intercepted by the leaves and stems of the
vegetation. This is usually referred to as interception storage. As the rain continues, water
reaching the ground surface infiltrates into the soil until it reaches a stage where the rate of
rainfall (intensity) exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Thereafter, surface puddles,
ditches, and other depressions are filled (depression storage), after which runoff is generated.

The infiltration capacity of the soil depends on its texture and structure, as well as on the
antecedent soil moisture content (previous rainfall or dry season). The initial capacity (of a dry
soil) is high but, as the storm continues, it decreases until it reaches a steady value termed as
final infiltration .The process of runoff generation continues as long as the rainfall intensity
exceeds the actual infiltration capacity of the soil but it stops as soon as the rate of rainfall
drops below the actual rate of infiltration.

The rainfall runoff process is well described in the literature. Numerous papers on the subject
have been published and many computer simulation models have been developed. All these
models, however, require detailed knowledge of a number of factors and initial boundary
conditions in a catchment area which in most cases are not readily available.

For a better understanding of the difficulties of accurately predicting the amount of runoff
resulting from a rainfall event, the major factors which influence the rainfall-runoff process are
described below.

43

Factors affecting runoff

Apart from rainfall characteristics such as intensity, duration and distribution, there are a
number of site (or catchment) specific factors which have a direct bearing on the occurrence
and volume of runoff.

i.

Soil type

The infiltration capacity is among others dependent on the porosity of a soil which determines
the water storage capacity and affects the resistance of water to flow into deeper layers.
Porosity differs from one soil type to the other. The highest infiltration capacities are observed
in loose, sandy soils while heavy clay or loamy soils have considerable smaller infiltration
capacities.

The FIGURE 2 below illustrates the difference in infiltration capacities measured in different
soil types.

44

The infiltration capacity depends furthermore on the moisture content prevailing in a soil at the
onset of a rainstorm. The initial high capacity decreases with time (provided the rain does not
stop) until it reaches a constant value as the soil profile becomes saturated. This however, is
only valid when the soil surface remains undisturbed.

It is well known that the average size of raindrops increases with the intensity of a rainstorm. In
a high intensity storm the kinetic energy of raindrops is considerable when hitting the soil
surface. This causes a breakdown of the soil aggregate as well as soil dispersion with the
consequence of driving fine soil particles into the upper soil pores. This results in clogging of the
pores, formation of a thin but dense and compacted layer at the surface which highly reduces
the infiltration capacity.

ii.

Vegetation

The amount of rain lost to interception storage on the foliage depends on the kind of
vegetation and its growth stage. Values of interception are between 1 and 4 mm. A cereal crop,
for example, has a smaller storage capacity than a dense grass cover. More significant is the
effect the vegetation has on the infiltration capacity of the soil. A dense vegetation cover
shields the soil from the raindrop impact and reduces the crusting effect.

In addition, the root system as well as organic matter in the soil increases the soil porosity thus
allowing more water to infiltrate. Vegetation also retards the surface flow particularly on gentle
slopes, giving the water more time to infiltrate and to evaporate.

In conclusion, an area densely covered with vegetation, yields less runoff than bare ground.
45

iii.

Slope and catchment size

Investigations on experimental runoff plots (Sharma et al. 1986) have shown that steep slope
plots yield more runoff than those with gentle slopes. In addition, it was observed that the
quantity of runoff decreases with increasing slope length.

This is mainly due to lower flow velocities and subsequently a longer time of concentration
(defined as the time needed for a drop of water to reach the outlet of a catchment from the
most remote location in the catchment). This means that the water is exposed for a longer
duration to infiltration and evaporation before it reaches the measuring point. The same
applies when catchment areas of different sizes are compared. The runoff efficiency (volume of
runoff per unit of area) increases with the decreasing size of the catchment i.e. the larger the
size of the catchment the larger the time of concentration and the smaller the runoff efficiency.

Figure below clearly illustrates this relationship.

FIGURE 3-Runoff efficiency as a function of catchment size (Ben Asher 1988)

46

3.3.5 Runoff coefficients

Apart from the above-mentioned site-specific factors which strongly influence the rainfallrunoff process, it should also be considered that the physical conditions of a catchment area
are not homogenous. Even at the micro level there are a variety of different slopes, soil types,
vegetation covers etc. Each catchment has therefore its own runoff response and will respond
differently to different rainstorm events.

The design of water harvesting schemes requires the knowledge of the quantity of runoff to be
produced by rainstorms in a given catchment area. It is commonly assumed that the quantity
(volume) of runoff is a proportion (percentage) of the rainfall depth.

Runoff [mm] = K x Rainfall depth [mm]

In rural catchments where no or only small parts of the area are impervious, the coefficient K,
which describes the percentage of runoff resulting from a rainstorm, is however not a constant
factor. Instead its value is highly variable and depends on the above described catchmentspecific factors and on the rainstorm characteristics.

For example, in a specific catchment area with the same initial boundary condition (e.g.
antecedent soil moisture), a rainstorm of 40 minutes duration with an average intensity of 30
mm/h would produce a smaller percentage of runoff than a rainstorm of only 20 minutes
duration but with an average intensity of 60 mm/h although the total rainfall depth of both
events were equal.

47

Determination of runoff coefficients

For reasons explained before, the use of runoff coefficients which have been derived for
watersheds in other geographical locations should be avoided for the design of a water
harvesting scheme. Also runoff coefficients for large watersheds should not be applied to small
catchment areas.

An analysis of the rainfall-runoff relationship and subsequently an assessment of relevant

runoff coefficients should best be based on actual, simultaneous measurements of both rainfall
and runoff in the project area.

The runoff coefficient from an individual rainstorm is defined as runoff divided by the
corresponding rainfall both expressed as depth over catchment area (mm):

#=

$ %%
$ %

Actual measurements should be carried out until a representative range is obtained. Shanan
and Tadmor recommend that at least 2 years should be spent to measure rainfall and runoff
data before any larger construction programme starts. Such a time span would in any case be
justified bearing in mind the negative demonstration effect a water harvesting project would
have if the structures were seriously damaged or destroyed already during the first rainstorm
because the design was based on erroneous runoff coefficients.

When plotting the runoff coefficients against the relevant rainfall depths a satisfactory
correlation is usually observed
48

FIGURE 4-Rainfall-runoff relationships, Baringo, Kenya (Source: Finkel 1987)

A much better relationship would be obtained if in addition to rainfall depth the corresponding
rainstorm intensity, the rainstorm duration and the antecedent soil moisture were also
measured. This would allow rainstorm events to be grouped according to their average
intensity and their antecedent soil moisture and to plot the runoff coefficients against the
relevant rainfall durations separately for different intensities .Rainfall intensities can be
accurately measured by means of a continuously recording autographic rain gauge. It is also
possible to time the length of individual rainstorms and to calculate the average intensities by
dividing the measured rainfall depths by the corresponding duration of the storms.

When analyzing the measured data it will be noted that a certain amount of rainfall is always
required before any runoff occurs. This amount, usually referred to as threshold rainfall,
represents the initial losses due to interception and depression storage as well as to meet the
initially high infiltration losses.

49

The threshold rainfall depends on the physical characteristics of the area and varies from
catchment to catchment. In areas with only sparse vegetation and where the land is very
regularly shaped, the threshold rainfall may be only in the range of 3 mm while in other
catchments this value can easily exceed 12 mm, particularly where the prevailing soils have a
high infiltration capacity. The fact that the threshold rainfall has first to be surpassed explains
why not every rainstorm produces runoff. This is important to know when assessing the annual
runoff-coefficient of a catchment area.

Assessment of annual or seasonal runoff

The knowledge of runoff from individual storms as described before is essential to assess the
runoff behavior of a catchment area and to obtain an indication both of runoff-peaks which the
structure of a water harvesting scheme must withstand and of the needed capacity for
temporary surface storage of runoff, for example the size of an infiltration pit in a micro
catchment system.

However, to determine the ratio of catchment to cultivated area, it is necessary to assess either
the annual (for perennial crops) or the seasonal runoff coefficient. This is defined as the total
runoff observed in a year (or season) divided by the total rainfall in the same year (or season).

#=

&" ! %%

&" ! %

50

The annual (seasonal) runoff coefficient differs from the runoff coefficients derived from
individual storms as it takes into account also those rainfall events which did not produce any
runoff. The annual (seasonal) runoff-coefficient is therefore always smaller than the arithmetic
mean of runoff coefficients derived from individual runoff-producing storms.

Runoff plots

Runoff plots are used to measure surface runoff under controlled conditions. The plots should
be established directly in the project area. Their physical characteristics, such as soil type, slope
and vegetation must be representative of the sites where water harvesting schemes are
planned.

The size of a plot should ideally be as large as the estimated size of the catchment planned for
the water harvesting project. This is not always possible mainly due to the problem of storing
the accumulated runoff. A minimum size of 3-4 m in width and 10-12 m in length is
recommended. Smaller dimensions should be avoided, since the results obtained from very
small plots are rather misleading.

Care must be taken to avoid sites with special problems such as rills, cracks or gullies crossing
the plot. These would drastically affect the results which would not be representative for the
whole area. The gradient along the plot should be regular and free of local depressions. During
construction of the plot, care must be taken not to disturb or change the natural conditions of
the plot such as destroying the vegetation or compacting the soil. It is advisable to construct

51

several plots in series in the project area which would permit comparison of the measured
runoff volumes and to judge on the representative character of the selected plot sites.

Around the plots metal sheets or wooden planks must be driven into the soil with at least 15
cm of height above ground to stop water flowing from outside into the plot and vice versa. A
rain gauge must be installed near to the plot. At the lower end of the plot a gutter is required to
collect the runoff. The gutter should have a gradient of 1% towards the collection tank. The soil
around the gutter should be backfilled and compacted. The joint between the gutter and the
lower side of the plot may be cemented to form an apron in order to allow a smooth flow of
water from the plot into the gutter. The collection tank may be constructed from stone
masonry, brick or concrete blocks, but a buried barrel will also meet the requirements. The tank
should be covered and thus be protected against evaporation and rainfall. The storage capacity
of the tank depends on the size of the plot but should be large enough to collect water also
from extreme rain storms. Following every storm (or every day at a specific time), the volume
of water collected in the rain gauge and in the runoff tank must be measured. Thereafter the
gauge and tank must be completely emptied. Any silt which may have deposited in the tank and
in the gutter must be cleared.

3.4 Catchment Area Delineation Using GIS technique

DEMs are used in water resources projects to identify drainage features such as ridges, valley
bottoms, channel networks, surface drainage patterns, and to quantify sub catchment and
channel properties such as size, length, and slope. The accuracy of this topographic information
is a function both of the quality and resolution of the DEM, and of the DEM processing
52

algorithms used to extract this information. Watershed delineation is one of the most
commonly performed activities in hydrologic analyses. Digital elevation models (DEMs) provide
good terrain representation from which watersheds can be derived automatically using GIS
technology. The techniques for automated watershed delineation have been implemented in
various GIS systems and custom applications
Terrain Processing
Terrain processing uses DEM to satisfy the surface drainage pattern. Once preprocessed, the
DEM and its derivatives can be used for efficient watershed delineation and stream network
generation. All the steps in the Terrain Preprocessing menu should be performed in sequential
order, from top to bottom. All of the preprocessing must be completed before watershed
processing functions can be used. DEM reconditioning and filling sinks might not be required
depending on the quality of the initial DEM. DEM reconditioning involves modifying the
elevation data to be more consistent with the input vector stream. By doing the DEM
reconditioning we can increase the degree of agreement between stream networks delineated
from the DEM and the input vector stream.

3.5 Determination of available reservoir capacity

Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most important function is to store water during
floods and to release it later. The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its most
important characteristic. The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the
topography of the site and the height of dam. To determine the available storage capacity of a
reservoir up to a certain level of water, engineering surveys are usually conducted.
53

For accurate determination of the capacity, a topographic survey of the reservoir area is usually
conducted, and a contour map of the area is prepared. A contour plan of the area is prepared
to a scale of 1 cm = 100 m or 150 m with a contour interval of 1 to 3 m, depending upon the
size of the reservoir. The storage capacity and the water spread area at different elevations can
be determined from the contour map, as explained below.
(a) Area-Elevation Curve
From the contour plan, the water spread area of the reservoir at any elevation is determined by
measuring the area enclosed by the corresponding contour. Generally, a planimeter is used for
measuring the area. An elevation-area curve is then drawn between the surface area as
abscissa and the elevation as ordinate.
(b) Elevation-Capacity Curve
The storage capacity of the reservoir at any elevation is determined from the water spread area
at various elevations. The following formulae are commonly used to determine the storage
capacity (i.e. storage volumes).
1. Trapezoidal formula
According to the trapezoidal formula, the storage volume between two successive contours of
areas A1 and A2 is given by:
( =

* + *, 
2 +

Where is the contour interval.

Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by :

54

( = (+ + (, + (- . = / (
or
(=

* + 2*, + 2*- + 2*12+ + *1 

2 +

Where is the total number of areas.

2. Cone formula
According to the cone formula, the storage volume between two successive contours of areas
A1 and A2 is given by:
(=

* + *, + 3*+ . *, 
3 +

The total volume V is given by:

( = (+ + (, + (- . = / (
3. Prismoidal formula
According to the prismoidal formula, the storage volume between 3 successive contours is
given by:
( =

* + 4*, + *- 
3 +

The total volume is given by

55

(=

5*+ + *1  + 4*, + *6 + *7 +  + 2*- + *8 + 9

3

Where A3, A5, etc are the areas with odd numbers: A2, A4, A6, etc are the areas with even
numbers, A1 and An are respectively, the first and the last area. The prismoidal formula is
applicable only when there are odd numbers of areas (i.e. n should be an odd number). In the
case of even number of areas, the volume up to the last but one area is determined by the
prismoidal formula, and that of the last segment is determined by the trapezoidal formula.

3.6 Determination of the Required Capacity

The capacity required for a reservoir depends upon the inflow available and demand. If the
available inflow in the river is always greater than the demand, there is no storage required. On
the other hand, if the inflow in the river is small but the demand is high, a large reservoir
capacity is required. The required capacity for a reservoir can be determined by the following
methods:
i.

Graphical method, using mass curves.

ii.

Analytical method

iii.

Flow-duration curves method

Graphical method
(a) Storage required for uniform demand.
The following procedure is used when the mass demand curve is a straight line.

56

1. Prepare a mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph of the site for a number of
consecutive years including the most critical years (or the driest years) when the
discharge is low.
2. Prepare the mass demand curve corresponding to the given rate of demand. If the rate
of demand is constant, the mass demand curve is a straight line. The scale of the mass
demand curve should be the same as that of the mass inflow curve.
Analytical Method for Determination of Storage Capacity
Mass inflow, the storage capacity and the yield are interdependent. Because the inflow to a
reservoir is variable and at times less than the demand, the storage reservoir is required. The
storage capacity should be adequate to supply the water equal to the demand during the
critical period. The greater the demand, the larger will be the storage required. However, for a
long period, the total outflow volume from the reservoir must be equal to the total inflow
volume minus the volume of water lost and wasted during the period. In other words, the
reservoir does not produce water. It is a sort of water bank in which the total credit and total
debit during the period are equal. The capacity of the reservoir is determined from the net
inflow and demand. The storage is required when the demand exceeds the net inflow. The total
storage required is equal to the sum of the storage required during the various periods. The
following procedure is used for the determination of storage capacity.
1. Collect the stream flow data at the reservoir site during the critical dry period.
Generally, the monthly inflow rates are required. However, for very large reservoirs, the
annual inflow rates may be used.

57

2. Ascertain the discharge to be released downstream to satisfy water rights.

3. Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir during the month.
4. Estimate the evaporation losses which would occur from the reservoir. The pan
evaporation data are normally used for the estimation of evaporation losses during the
month.
5. Ascertain the demand during various months.
6. Determine the adjusted inflow during different months as follows:
*: %

=  %
+     ; 


  <

7. Compute the storage capacity for each months.

=< >  = *: ? %
@ 
The storage would be required only in those months in which the demand is greater
than the adjusted inflow
8. Determine the total storage capacity of the reservoir by adding the storages required
found in Step 7.

3.7 Investigations for Reservoir

The following investigations are usually conducted for reservoir planning.
1. Engineering surveys
2. Geological investigation

58

3. Hydrologic investigations

3.7.1 Engineering surveys

Engineering surveys are conducted for the dam, the reservoir and other associated works.
Generally, the topographic survey of the area is carried out and the contour plan is prepared.
The horizontal control is usually provided by triangulation survey and the vertical control by
precise leveling.
(a) Dam site: For the area in the vicinity of the dam site, a very accurate triangulation survey is
conducted. A contour plan to a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 is usually prepared. The contour interval
is usually 1 m or 2 m. The contour plan should cover an area at least up to 200m upstream and
400m downstream and for adequate width beyond the two abutments.
(b) Reservoir: For the reservoir, the scale of the contour plan is usually 1/15,000 with a contour
interval of 2 m to 3 m, depending upon the size of the reservoir. The area-elevation and
storage-elevation curves are prepared for different elevations up to an elevation 3 to 5m higher
than the anticipated maximum water level (M.W.L).

3.7.2 Geological investigations

Geological investigations of the dam and reservoir site are done for the following purposes.
i.

Suitability of foundation for the dam.

ii.

Water tightness of the reservoir basin

iii.

Location of the quarry sites for the construction materials.

3.7.3 Hydrological investigations

The hydrological investigations are conducted for the following purposes :

59

i.

To study the runoff pattern and to estimate yield.

ii.

To determine the maximum discharge at the site.

Run off pattern and yield

The most important aspect of the reservoir planning is to estimate the quantity of water likely
to be available in the river from year to year and season to season. For the determination of the
required storage capacity of a reservoir, the runoff pattern of the river at the dam site is
required. If the stream gauging has been done for a number of years before the construction of
the dam, the runoff pattern will be available from the record. It is generally assumed that the
runoff pattern will be substantially the same in future also. The available record is used for
estimating the storage capacity. The inflow hydrographs of two or three consecutive bad years
when the discharge is low are frequently used for estimating the required capacity. However, if
the stream gauging records are not available, the runoff and yield have to be estimated
indirectly by the empirical (or) statistical methods. These are:
i.

Runoff expressed as a percentage of rainfall.

ii.

Runoff expressed as a residual of rainfall after deducting losses due to evaporation,

transpiration and ground water accretion.

iii.

Run off expressed as a function of mean annual temperature and rainfall.

Maximum discharge
The spillway capacity of the dam is determined from the inflow hydrograph for the worst flood
when the discharge in the river is the maximum. Flood routing is done to estimate the

60

maximum outflow and the maximum water level reached during the worst flood. The methods
for the estimation of the maximum flood discharge are:
i.

Empirical relations mostly correlated with the catchment area

ii.

Statistical methods

iii.

Unit hydrograph method

iv.

Flood frequency studies

Usually for big reservoirs, a 1000 years flood is taken for spillway design

Site Investigations
Site investigations will have to be carried for the following reasons:

Location and condition of the bedrock. In Kenya the bedrock is often very close to
the surface and can easily give (spillway) construction or seepage problems.

Location of permeable layers which might cause excessive leakage or even

undermine the dam.

Location of foundation material under the wall and possible other structures.

Bedrock

Bedrock at shallow depths should be detected. The weathered parts under the dams
foundation can cause serious leakage and should therefore be removed. Heavy fractured
bedrock can cause serious losses through infiltration and another dam site should be
considered, or clay blanket applied to the bottom of the reservoir. The spillway could be badly
affected by the bedrock as simple excavation and ripping might not be possible, requiring
expensive blasting with the risk of fissuring the rock. On the other hand the presence of the
61

bedrock might enable the construction of the spillway on the bedrock thereby avoiding the
erosion problems common to earth channels. In this connection it might be more economical
to raise the dam use the bedrock as a natural spillway, in order to avoid expensive blasting.
Permeable layers

All permeable layers, like gravel and sand (old river-beds) or murram and laterite under the
dam or underlying the reservoir should be detected as extensive losses and even dam failure
can occur if their presence is not discovered. As a result a rather extensive investigation of the
dam site is required. International handbooks advise on investigation into the substrata as
deep as the dam is expected to be high.
Foundation

The test pits sunk in order to detect sand lenses and layers under the dam to be, will serve also
for testing suitability of the walls foundation. In Kenya there are generally no problems with
the foundation as the materials in site are consolidated (natural compaction) in such a way that
practically any earth wall can be build on it without any problems. Only in swampy areas
should care be exercised. Heavy structures, coming with the construction of the dam, like allconcrete spillways or power stations etc. will require additional foundation tests.
Visual tests

With the eye a first classification of the available soils can be made, being unsuitable, heavy,
clays can be detected and classified as undesirable, as their swelling, shrinking and extensive
cracking makes them highly dangerous construction or foundation material. Soils with most
particles visible with the naked eye should be classified as sandy and generally considered
62

unsuitable for homogeneous dam construction soils with around 50% of the particles visible
with the naked eye should be considered good for homogeneous dam construction. Soils with
hardly any particles visible with the naked eye should be treated carefully and preferably
laboratory tested, as the clay fraction will probably be too large. Organic material rich soils
should be avoided.
LABORATORY TESTS

Tests are done for two purposes:

Suitability of foundation and construction material

During the construction the checking of the placed material, whether it meets the
required compaction specifications or not.

If there is a possibility to get testing done by experienced people in a laboratory undisturbed

samples should be taken from test pits, right away after excavation and be brought to a (field)
laboratory in sealed containers where at least the following test should be carried out:
(i) Gradation test: to see if a fairly even distribution of granularity is available
(ii) Water contents: of the soil on site in order to compute the additional water
requirements for optimum compaction.
(iii) Atterberg limits: to evaluate volume change potential and shooting strength of soils.
(iv) Proctor Compaction: test indicates the greatest dry unit weight obtainable under
optimum water contents. This should be controlled during construction. Usually 95% of
the optimum compaction is specified as minimum construction requirement.

63

Above described tests are to ensure good placing and compaction of the soils to be used for
construction, in case laboratory equipment is available. Otherwise compaction will have to be
done by feeling and between five and ten percent volume wise water should be added to
ensure decent compaction. The percentage mentioned is commonly required with the soils in
Kenya. Water should be added at the borrow area, to ensure better distribution in the soil.

3.8 Dam Design

The basic design of the embankment will include but not necessarily be limited to all the
components below
Dam Axis.
The dam axis should normally be designed straight unless special topography features dictate a
bend or a curved axis. The dam axis should be located in such a way that the minimum amount
of backfill will be required for the embankment. A narrowing down of the contour intervals on
the topographical map usually indicates this.

Foundation.
It should be expected that the whole foundation area of the dam will have to be cleared of all
vegetation and the topsoil containing organic materials, as their rotting will create seepage
paths and localized settlements. Equally should all the sand (or mud) be cleared from the
riverbed. No foundation slopes of over 20% (max 30%) should be allowed. Steep slopes will
create either dangerous sliding plane, through embankment settlement against the naturally
compacted original soil (in situ) making seepage lines (planes). In case of riverbed gullies

64

unequal settlement between two embankment sections might occur, also creating seepage
planes.

Height of Wall.
Establish approximate height of the dam wall plus the required freeboard (safety). It is noted
that dams with a height under 5.00 meters should be carefully considered before further design
as the freeboard is usually around 1.00 1.50 meters, evaporation in arid areas is 2.00 2.50
meters per year leaving 1.50 meters or less out of the 5.00 meters for actual net storage or
consumption, which means relative large quantities of backfill for little effective storage. Only
special cases will economically justify the construction of very low dams.

Slopes of Wall.
Slopes of the dam are dependent on the height as well as the materials used. The following
slopes are recommended:
TABLE

SLOPES

DAM HEIGHT
DAM TYPE
(m)

Upstream

Downstream

1:2.5

1:2

Good granular distribution; 1:2.5

1:2

very clayey

1:2.5

1:2.5

Good granular distribution, 1:2.5

1:2.5

clay

1:2.5

Good granular distribution

Below 5

5 10

10-15
1:3

65

Application of a clay core does not change the slopes, however, in cases that the foundation
proves to be bad (e.g. clay) flatter slopes should be selected.

Crest Width.
The crest width of the dam should be 5.0 meters minimum in case heavy machinery will be
used for the construction, as this is a reasonable minimum width for the machines to be
maneuvered comfortably. A 1.5 meters to 2.0 meters crest width can be employed in cases of
labor intensive construction methods.
Dam crest.
If the dam crest is not used for traffic, it should be covered with 200 mm gravel to avoid drying
out and shrinking.
Core Trench.
A core trench is used to cut off bad underlying layers. In case machinery will be used for the
construction the minimum width of the core trench should be about 1.5 times the excavation
width of the machine. The depth of the core trench that should have been established by the
test pits will have to be confirmed by the Resident Engineer during the excavation, the trench
should not exceed a depth of 1/3 1/2 of the dams height.
Filter.
A toe filter and drain are used to prevent piping or seepage appearing on the downstream
slope. The toe filter is made from sand. In case graded sand is available it should be employed
if not any sand without organic matters to be found in the vicinity can be used. The thickness of
the toe filter can be 1.0 meter, of width 5.0 10 meters depending on the height of the dam.

66

The extent of the filter should be up to an elevation 4.0 to 5.0 meters under the crest level of
the embankment. The toe drain made from rocks or riprap of variable size (25mm 250mm
diameter) to be placed against the sand filter to prevent the water draining from the filter of
carrying too many soil particles (piping). The toe drain is kept outside the embankment for
easier construction purposes, simple lorry dumping is possible and no angled filters are
required. It also forms a barrier against cattle wandering up the embankment.

Upstream Slope Protection.

In case of a long reservoir (large fetch) when strong wave development can be expected, the
upstream slope of the embankment should be protected by rip-rap (rough stone pitching) over
the area, which will be affected by the wave action.

Draw Off.
A draw off system or compensation outlet should be included, as pumping straight from the
reservoir will prove to be awkward with the fluctuating water levels. Either mentioned system
will be crossing in or under the embankment for either gravity supply or connection to a
pumping system. As this crossing pipe is a possible seepage hazard care should be taken with
the backfill (well compacted) around the pipe concrete collars should be constructed at set
intervals around the pipe to lengthen the seepage path and render it less straight.

67

CHAPTER 4: MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

4.1Identification of dam site and type
A reconnaissance survey was carried out along River Kiu to determine the best type of dam and
the best location of the dam at the sections neighboring Nzeveni and Itumbule villages. Google
earth was used to acquire the coordinates of the site and also to acquire satellite imagery of the
site.

4.2 Data acquisition

The following datasets were collected:1. Demographic data
This was obtained from the Makueni District Statistics Office and from personal communication
with the area sub chief. The data includes:-population size (census 2009)
-population density
-number of households
-average household size
-average livestock ownership numbers
-institution population

68

2. Climatic data for Machakos weather station(this was the nearest station to the area of
study)
This data was collected from the Kenya Meteorological Department. This includes: -mean monthly rainfall data for the period 1990-2012
-mean monthly wind speeds for the period 1999-2003
-mean monthly pan evaporation for the period 1995-2000
3. Other datasets
A survey was carried out to establish the water demand categories and numbers for Nzeveni
and Itumbule villages
Land use information was obtained from the Machakos and Makueni districts farm
management handbook.

69

4.3 Data analysis approach

4.3.1 Determination of the available reservoir volume
Survey data (coordinates and height) for the area was acquired using Google Maps Find
Altitude(http://www.daftlogic.com/sandbox-google-maps-find-altitude.htm), this data helped
develop DEM for the area using Arc Map. This DEM was used to create contours for the area.
Areas between the contours were obtained by digitizing. The trapezoidal formula was then
used to establish the reservoir inter-contour storage volumes.
A

( = , *+ + *, 

Trapezoidal formula

Total volume was obtained by:

( = (+ + (, + (- . = (
Where h =contour interval
The cumulated storage volumes were then computed as a function of dam height and
tabulated in Table 1.

4.3.2 Determination of design rainfall

The design rainfall was determined from 23 years records of rainfall data for Machakos weather
station obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Station. To calculate design rainfall, the mean
annual rainfall depths were ranked and fitted in a Cumulative frequency distribution function of
the Frechet type (Fisher-Tippett 2) with the `CumFreq cumulative frequency program with a
90% confidence interval. The confidence limits of the 90% reliability rainfall were then
70

established from `CumFreqs output. The lower confidence limit of the values was taken to be
the design rainfall as it would result into a design that would rarely fail.

4.3.3 Catchment runoff computation

The catchment was delineated from Google Maps Find
altitude(http://www.daftlogic.com/sandbox-google-maps-find-altitude.htm) and using Arc MAP
the DEM for the area was created and by digitizing, the area for the catchment was obtained.
The perimeter was also obtained by digitizing.
The catchment soil characteristics (textural class &infiltration ranges) obtained from Shisekanu
(2006) were used to establish the hydrologic soil group (HSG) of the soils in the catchment. The
determined HSG was used with the land cover classification values to calculate a weighted
runoff coefficient for the catchment.
The annual runoff volume from the catchment to the proposed dam site was then calculated
using Nelsons Method as a product of the catchment area and the design rainfall depth and the
runoff factor.
C   %%D  = 100 * $ &
Where * =    $ = ;<    %

& =  %% %

4.3.4 Water demand computation

From the demographic data obtained from the Sub-chiefs Office (Itumbule sub-location), the
human population growth is exponential based on a 3% growth rate experienced between 1999

71

and 2009. In order to compute the total water demand for Nzeveni, the following reasonable
assumptions were made:i)

The future increase in commercial activity and schools is directly related to the
growth of human population (M.O.W.I ,2005).

ii)

As a safety factor, the livestock population growth is proportional to that of the

population and each household has an average of 3 indigenous cows,6 goats and
sheep.

iii)

One household has 6 people on average

iv)

The school going population is 30%of the total population(primary and/or secondary
school) (M.O.W.I, 2005)

Population forecasting was carried out for the initial, future and ultimate years using the
exponential forecasting method with a 3% growth rate. Water demand computation was then
done for the various demand categories .(i.e. Human, livestock, institutional and commercial)
using the water consumption rates given by M.O.W.I(2005) for the demand categories.
Other forms of water and reservoir storage losses were also determined as follows:
i)

Annual evaporation water loss from the reservoir was computed from an average of
the annual pan evaporation data of the period 1999-2003

ii)

40% of the annual water demand in the ultimate year was taken as the seepage loss

iii)

60% of the total water demand was taken as the sedimentation loss

72

4.3.5 Required reservoir storage volume

The required reservoir storage volume was determined using analytical mass curve method.
The capacity of the reservoir is determined from the net inflow and demand. The storage is
required when the demand exceeds the net inflow. The total storage required is equal to the
sum of the storage required during the various periods
Analytical method procedure
1. Collect the stream flow data at the reservoir site during the critical dry period.
Generally, the monthly inflow rates are required. However, for very large reservoirs, the
annual inflow rates may be used.
2. Ascertain the discharge to be released downstream to satisfy water rights.
3. Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir during the month.
4. Estimate the evaporation losses which would occur from the reservoir. The pan
evaporation data are normally used for the estimation of evaporation losses during the
month.
5. Ascertain the demand during various months.
6. Determine the adjusted inflow during different months as follows:
*: %

=  %
+     ; 


  <

7. Compute the storage capacity for each months.

=< >  = *: ? %
@ 

73

8. Determine the total storage capacity of the reservoir by adding the storages required
found in Step 7.
The river inflows were tabulated using the formula below:
? %
= C*
C =  %% %%   

Where
=

 %

E % "   
* =   

4.3.6 Design of the dam

The dam specifications were acquired using all the parameters acquired from the previous
steps. Drawings were made using Google Sketch Up and AutoCAD
1. Limiting height of the low gravity dam
While ignoring uplift, (i.e. taking uplift coefficient c =0)
F=

%
GH I + 1

The maximum allowable compressive strength for concrete in a gravity dam should be less than
the specified compressive strength of concrete divided by 3.0 for usual load combinations.
Supposing concrete class 25 is to be used:
%JK =

25
= 25 107 /,
,
74

GH =  
 < %
9810#/, 
I =   " %   = 2.4/1. Freeboard (FB)
OP = 1.33H  5%F
H = 0.0322;. O + 0.763 0.271O S.,8 % O < 32#
OP   E   0.9
2. Structural height (Ht)
FU = F + OP
1. Top width (Tw)
!H = 0.14FU  0.55F S.8
* 1.74 2
2. Base width (b)
Considering the stress criterion and a unit uplift coefficient (i.e. c = 1)
E=

3I 

75

CHAPTER 5: DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Determination of dam type and location
An area with coordinates latitude 155'57.39"S and longitude 3713'44.81"E was found to be
appropriate for these reasons: - the area had a narrow gorge opening upstream (from contour
map), it had a strong rock foundation which favored the construction of a gravity dam as
opposed to an earth dam, the place was also easily accessible by road which eased the
construction of the dam. A gravity dam was chosen because it is the most durable type of dam
and it requires little maintenance.

5.2 Determination of available reservoir storage volume

A survey (data given in APPENDIX 4) was carried out as illustrated in the methodology and area
was acquired as shown below. Volume was tabulated using the trapezoidal formula

76

TABLE 2: Elevation area- volume values

Elevation(m)

Area(m2)

1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370

H(m)

2277
12663
15123
20707
20916
29564
31124
32360
35040
36003
39575
28486
23071
15927

Volume(m3)

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Cumulative
volume(m3)

7470
13893
17915
20811.5
25240
30344
31742
33700
35521.5
37789
34030.5
25778.5
19499
7963.5

7470.0
21363.0
39278.0
60089.5
85329.5
115673.5
147415.5
181115.5
196637.0
200426.0
203456.5
314235.0
333734.0
341697.5

5.3 Rainfall data analysis

Rainfall data for Machakos weather station for the years 1990-2012 are given in Appendix 1.The
graph(FIGURE 5 ) below shows the trend of the rainfall depth for the years.

RAINFALL TREND BETWEEN 1990-2012

1400
Rainfall (mm)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Time (Years)

77

2010

2015

The table below shows long term mean monthly rainfall as obtained from CLIMWAT data.
TABLE 3: long term mean monthly rainfall
MONTH

JAN FEB

MAR APR MAY JUN

JUL

AUG SEP OCT

NOV

DEC

TOTAL

Rainfall

66

45

103

10

55

185

111

856

59

41.8 86

6.9

9.8

50.2 130.2 91.3 685.4

187

69

11

131

61.4

10.8 6.9

depth(mm)
Effective
rainfall

5.3.1 Computation of design rainfall

To calculate the design rainfall, the mean annual rainfall depths were ranked and fitted in a
Cumulative frequency distribution function of the Frechet type (Fisher-Tippett 2) in the
`CumFreq cumulative frequency program with a 90% confidence interval. The program output
is shown in APPENDIX 5.
C ; %> "C. O = 1 WX  %> " = 1 O
For 90% reliability rainfall, F=0.9 thus C.F = 1-F = 1-0.9 = 0.1
For C.F=0.1, CumFreq gave the following values;

78

TABLE 4: The 90% confidence intervals of the reliability rainfall

X- value

501.4

90% confidence intervals of the reliability rainfall

Lower

Upper

491.0

572.0

The lower confidence limit of the 90% reliability rainfall above was taken as the design rainfall.
A plot of cumulative frequency Vs the rainfall values

FIGURE 6 -AA plot of calculated against observed return period

79

80

5.4 Catchment characteristics

TABLE5: catchment characteristics
ATTRIBUTE
Area(m2)
Perimeter(m)
Major land cover classes(%)
Cultivated land
Grassland
Forested area
Soil characteristics
Texture (Depth 0-60cm below ground)
Infiltration range (mm/hr)
Hydrologic soil group
Slope

VALUE
9.83
7056

SOURCE
Arc GIS
Arc GIS
Rostom et.al, 2005

54
37
9
Shisekanu, 2006
Sandy-clay-loam
15.55-22
C
4%

ArcGIS

TABLE 6: Runoff coefficient determination

COVER TYPE
Cultivated land
Grassland
Forested area

WEIGHT
0.54
0.37
0.09

CONDITION
Good(terraced)
Poor (ground cover<50%)
Fair (Woods are grazed but not burnt,
and some forest litter covers the soil)

 <  %% %%    = $. Y+ Z+ + $. Y, Z, + $. Y- ZThus

 <  %% %%    = 0.16 0.24 + 0.42 0.37 + 0.25 0.09 = 0.533
$ %% %%    = 0.533
The catchment area is 9.83km2. The annual runoff volume is a product of the catchment area
and the annual runoff depth.
81

*   %% ;-  = 9.83 107 0.491 0.533 = 2.58[This shows that there is enough runoff to fill the available reservoir capacity and also justifies
the design of the dam with a spillway

5.5 Population data & analysis

From the census data obtained from the Sub-chiefs Office (Itumbule sub-location), human
population growth is exponential and is based on a 3% growth rate experienced between19992009. In order to compute the total water demand for Itumbule and Nzeveni villages, the
assumptions stated in the methodology were adapted.
TABLE 7: Itumbule and Nzeveni Villages Population Data
VILLAGE
Itumbule
Nzeveni
Totals

NO. OF
HOUSEHOLDS
83
64
147

MALE

FEMALE

TOTAL

223
170

275
214

498
384
882

Based on exponential population forecasting, the formula below was used:

\ = \] . ^_`
Where:
P= population at a year n after t years
Po=initial population
r=population growth rate (decimal)
82

According to MOWI manual 2005, population forecasting for the purpose of water demand
projection is done for the initial year (0-5 years from the date of the commencement of the
preliminary design), future year (10 years from the initial year), and the ultimate year (20 years
from the initial year).
Based on a 3% population growth rate and exponential growth, the population at the above
years is tabulated below:
TABLE 8: Human population projections
YEAR
2009
2014
2018
2028
2038

PEOPLE
882
1025
1156
1560
2106

For the purpose of estimating the water demand for livestock the following conversion factors
apply (MOWI 2005)
TABLE 9: Conversion factors
ANIMALS
1 grade cow
3 indigenous cows
15 sheep or goats
5 donkeys
2 camels

EQUIVALENT TO ______ LIVESTOCK

UNITS(L.U)
1
1
1
1
1

83

TABLE 10: Livestock ownership per household

ANIMALS
Cows
Goats and sheep

NUMBER PER HH(average)

3
6

EQUIVALENT LU
1
0.4

The population for animals in the design years based on the assumption that livestock
population growth is proportional to that of human population, is given in the table below:
TABLE 11: Livestock Population Projections
ANIMALS
Cows
Goats
&Sheep
Totals

TOTAL
(2009)
441

LU

LU

147

TOTAL
(2014)
513

LU

171

TOTAL
(2018)
578

882

59

1323

206

LU

193

TOTAL
(2028)
780

1025

69

1538

240

LU

260

TOTAL
(2038)
1053

1156

78

1560

104

2106

141

1734

271

2340

364

3159

492

351

The table below relates the growth in commercial activities with that of the human population
in accordance to the assumption adopted from MOWI 2005.
TABLE 12: Commercial Units Forecasting
COMMERCIAL
Hotels(low
class)
Bars
Shops (small)

NUMBER
(2009)
6

NUMBER
(2014)
7

NUMBER
(2018)
8

NUMBER
(2028)
11

NUMBER
(2038)
15

12

15

19

25

26

30

35

46

63

84

There are two primary schools in the area of study (Nzeveni primary school and Itumbule
primary school) with human population of 403 and 526 pupils respectively. The table below
show s the school population projection in the design years from the assumption that the
school going population increases with increase in population. (MOWI 2005)
TABLE 13: Institutional population forecasting
YEAR
2009
2014
2018
2028
2038

TOTAL SCHOOL POPULATION

929
1217
1643
2218
2994

5.6 Water demand and water losses computation

5.6.1 Water demand
The quantity of water demanded is obtained from the formula:
a  " @  =         E ;
The various consumption rates have been given by MOWI 2005 as shown in APPENDIX 3. These
values of demand are used in the above equation together with the projected population to
generate the quantity of water demand as shown below:
1. Human water demand
YEAR
2009
2014
2018
2028
2038

PEOPLE
882
1025
1156
1560
2106

RATE(L/capita/day)
50
50
50
50
50
85

TOTAL(L/day)
44100
51250
57800
78000
105300

2. Livestock water demand

YEAR
LU
2009
206
2014
240
2018
271
2028
364
2038
492
3. Commercial water demand

RATE(L/LU/day)
50
50
50
50
50

TOTAL(L/day)
10300
12000
13550
18200
24600

NUMBER
6
7
8
11
15

RATE(L/day)
100
100
100
100
100

TOTAL(L/day)
600
700
800
1100
1500

NUMBER
8
12
15
19
25

RATE(L/day)
100
100
100
100
100

TOTAL(L/day)
800
1200
1500
1900
2500

NUMBER
8
12
15
19
25

RATE(L/day)
500
500
500
500
500

TOTAL(L/day)
4000
6000
7500
9500
12500

Hotels water demand

YEAR
2009
2014
2018
2028
2038

Shops water demand

YEAR
2009
2014
2018
2028
2038

Bars water demand

YEAR
2009
2014
2018
2028
2038

86

4. Institutional water demand

Schools
RATE(L/capita/day)
TOTAL(L/day)
YEAR
PEOPLE
2009
929
25
23225
2014
1217
25
30425
2018
1643
25
41075
2028
2218
25
55450
2038
2994
25
74850
The total water demand for the two villages was obtained as a summation of all the categories
of demand and is as shown below:
TOTAL WATER DEMAND
YEAR
2009
2014
2018
2028
2038

TOTAL (L/day)
83025
101575
122225
164150
221250

L/year
30304125
37074875
44612125
5991475
80756250

M3/year
30304.125
37074.875
44612.125
59914.75
80756.25

WATER DEMAND CATEGORIES

Livestock
11%

Commercial
7%

Human
48%
Institutional
34%

87

FIGURE 7

5.6.2 Water losses

1. Seepage water loss
Seepage was taken to be 40% of the annual water demand in the ultimate year. This is
calculated below:
40
80756.25 = 32302.5- /"
100
2. Evaporation from the reservoir
The amount of water lost through evaporation from the reservoir is obtained from pan
evaporation data given below and using the formula below:
$;  ;  b


c = 0.7  ;  /"
"

$;  ;  d

e
"
= $;  ;  /" $;  , 
Where 0.7 is the pan coefficient
TABLE14: pan evaporation
YEAR Jan

Feb

Mar

1999
2000
2001
2002
2003

7
7
5.8
6.4
6.4

5.9
4.6
4.5
7.1
5.4
4.7
5.5
4.4
4.4
5.3
5.2
3.8
7.2
5.4
3.5
5 years total
5 years average

6.3
5.5
4.4
5.1
5.2

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

3.8
3.7
3.6
3.3
3.5

3.4
3.3
3.2
3.8
3.1

3.7
4.5
4.6
3.1
3.6

5.8
5.7
5.7
6
5.2

5.7
6.5
6
6.3
6.1

5
4.6
4.4
5.6
4.9

4.2
4.8
4.1
4
5.8

ANNUAL
TOTALS
59.9
62.8
56.1
57.9
59.9
296.6
59.32

From the data above, a value of 59.32mm/year was used as the annual pan evaporation over
the design period. The corresponding reservoir evaporations were computed as shown below:
88

59.32
0.7 466319 = 19363.43- /"
1000
3. Sedimentation loss
60% of the total water demand was taken as the sedimentation loss. This was calculated as
shown below:
60
80756.25 = 48453.75- /"
100

WATER LOSSES

seepage
32%

Evaporation
19%

sedimentation
49%

TOTAL DEMAND
The total demand is therefore:
19363.43- /"+48453.75
- /"+32302.5- /year+80756.25m3/year
=180875.93m3/year

89

This value however is multiplied by a safety factor to cater for unaccounted for water demand
and losses. For this design, a safety factor of 1.5 was used, resulting to a total water demand of:
180875.93 1.5 = 271313.895- /"

5.7 Required reservoir capacity

This was done using analytical method. The design rainfall which was found to be 491.2mm
was used as a guide to annual precipitation data which could be used to design the dam.
The average precipitation corresponding to the driest year on record was used as the design
data as shown below:
TABLE 15: Analytical method calculations
Months

Precipitation
(mm)

January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

107.0
0.0
0.0
1.8
15.6
56.2
60.3
1.8
2.3
41.0
189.8
108.8

Inflow
(m3/s)
10-3
10.03
0
0
0.008
0.067
0.241
0.258
0.008
0.01
0.176
10.93
10.423

Demand(m3/s) Deficit(m3/s)
10-3
10-3

Cumulative
deficit

8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61

0
8.61
17.22
25.83
34.373
42.963
51.543
60.145
68.745
77.345
77.345
77.345
77.345

Thus the required reservoir capacity is equal to:

90

---8.61
8.61
8.61
8.543
8.59
8.58
8.602
8.60
8.59
---------

$>  ;   " = 77.345 30.4 24 60 60 10- = 203151.28This volume corresponds to the contour at 1367 which provides a cumulative volume of
fghijk. jlh
This therefore means that the required dam has a hydraulic height of mhjn mhkn =

mgl

5.8 Dam design

5.8.1 Limiting height of the low gravity dam
%JK
107
%=
= 25
= 8.333 107
3.0
3.0
Therefore:
107
F = 8.333
= 250
98102.4 + 1
Now, 10m < 250,   
 E  <    
<; " 
5.8.2 Dam dimensions
1. Hydraulic height (H)
F"   < = 1367 1357 = 10
2. Freeboard (FB)
OP = 1.33H  5%F
H = 0.0322;. O + 0.763 0.271O S.,8 % O < 32#
91

OP   E   0.9

5% 10 = 0.5
  < 0.9, % OP = 0.9 1
3. Structural height (Ht)
FU = F + OP = 10 + 1 = 11
4. Top width (Tw)
!H = 0.14FU  0.55F S.8
0.14 11 = 1.54
 0.55 10S.8 = 1.74
FU = F + OP = 10 + 1 = 11
* 1.74 2
5. Base width (b)
Considering the stress criterion and a unit uplift coefficient (i.e. c = 1)
E=

3I 

10

2.4 1

= 8.5

5.8.3 Computation of stresses

i.

Assumptions considered:

ii.

Pressures considered are dam weight, water uplift, wave and silt.

iii.

Tail water is nil.

Considering 1m of the dam and w=1t/m2,

92

Designation

Force
(t)

Dam weight = volume

x density of concrete
=52.8
W1 = 2x11x 1x2.4
+
W2 = x6.5x7.2x1x2.4 =56.16
,

Lever arm
(m)

Moment about toe

(t.m)

6.5+2/2 = 6.5
6.5x2/3 =4.33

+343.2
+243.17

W=W1+W2

=108.96

Uplift
U1= *8.5*11

=46.75

2/3x8.5=5.67

-265.1

=50

10/3 = 3.33

-166.5

Water pressure Pw
+
Pw = wh2/2 = ,x1x102

/ [1 = +586.4

/ [  = 586.4 265.1 + 166.5 = +154.8

( = Z p = 108.96 46.75 = 62.21
X =
=

 Urs =

[ 154.8
=
= 2.488
(
62.21

8.5
E
X =
2.488 = 1.762
2
2

;
6
62.21
6 1.762
b1 + c =
b1 +
c = 16.42/,
E
E
8.5
8.5

 Urs =

;
6
62.21
6 1.762
1.784
b1 c =
b1
c=
E
E
8.5
8.5
,
t = 1 sec,

But

sec, =1+ =1+(8.5/10)2=1.723

t = 16.42 1.723 = 28.28

z{rH1|U}s~ = 1 tan = 16.42

8.5
= 13.957/,
10

zK|U}s~ = z{rH1|U}s~ = 13.957/,

93

5.8.4 Dam stability analysis

1. Overturning
Righting moments, R.M = 586.4 . 
Stabilizing /overturning moments, O.M = 265.1+66.5 =331.5
O. = = /
F.S =

87.6
--+.8

$. [
Y. [

=1.79

1.5<1.79<2.5 thus the dam is safe against overturning.

2. Sliding
Factor of safety against sliding (F.S.S) should be greater than 1 and is found by Eq 3.29;
F.S.S =

2

( p = 62.21t , = 0.7
F = Pw (ignoring minor wave pressures)
F =28.233
F.S.S =

S.7,.,+
,.--

= 1.835 > 1.

Thus the dam is safe against sliding.

3. Crushing/compression
Pn toe = 16.42t/m2 = 1.874x104N/m2, fcu= 25N/mm2 = 25x106N/m2.

94

Maximum allowable compressive strength should be less than the specified compressive
strength of concrete divided by 3 for usual load combinations. Thus f = 25x106/3 =
8.33x106N/m2
Pn toe<f thus the dam is safe
4. Tension

For no tension the eccentricity e should be less than or the resultant should always lie within
7

the middle third.

e = 3.4 and

8S.
7

= 8.45

e <7 hence the dam is safe.

95

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusions
The goal of this project was to design a multipurpose dam for water supply in Nzeveni. This goal
was however achieved by identifying a suitable site for the design of the dam using contours
generated by ArcGIS, Estimating the water demand categories in the study area using the
exponential formula and by the help of the design manual for water supply Kenya October 2005
(Kenya Belgium study and consultancy fund), establishing the amount of water that could be
stored in the reservoir using contour area and the trapezoidal formula, and finally establishing
the dam specifications using equations specified in chapter 5.
The dam volume was found to be 203456.5m3 and the height was found to be 11m, and thus it
can be concluded that this is a small dam.

6.2 Recommendations
Before this design is actually implemented is recommended that the following should be done:
-The design could be completed by designing a water intake box and abstraction pipe and also
an overfall spillway should be designed for discharging off excess flood water.
-A suitable water treatment plant should be designed for improving the water quality before it
is used
-A supply system should also be designed to supply water to the homesteads, institutions, and
market centers.
-A bill of quantities for the entire project should be established.

96

REFERENCES
1. BEN-ASHER, J., ORON, G. and BUTTON, B.J. (1985). Estimation of runoff volume for
agriculture in arid lands. Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben Gurion
University of the Negev.
2. BILLY, B. (1981). Water harvesting for dryland and floodwater farming in the Navajo
Indian reservation. In: Dutt, G.R. et al (eds), Rainfall collection for agriculture in arid and
semi-arid regions: 3-8, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, UK,
3. BOERS, T.M. and BEN-ASHER, J. (1982). Review of rainwater harvesting. In: Agricultural
Water Management 5: 145-158.
4. BRUINS, H.J. EVANARI, M. and NESSLER, U. (1986). Rainwater harvesting agriculture for
food production in arid zones: the challenge of the African famine. In: Applied
Geography 6 (I): 13-33.
5. Conant, J. (2009). Water for life: Community water security. California: Hesperian
foundation
6. CRITCHLEY, W.R.S., (1986). Runoff harvesting for crop production: experience in Kitui
District; 1984-1986. Paper presented to the Third National Soil and Water Conservation
Workshop, Nairobi, Kenya.
7. CRITCHLEY, W.R.S., (1987). Some lessons from water harvesting in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Report from a workshop held in Baringo, Kenya, 13-17 October 1986. World Bank,
Eastern and Southern Africa Projects Dept., Washington DC.
8. Design manual for water supply Kenya October 2005 (Kenya Belgium study and
consultancy fund)
97

9. Emiroglu, E.M. (2008). Influences on selection of the type of dam. International journal
of science and technology, 3(2), 173-189
10. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper ,Manual on small earth dams, a guide to sitting,
design and construction
11. FRASIER, G.W. and MYERS, L.E. (1983). Handbook of water harvesting. Agricultural
handbook No. 600. USDA, Washington DC.
12. ftp://ftp.fao.org/fi/CDrom/FAO_Training/FAO_Training/General/x6705e/x6705e02.htm
13. Garbrecht, j., and L.W.Martz. 1996. comment on Digital Elevation Model Grid Size,
Landscape Representation, and Hydrologic Simulations by Weihua Zhang and David
R.Montgomery.
14. GILBERTSON, D.D. (1986). Runoff (floodwater) farming and rural water supply in arid
lands. In: Applied Geography 6 (1): 5-11.
15. HILLMAN, F. (1980). Water harvesting in Turkana District, Kenya. Pastoral Network
Paper, Agricultural Admin. Unit/ODI No. 10d, Overseas Development Institute, London.
16. HOGG, R. (1988). Water harvesting and agricultural production in semi-arid Kenya. In:
Development and Change 19: 69-87
17. House, S., Reed, B., & Shaw, R (1997) .Water Source Selection. Retrieved Nov 12, 2011,
from WELL: http:/www.Iboro.ac.uk/well/
18. http://greencleanguide.com/2012/09/07/water-losses-through-seepage/
19. http://www.fao.org/docrep/u3160e/u3160e05.htm#TopOfPage
20. http://www-personal.umich.edu/~steiss/page54.html

98

21. IIT, Kharagpur. (2010). Hydraulics Structures for Flow Diversion and Storage .Lecture
Series: Module 4. India: Unpublished
22. Irrigation and water power engineering by madan mohan das, mimi das saikia
23. Jones, F. E. (1991). Evaporation of Water: with Emphasis on Applications and
Measurements. Chelsea, Michigan: Lewis Publishers, Inc.
24. Keast, G., & Gray, K. (1999). Towards better programming: A water Handbook. Water,
Environment and Sanitation Technical Guidelines , Newyork, USA: UNICEF.
25. New Jersey Storm water Best Management Practices Manual, February 2004, C H A P T E
R5
26. Pierre J., Degoutte,G., &Lautrin,D (n.d) Choice of site and type of dam
27. Ray K. Linsley and Joseph B. Franzini, 2005: Water-Resources Engineering, 3rd Edition.
McGraw-Hill, Inc
28. Shisekanu, M.N (2006).The Influence Of Tillage Implements And Practices On Soil And
Moisture Conservation Of A Crusting Soil
29. U.S Soil conservation service, National engineering handbook No.4,Hydrology

99

Table of Contents
DECLARATION..i
DEDICATION.ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.iii
ABSTRACT.iv
LIST OF TABLESv
LIST OF FIGURES..vi
LIST OF ACRONYMS..vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1

Statement of the problem and problem analysis ......................................................................... 2

1.2

Site analysis and inventory ........................................................................................................... 5

1.3

Objectives...................................................................................................................................... 6

1.3.1

Overall objective ................................................................................................................... 6

1.3.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................. 8
2.1

Sources of water ........................................................................................................................... 8

2.1.1
2.2

Factors to be considered in selecting a suitable water source ............................................. 8

Need for dams............................................................................................................................. 10

2.2.1

The purposes of dams ......................................................................................................... 11

2.3

Reservoirs.................................................................................................................................... 14

2.4

Multipurpose Reservoirs ............................................................................................................. 17

2.5

Location of site selection of reservoir......................................................................................... 18

2.6

Reservoir Levels .......................................................................................................................... 19

2.7

Dams ........................................................................................................................................... 24

2.7.1

Types of dams ..................................................................................................................... 24

2.7.2

Choice of site and type of dam ........................................................................................... 25

CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................... 29

3.1

Determination of design population and demand ..................................................................... 29

3.1.1

Population Estimates and Projections ................................................................................ 29

3.1.2

Population projection ......................................................................................................... 36

3.2

Design Period .............................................................................................................................. 38

3.3

Rainfall analysis ........................................................................................................................... 39

3.3.1

Rainfall characteristics ........................................................................................................ 39

3.3.2

Variability of annual rainfall ................................................................................................ 40

3.3.3

Design rainfall ..................................................................................................................... 40

3.3.4

Rainfall-runoff relationship ................................................................................................. 43

3.3.5

Runoff coefficients .............................................................................................................. 47

3.4

Catchment Area Delineation Using GIS technique ..................................................................... 52

3.5

Determination of available reservoir capacity ............................................................................ 53

3.6

Determination of the Required Capacity .................................................................................... 56

3.7

Investigations for Reservoir ........................................................................................................ 58

3.7.1

Engineering surveys ............................................................................................................ 59

3.7.2

Geological investigations .................................................................................................... 59

3.7.3

Hydrological investigations ................................................................................................. 59

3.8

Dam Design ................................................................................................................................. 64

CHAPTER 4: MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY........................................................................................... 68

4.1

Identification of dam site and type ............................................................................................. 68

4.2

Data acquisition .......................................................................................................................... 68

4.3

Data analysis approach ............................................................................................................... 70

4.3.1

Determination of the available reservoir volume............................................................... 70

4.3.2

Determination of design rainfall ......................................................................................... 70

4.3.3

Catchment runoff computation .......................................................................................... 71

4.3.4

Water demand computation .............................................................................................. 71

4.3.5

Required reservoir storage volume .................................................................................... 73

4.3.6

Design of the dam ............................................................................................................... 74

CHAPTER 5: DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ........................................................................ 76

5.1

Determination of dam type and location ................................................................................... 76

5.2

Determination of available reservoir storage volume ................................................................ 76

5.3

Rainfall data analysis ................................................................................................................... 77

5.3.1

Computation of design rainfall ........................................................................................... 78

5.4

Catchment characteristics .......................................................................................................... 81

5.5

Population data & analysis.......................................................................................................... 82

5.6

Water demand and water losses computation .......................................................................... 85

5.6.1

Water demand .................................................................................................................... 85

5.6.2

Water losses ........................................................................................................................ 88

5.7

Required reservoir capacity ........................................................................................................ 90

5.8

Dam design.................................................................................................................................. 91

5.8.1

Limiting height of the low gravity dam ............................................................................... 91

5.8.2

Dam dimensions.................................................................................................................. 91

5.8.3

Computation of stresses ..................................................................................................... 92

5.8.4

Dam stability analysis .......................................................................................................... 94

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................. 96

6.1

Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 96

6.2

Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 96

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 97