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HANDOUT 4
Research in English Language Teaching
(The Psychometric Tradition)
Activity 1
What are variables, samples, and populations, and why are they important in
research?
Variable
Population
Sample
remove bias and other sources of extraneous variation, which are not
controllable. Another advantage of randomization (accompanied by replication)
is that it forms the basis of any valid statistical test. Hence the treatments must
be assigned at random to the experimental units. Randomization is usually done
by drawing numbered cards from a well-shuffled pack of cards, or by drawing
numbered balls from a well-shaken container or by using tables of random
numbers.
(2) Replication. The second principle of an experimental design is replication;
which is a repetition of the basic experiment. In other words, it is a complete run
for all the treatments to be tested in the experiment. In all experiments, some
variation is introduced because of the fact that the experimental units such as
individuals or plots of land in agricultural experiments cannot be physically
identical. This type of variation can be removed by using a number of
experimental units. We therefore perform the experiment more than once, i.e.,
we repeat the basic experiment. An individual repetition is called a replicate. The
number, the shape and the size of replicates depend upon the nature of the
experimental material. A replication is used to:
(i) Secure more accurate estimate of the experimental error, a term which
represents the differences that would be observed if the same treatments were
applied several times to the same experimental units;
(ii) Decrease the experimental error and thereby to increase precision, which is a
measure of the variability of the experimental error; and
(iii) Obtain more precise estimate of the mean effect of a treatment, since ,
where denotes the number of replications.
(3) Local Control. It has been observed that all extraneous sources of variation
are not removed by randomization and replication. This necessitates a
refinement in the experimental technique. In other words, we need to choose a
design in such a manner that all extraneous sources of variation are brought
under control. For this purpose, we make use of local control, a term referring to
the amount of balancing, blocking and grouping of the experimental units.
Balancing means that the treatments should he assigned to the experimental
units in such a way that the result is a balanced arrangement of the treatments.
The main purpose of the principle of local control is to increase the efficiency of
an experimental design by decreasing the experimental error. The point to
remember here is that the term local control should not be confused with the
word control. The word control in experimental design is used for a treatment.
Which does not receive any treatment but we need to find out the effectiveness
of other treatments through comparison.
Activity 2
The Two Ways of Classifying Variables
Nunan (1992) stated that a variable, as the term itself suggests, is anything which
does not remain constant. In our case, it includes language proficiency, aptitude,
motivation, and so on. In such a case, it is customary to distinguish between the
two variables by giving them different labels. The label given to the variable that
experimenter expects to influence the other is called the independent variable.
The variable upon which the independent variable is acting is called the
dependent variable.
Based on the explanation above, it is clearly known that variables in English
language teaching and learning divide into two categories. First, independent
variable that is teaching method. Secondly, dependent variable that is the result
of the students achievement.
The kind of situation requires experiment as an appropriate way of gathering
data
The teacher found the new innovative method in teaching and learning English.
He/she has used it and made development to his/her students. The teacher want
to persuade his/her new method is better than traditional method. So, he/she
should collect evidences from the teaching method and it correlation with the
students development.
Time-series design
Factorial design
Patched-up design
time-series design
Least adequate
patched-up design
Least adequate
intact-group comparison
Prediction: student teachers who are randomly assigned to urban schools for
experience are more likely to choose urban schools for their first teaching
assignment than student teachers who are randomly assigned to nonurban
schools.
Construct an experimental design to test this prediction.
Based on the prediction above we should be better to use quasi experimental
design because the situations in which complete experimental control is difficult
or impossible. There are times when a comparison or control group cannot be
included in an experiment. One kind of quasi experimental design that suitable
for this case is time series design. It can be diagramed as follows:
O1O2O3O4
X
O5O6O7O8
O2
----------------------O3
O4
The procedures of this design are the same as for a true design except that intact
groups rather than randomly assigned ones are used, creating a control problem
in terms of selection bias. It has ability in controlling of selection of bias,
especially by using a pretest.
Which of the following circumstances necessitate the use of a quasiexperimental design?
Experimenter cannot assign Ss to condition
A patched up design has been created where this years first graders serve as
the control group for a treatment being tried on this years second graders.
Which validity threat is not controlled?
Maturation and History
Prediction: student teachers who choose urban schools for experience are
more likely to choose urban schools for their first teaching assignment than
student teachers who choose nonurban schools.
Based on the prediction above we should be better to use quasi experimental
design because the situations in which complete experimental control is difficult
or impossible. There are times when a comparison or control group cannot be
included in an experiment. One kind of quasi experimental design that suitable
for this case is time series design. It can be diagramed as follows:
O1O2O3O4
X
O5O6O7O8
A school decides to implement a dental hygiene program for all its students. It
predicts that cavities will be reduced as a result of this program.
a. Why must a quasi-experimental design be employed to test this prediction?
Because there is only a single group is available for study and the group
pattern of the experience with the treatment is highly predetermined- that is,
the researcher must expose the group to the treatment on some systematic
basis.
b. construct one
The design used for the prediction above is Equivalent Time samples Design.
It is diagramed below
X1
O1
X0
O2
X1
O3
X0
O4
The school takes the dental hygiene programme regularly for the week(X 1).
The following week the teacher checks students teeth (O 1). Then the teacher
ask a dentist to check again students teeth (X0) followed by the teachers
checking on the next week (O2). And it is done simultanously until (O4).
The analysis of the data in this study is set up as shown above. A comparison
of O1,O2,O3 and O4 allows the teacher to compare the experiences. The
interaction between the four measurements provides a check on differential
changes overtime,
Prediction : children from broken homes will create a greater discipline
problem in school ( as evidenced by demerits) than children from intact homes.
a. Why must a criterion-group design be employed to test this prediction?
We must use criterion- group design because the context of the prediction is
suitable for the requirements of this design. An attempt is made to determine
what characteristics are associated with the criterion group and have
presumably preceded and thereby caused the criterion behavior. Illustrated by
the directive versus nondirective teacher study, the criterion group approach
might better have called a naturalistic study.
b. construct one
The criterion group design can be diagramed as follows.
C
O1
O1
O2
O1
Prediction : an after-school dance program will improve the physical skills and
social skills of first graders.
a. why does the testing of this prediction call for Hawthorne control?
The prediction above calls for Hawthorne control because the experimental
intervention were after-school dance program for first graders and dependent
variables are physical skills and social skills. Then Hawthorne intervention might
take the form of technique in teaching dance to the children during the same
period of the time that the experimental group was experiencing it. The nontreatment control condition, on the other hand, would involve no contact
whatever between experimenter and subjects.
b. Construct a design for testing it.
X
H
Ep
En
Ep
O1
En
O2
Ep
O3
En
O4
Ep
O1
En
O2
Ep
O3
En
O4
Ep
En