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Home > Wiki > Best practice guidelines for turbomachinery CFD
Contents
1 Deciding what type of simulation to do
1.1 2D, Quasi-3D or 3D
1.2 Inviscid or viscid
1.3 Transient or Stationary
2 Meshing
2.1 Mesh size guidelines
2.2 Boundary layer mesh
3 Boundary conditions
3.1 Turbulence inlet conditions
4 Turbulence modeling
4.1 Near-wall treatment
4.2 Transition prediction
5 Numerical considerations
5.1 Convergence criteria
5.2 Single or double precision
6 Multi-stage analysis
6.1 Steady mixing-plane simulations
6.2 Frozen rotor simulations
6.3 Unsteady sliding-mesh stator-rotor simulations
6.4 Hybrid steady-unsteady stator-rotor simulations
6.5 Other advanced multi-stage methods
7 Heat transfer predictions
8 Acoustics and noise
9 Errors and uncertainties
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2D, Quasi-3D or 3D
2D simulations are often used in the early design phase in order to obtain a typical 2D section of a blade. For cases with many
long blades or vanes, like low-pressure turbines, a 2D simulation can also provide reasonable results. If the area of the
flow-path changes significantly in the axial direction it might be necessary to instead make a quasi-3D simulation. A quasi-3D
simulation is a 2D simulation in which extra source terms are used to account for the acceleration/deceleration caused by a
changing channel height or growing end-wall boundary layers. Codes focused on turbomachinery applications often have the
possibility to perform quasi-3D simulations, but most general purpose CFD codes can not do this type of simulations, or require
user coding to implement the correct source terms in the equations. Please contact your software distributor if your code does
not have the quasi-3d possibility and you require it. Many codes require special routines or hidden commands to enable this
feature.
Full 3D simulations are necessary if a true 3D geometry is needed to obtain correct secondary flows and/or shock locations. For
low-aspect-ratio cases with only a few short blades, like for example structurally loaded turbine outlet guide vanes, the
secondary flow development is important and a 3D simulation is often necessary in order to obtain reasonable results. For
applications where the end-wall boundary layers grow very quickly and interact with a large part of the flow-field it is necessary
to perform a full 3D simulation. This is often the case in compressors and fans, where the negative pressure gradients make the
boundary layers grow much quicker than what they do in for example turbines. For cases where the shock location is very
critical, like in transonic compressors, it is also often necessary to perform a 3D simulation in order to obtain reasonable shock
locations.
Inviscid or viscid
For attached flows close to the design point and without any large separations it is often sufficient with an inviscid Euler
simulation in order to obtain reasonable blade loadings and pressure distributions. Note that inviscid Euler simulations should
only be used if the boundary layers are judged to not have a significant effect on the global flow-field. A viscid Navier-Stokes
simulation is necessary in order to predict losses, secondary flows and separations. As soon as separations are of interest it is of
course also necessary to do a viscid simulation. Note that with todays computers it is often not time and resources that make
users run inviscid Euler simulations. Running viscid Navier-Stokes simulations is now so quick that it is not a time problem any
more. Euler simulations are still interesting though, since with an inviscid Euler simulation you don't have to worry about wall
resolutions, y+ values, turbulence modeling errors etc.
Transient or Stationary
Most turbomachinery simulations are performed as stationary simulations. Transient simulations are done when some kind of
transient flow behaviour has a strong influence on the global flow field. Examples of transient simulations are detailed
simulations of rotor-stator interaction effects, simulations of large unsteady separations etc. Sometimes when you perform a
steady stationary simulation you can see tendencies of unsteady behaviour like for example periodic vortex shedding behind
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blunt trailing edges. This is often first seen as periodical variations of the residuals. If the unsteady tendencies are judged to not
affect the overall simulation results it might be necessary to coarsen the mesh close to the vortex shedding or run a different
turbulence model in order to make the simulation converge. Sometimes you are still forced to run a transient simulation and
average the results if you don't obtain a converged steady solution.
Meshing
In turbomachinery applications structured multi-block hexahedral meshes are most often used for flow-path simulations. In
most solvers a structured grid requires less memory, provides superior accuracy and allows a better boundary-layer resolution
than an unstructured grid. By having cells with a large aspect ratio around sharp leading and trailing edges a structured grid also
provides a better resolution of these areas. Many companies have automatic meshing tools that automatically mesh blade
sections with a structured mesh without much user intervention.
Unstructured meshes are used for more complex and odd geometries where a structured mesh is difficult to create. Typical
examples where unstructured meshes are often used are blade tip regions, areas involving leakage flows and secondary air
systems, film cooling ducts etc.
When meshing avoid to create large jumps in cell sizes. Typically the cell size should not change with more than a factor of
1.25 between neighbouring cells. For structured meshes also try to create fairly continous mesh lines and avoid discontinuities
where the cell directions suddenly change. For multi-block structured meshes avoid placing the singular points where blocks
meet in regions with strong flow gradients since most schemes have a lower accuracy in these singular points.
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Outside of the first cell at a wall a good rule of thumb is to use a growth ratio normal to the wall in the boundary layer of
maximum 1.25. For a low-Re mesh this usually gives around 40 cells in the boundary layer whereas a wall-function mesh does
not require more than 10 cells in the boundary layer.
If you are uncertain of which wall distance to mesh with you can use a y+ estimation tool (http://www.cfd-online.com/Links
/tools.html#yplus) to estitmate the distance needed to obtain the desired y+. These estimation tools are very handy if you have
not done any previous similar simulations.
As a rule of thumb a wall-function mesh typically requires areound 5 to 10 cells in the boundary layer whereas a resolved
low-Re mesh requires about 40 cells in the boundary layer.
Boundary conditions
Describe different types of boundary conditions and when they should be used:
Total pressure in, static pressure out
Absorbing boundary conditions
...
There are different types of boundary conditions you can use:
Mass flow inlet, static pressure outlet.
To put this BC you must allocate inlet surface enough far away from the turbomachine impeller. The velocity distribution is not
constant over all the surface. If you put this "lie" away from your problem it works well.
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be good to compute what eddy viscosity ratio this corresponds to in order to estimate if it sounds reasonable.
Turbulence modeling
Selecting a suitable turbulence model for turbomachinery simulations can be a challenging task. There is no single model which
is suitable for all types of simulations. Which turbulence model CFD engineers use has as much to do with beliefs and traditions
as with knowledge and facts. There are many different schools. However, below follows some advices that most CFD engineers
in the turbomachinery field tend to agree upon.
For attached flows close to the design point a simple algebraic model like the Baldwin-Lomax model can be used. Another
common choice for design-iteration type of simulations is the one-equation model by Spalart-Allmaras. This model has become
more popular in the last years due to the many inherent problems in more refined two-equation models. The big advantage with
both the Baldwin-Lomax model and the Spalart-Allmaras model over more advanced models is that they are very robust to use
and rarely produce completely unphysical results.
In order to accurately predict more difficult cases, like separating flows, rotating flows, flows strongly affected by secondary
flows etc. it is often necessary to use a more refined turbulence model. Common choices are two-equation models like the
model.
Two-equation models are based on the Boussinesq eddy viscosity assumption and this often leads to an over-production of
turbulent energy in regions with strong acceleration or deceleration, like in the leading edge region, regions around shocks and
in the suction peak on the suction side of a blade. To reduce this problems it is common to use a special model variant using, for
example, Durbin's realizability constraint or the Kato-Launder modification. Note that different two-equation models behave
differently in these problematic stagnation and acceleration regions. Worst is probably the standard
model.
model
are slightly better but still do not behave well. More modern variants like Menter's SST k-omega model also has problems,
wheras the v2f model by Durbin behaves better.
Near-wall treatment
For on-design simulations without any large separated regions it is often sufficient to use a wall-function model close to the
wall, preferably with some form of non-equilibrium wall-function that is sensitised to streamwise pressure gradients.
For off-design simulation, or simulations involving complex secondary flows and separations, it is often necessary to use a
low-Re model. There exist many low-Re models that have been used with success in turbomachinery simulations. A robust and
often good choice is to use a one-equation model, like for example the Wolfstein model, in the inner parts of the boundary layer.
There are also several Low-Re
models that work well. Just make sure they don't suffer from the problem with
overproduction of turbulent energy in regions with strong acceleration or deceleration. In the last few years Menter's low-Re
model has gained increased popularity.
Transition prediction
Transition refers to the process when a laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and transitions to a turbulent boundary layer.
There are two types of transition - natural transition, where inherent instabilities in the boundary layer cause the transition and
by-pass transition, where convection and diffusion of turbulence from the free-stream into the boundary layer cause the
transition. Most transitions in turbomachinery are by-pass transitions caused by free-stream turbulence and other external
disturbances like wakes, vortices and surface defects.
Simulating transition in a CFD code accurately is very difficult. Often a separate transition model needs to be solved in order to
specify the transition location and length. Predicting natural transition in a pure CFD code is not possible. Predicting by-pass
transition in a pure CFD code is almost impossible, although there are people who claim to be able to predict by-pass transition
with low-Re two-equation models. However, this is usually on special test cases and with simulations that have been tuned for
these special cases, see for example [Saville 2002]. In reality transition is a very complex and sensitive process where
disturbances like incoming wakes and vortices from previous stages, surface roughness effects and small steps or gaps in the
surfaces play a significant role.
The turbomachinery codes that have transition prediction models often use old ad-hoc models like the Abu-Ghannam and Shaw
model [Abu-Ghannam 1980] or the Mayle model [Mayle 1991]. These models can be quite reliable if they have been validated
and tuned for a similar application. Do not trust your transition predictions without having some form of experimental
validation. Menter has also recently developed a new form of transition model that might work fairly well, but it is still too new
and untested.
For some turbomachinery applications, like modern high-lift low-pressure turbines, transition is critical. For these applications a
CFD code with a transition model that has been tuned for this type of applications should be used.
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Numerical considerations
Use at least a second order accurate scheme for the flow variables. Some codes require a first order scheme for the turbulent
variables ( and ) in order to converge well. It might be sufficient with a first order scheme only on the turbulence variables,
but a second order scheme is of course preferable.
Convergence criteria
To know when a solution is converged is not always that easy. You need some prior experience of your CFD code and your
application to judge when a simulation is converged. For normal pure aero simulations without resolved walls, i.e. with wall
functions or inviscid Euler simulations, convergence can most often be estimated just by looking at the residuals. Exactly what
the residuals should be is not possible to say, it all depends on how your particular code computes and scales the residuals.
Hence, make sure to read the manuals and plot the convergence of a few global parameters before you decide what the residuals
should be for a solution to converge. Note also that many manuals for genereal purpose CFD codes list overly aggressive
convergence criteria that often produce unconverged results. For simulations with resolved walls it is good to look at the
convergence of some global properties, like total pressure losses from the inlet to the outlet. For heat transfer simulations it is
even more tricky since the aerodynamic field can look almost converged although the thermal field is not converged at all. If
doing heat transfer simulations make sure to plot the heat-transfer, run for some time, and plot it again to make sure that it
doesn't change anymore. With very well resolved walls and heat transfer it can sometimes take 10 times longer for the thermal
field to converge.
Multi-stage analysis
Multi-stage analysis can be done in different ways:
Steady mixing-plane simulations
Frozen rotor simulations
Unsteady sliding-mesh stator-rotor simulations
Hybrid steady-unsteady stator-rotor simulations
Other advanced multi-stage methods
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common denominator (to avoid instabilities caused by resonance between different rings). Hence, to make a full unsteady
sliding-mesh computation it is necessary to have a mesh which includes the full wheel with all stators vanes and all rotor
blades. This is often not possible, instead it is necessary to reduce the number of vanes and blades by finding a denominator that
is almost common and then scale the geometry slightly circumferentially. Here is an example:
Real engine: 36 stator vanes, 41 rotor blades
Approximated engine: 41 stator vanes, 41 rotor blades, making it possible to simulate only 1 stator vane and 1 rotor blade
Scaling of stator: All stator vanes are scaled by 36/41 = 0.8780 circumferentially.
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Model errors
Errors related to the computational model.
Wrong physical models
Once the type of simulation has been selected the next step is to select what type of physical models the simulation should use.
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Numerical errors
Errors related to the numerical solution of the developed model. Typical examples of numerical errors are discretization errors,
convergence errors and round-off errors.
Discretization errors
Discretization errors can either be spatial errors in space or temporal errors in time.
Spatial discretization errors are what people normally call discretization errors. These errors are due to the difference between
the exact solution and the numerical representation of the solution in space. Describing exactly what discretization different
codes use and what errors this might lead to is not possible here. Instead some general rules to avoid these errors can be
summarized as:
Use at least a 2nd order accurate scheme, preferably a 3rd order accurate scheme. Some general purpose codes have a 1st
order upwind scheme as default, this is a very diffusives schemes that often gives too smooth results.
For new applications always run a simulation with a finer mesh to see how grid independent your solution is.
Be aware of checker-board errors. Checker-board errors occur close to strong shocks and other large discontinuities and
can be seen as a wavy pattern with a wavelength of two cells. Some schemes, especially those who behave like central
differencing schemes, are more prone to checker-board errors. Upwind schemes are a bit better and schemes like TVD or
chock-capturing schemes are even better.
Temporal discretization errors mainly effect transient simulations. However, some codes use a time-marching method also for
steady simulations and then a temporal discretization error might affect the final steady solution slightly. The discretization in
time can be done with 1st or 2nd order schemes or a Runge-Kutta method, which is more accurate and saves memory. Some
codes can adapt the time-step, but often it is necessary to prescribe a time-step in advance. Think of the time-step as your grid in
time and make sure that the grid-resolution in time is fine enough to resolve the highest frequencies. To avoid problems with
temporal discretization errors the following should be considered:
Use at least a 2nd order scheme in time.
Do a physical estimation of the typical frequencies in time of the phenomena that you are interested in and select a
time-step which is fine enough to resolve these frequencies well. After the simulation also look at the frequencies
captured and make sure that they are well resolved by the chosen time-step.
For new applications try a finer time-step to ensure that your solution in time is fairly grid independent in time.
Convergence errors
To judge when a CFD simulation is converged is not always that easy. Different codes and different applications behave very
differently. For a pure aero-simulation on a fairly coarse grid convergence is easy to judge, but for more complex simulations
involving resolved boundary layers, heat transfer, combustion etc. convergence can be very tricky. Aside from looking at
residuals one should always also look at how global parameters like static pressure distributions, total pressure losses, skin
friction, heat transfer etc. change in time. For more information about how to avoid convergence errors see the previous chapter
about #Convergence criteria.
Round-off errors
When using single precision care needs to be taken to avoid round-off errors. Inviscid Euler simulations and simulations using
wall-function meshes can most often be performed in single precision. For well resolved boundary layers with Y plus close to 1
it is often necessary to use double precision. If using double precision for very fine mesh resolutions make sure that you also
create the mesh in double precision and not just run the solver in double precision. Sometimes a single precision solver
converges slower than a double precision solver due to numerical errors caused by round-off errors. When using advanced
physical models like combustion, free-surface simulations, spray and transient simulations with quick mesh motions it is also
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References
Abu-Ghannam, B.J. and Shaw, R. (1980), "Natural Transition of Boundary Layers - the Effects of Turbulence, Pressure
Gradient, and Flow History", Journal of Mech. Eng. Science, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 213228.
Adamczyk, J. J. (1985), "Model Equation for Simulating Flows in Multistage Turbomachinery", ASME Paper
85-GT-226, also NASA TM-86869.
Adamczyk, J. J. (1999), "Aerodynamic Analysis of Multistage Turbomachinery Flows in Support of Aerodynamic
Design", ASME Paper 99-GT-80..
Baldwin, B. S. and Lomax, H. (1978), "Thin Layer Approximation and Algebraic Model for Separated Turbulent
Flows", AIAA Paper 78-257.
Chen, J. P. and Barter, J. W. (1998), "Comparison of Time-Accurate Calculations for the Unsteady Interaction in
Turbomachinery Stage", AIAA Paper 98-3292.
Denton, J. and Singh, U. (1979), "Time Marching Methods for Turbomachinery Flow Calculations", VKI Lecture Series
1979-7, von Karman Institute.
Erdos, J., Alzner, E. and McNally, W. (1977), "Numerical Solution of Periodic Transonic Flow Through a Transonic
Fan Stage", AIAA Journal, vol. 15, no. 11, pp. 1559-1568.
Gerolymos, G., Vinteler, D., Haugeard, R., Tsange, G. and Vallet, I. (1996), "On the Computation of Unsteady
Turbomachinery Flows Part II Rotor/Stator Interaction using Euler Equations", AGARD Report CP-571.
Giles, M. B. (1990), "Stator/Rotor Interaction in a Transonic Turbine", AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, vol. 6,
no. 5.
He, L, and Ning, W. (1998), "Efficient Approach for Analysis of Unsteady Viscous Flows in Turbomachines", AIAA
Journal, vol. 36, no. 11, pp. 2005-2012.
Mayle, R. E. (1991), "The Role of Laminar-Turbulent Transition in Gas Turbine Engines", ASME Journal of
Turbomachinery, vol. 113, pp. 509-537.
Menter, F.R. (1994), "Two-equation eddy-viscosity turbulence models for engineering applications", AIAA Journal, vol.
32, pp. 269-289.
Montomoli, F., Hodson,H.P, Lapworth, L. (2011), "RANS-URANS in axial compressors, a design methodology",
Journal of Power and Energy, 225 (A3), pp. 363-374.
Montomoli, F., D'Ammaro,A., Uchida, S. (2013), "Uncertainty Quantification and Conjugate Heat Transfer: a
Stochastic Analysis", Journal of Turbomachinery, 135(3), 031014.
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Savill, M., Dick, E., Hanjali, K. and Voke, P. (2002), "Synthesis Report of the ERCOFTAC Transition Modeling
TRANSPRETURB Thematic Network Activities 1998-2002", Ecoftac Bulletin 54, September 2002, pp. 5-16.
Wang, X. and Chen J. (2004), "A Post-Processor to Render Turbomachinery Flows Using Phase-Lag Simulations",
AIAA Paper 04-615.
External links
MARNET-CFD Best Practice Guidelines for Marine Applications of CFD (https://pronet.wsatkins.co.uk/marnet
/guidelines/guide.html)
On Large Scale Turbomachinery Computations, by E. van der Weide et. al., Center for Turbulence Research, Annual
Research Briefs 2005 (http://www.stanford.edu/group/ctr/ResBriefs/temp05/weide.pdf)
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