VCE Biology Unit 3

General feedback
- Comparative statement
- Account for the difference: dont just describe state further information
- Genetic crosses: gender and known affected/unaffected?
- Pedigree: legend
- Name geographical barrier: mountain ranges
- Control: make a valid comparison and to show that the variable is responsible for the result
- Cite figures
2002 Exam 1
S.Q
1c
Plant: cell wall outside the cell membrane that limits the expansion of the cell membrane
Sodium ions are pumped out of the cell against a concentration gradient and This transport is
active transport and hence requires energy
2b

sucker to attach to the lining of the intestine

flagella to move to new sites within the gut of infected person

flattened body increases surface area to V ratio and maximises absorption of nutrients.
4b
Vasodilation
Smooth muscle relaxes and the peripheral blood vessels dilate
This increases the surface area of blood close to the skin surface an increase in heat loss
ADH (from pituitary gland)
antidiuretic hormone increases the permeability of kidney tubules/collecting duct to water
greater reabsorption of water
6
Hormones will be transferred in the blood in both situations. All body cells must have
receptors that respond to the hormones involved in the control of blood glucose levels and In
situation 2, only cells in the thyroid gland have receptors that are responsive to TSH.
7a
Mast cells: around blood vessels
2003 Exam 1
S.Q
1c
Microvilli: absorption of material into cell (greatly increases SA available for absorption)
still have a normal phenotype because it still has the same amount of DNA or the cat has not
lost or gained any DNA or chromosome, or no genes have been lost.
2c
Bacterias survival in stomach an outer surface that is resistant to acid attack.
5b

glucose levels after 60 minutes were much higher in X than in Y because insulin present
was not sufficient to trigger a homeostatic feedback

insulin levels remained relatively constant in group X indicating inability to produce insulin
in response to presence of sugar.
7c
Still making antibodies and have memory cells to Rhesus factor five years later
if given Rhesus positive blood the antibodies react immediately with the Rhesus on the
donor red blood cell agglutinate possibly death

2004 Exam 1
S.Q
1a
Neuron: Thin processes extending from cell body: transmission of nerve impulses
Flexible cell membrane capable of movement: phagocytosis
Cilia on one surface: movement of material/fluid over cell surface
5cii The continued contraction of muscles during shivering generates heat for the animal
7a
The dead or attenuated cells are still identified as foreign and retain antigenic property to
stimulate the production of antibodies against it when injected.
8d
Viruses need to enter living cells for their reproductive cycle. On maturity of the viruses within
a cell, the cell bursts open, viruses are released and then the cycle is repeated. Every time
viruses burst from cells there is a sudden increase in the number of viruses. When the virus is
inside the cells the graph is level, running parallel to the horizontal axis.
AND
In contrast, bacteria enter a host but are not dependent on any cycle within cells for their
reproduction. They show a single ongoing phase of exponential growth indicated in graph X.
2005 Exam 1
MC
9
When leaves wilt the production of organic molecules is reduced because stomata close
preventing the entry of CO2
S.Q
2bii The pathogenic agents inability to reproduce outside a living cell
3e

The presence of the apical meristem inhibits the growth of lateral buds because when the
apical meristem was removed the lateral buds grew, as evident from comparing group 1
with group 2.

Auxin or its equivalent is produced in the apical meristem and inhibits the growth of
lateral buds because when auxin was applied to the cut apical meristem no lateral buds
grew, as evident from comparing group 2 with group 3.

Auxin diffuses from the tip of the apical meristem because when a barrier stopped its flow
lateral buds grew, as evident from comparing group 1 with group 4.
6cii Messages are carried in the form of electrical impulses from one nerve cell to another and they
move much more rapidly than blood in the bloodstream.
6e
Decrease in responsiveness of cells to hormones: receptor sites on target tissues may
degenerate with age and may be less effective in binding the particular hormone.
8d
Physiological adaptions in hot, dry environments

extracting extra water from the faeces

an ability to reabsorb increased amounts of water from potential urine

2006 Exam 1
MC
22
Diversity of B cells: due to the rearrangement of gene segments
S.Q
1a
Studying proteome: interaction between proteins, and the reliance that some have on others
1b
Beta pleated sheets: strengthen the molecule that may be important for function (fingernails)
3
Designed drugs: made to prevent the action of a particular infective agent and hence prevents
the development of the particular disease.

5a
5b

5d

6b

7a
7b
7c

7d
8c
8e

because of high solubility in water, carbon dioxide is more readily removed by fish
An increase in blood pH -> to alkaline need to increase the acidity of the blood by an
increase of carbon dioxide in the blood
- heart as the effector would reduce the rate of beating to reduce carbon dioxide loss
- intercostal muscles, diaphragm, rib cage or lungs as the effector would reduce the rate of
ventilation/breathing to reduce carbon dioxide loss.
Hyperventilation: dangerous: A lower level of carbon dioxide reduces the urge to breathe,
resulting in a person running out of oxygen before carbon dioxide builds up to a level to
stimulate breathing.
Some signals inhibit further action while some promote an action:
It provides a greater level of control, or balanced control. Alternatively, students could make
some reference to homeostasis.
Multiple levels of stimulation/inhibition, or fine level of control, or some aspect of small
change in level of stimulus.
Plants first line defense: waxy layers on outside surface; intact or thick cuticle; and chemicals
that repel potential pathogens such as insects.
Human: intact skin; chemicals (enzymes) in tears of eyes/mouth; mucus in nose, respiratory
system and intestine; and pH and digestive enzymes in intestine.
Inflammation
presence of phagocytes; increase in blood flow to area of infection; chemicals released by
damaged cells; clot or scab forms at infective area; and increased permeability of capillaries
allows free movement of white blood cells.
Immune system cells have receptors that are able to distinguish the different kinds of (MHC)
on all cells and hence have the ability to detect and distinguish self from non-self.
Lymph node swelling: Swell because immune responses to infections are generated in lymph
nodes (the rapid build up of white blood cell within to destroy the pathogen.)
Viruses continually mutate in random ways, and increasing the number of drugs used increases
the chance that one of the drugs may be able to inhibit the action caused by a random change.

2007 Exam 1
MC
8
Most accessible for use in glycolysis: glucose, then lipid
S.Q
2b
Complement proteins:
attach to invading micro-organisms
make it easier for phagocytes to ingest
lyse plasma membranes of pathogens, not cell walls
promote inflammation.
4d
Ribosomes in chloroplasts: produce enzymes for photosynthesis
Endosymbiotic theory for chlorophasts and mitochondria

both contain DNA and are capable of self-replication

both have ribosomes, which indicates they can make their own proteins
5c
Histamine: swelling itching excessive mucus production constriction of airways
Released by exocytosis
8d
As a control to give a comparison to injecting the vaccine and to show that the response was
due to the vaccine, not the saline.

2008 Exam 1
MC
13
Lysozyme: first-line defence, catalyses the destruction of the cell walls of bacteria (tears)
S.Q
1a
Phospholipid bilayer chemical composition facilitates

the hydrophilic head and the hydrophobic tail allow the passage of lipid soluble molecules

flexible forms vesicles

waterproof barrier
Protein channel

changeable shape to transport large molecules

2b

mRNA: to carry information from the nucleus to the ribosome for protein synthesis
(instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins)

tRNA: to carry specific amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis

rRNA: a structural component of the ribosome.

2c
Fibrous protein

collagen, to provide strength to skin

keratin, provide strength to hair

fibrin, required for blood clotting

myosin, to facilitate muscle contraction.

Flexibility: arrangement of the polypeptides which enabled them to be stretched and return to
the original shape
Strength parallel arrangement of protein fibres for support
3dii Electron transport chain
1. FADH2 and NADH release e- and H+ ions
2. E- are transferred along a series of cytochromes and at the end of the transport chain these
couple with O2 2O2- accept H+ H2O
3. Energy is released. ATP synthase converts ADP + Pi into ATP
4c
Rational drug design involves the analysis of a disease to determine a structure/aspect of the
disease. A drug is then designed to mimic/block the action of the disease causing agent
5ai
Immune cells recognizing non-self cells: T helper cells
How? Specific receptors capable of distinguishing different kinds of MHC antigens
Class I MHC: all human cells except red blood cells
Class II MHC: antigen-presenting cells e.g. T and B cells: identify if a cell is self, initiate immune
response
5b
Tissue rejection: Cell mediated immunity
T-cell mediated rejection response occurs and T-helper cells activate cytotoxic T-cells and/or
NK (natural killer) cells
cytotoxic chemicals (perforin) are produced which destroy foreign cells or macrophages engulf
and destroy foreign material.
5d
yes, the tumour is contagious and brings about a diseased state
no, the tumour is not an organism but cells originating from rogue self cells.
6b
An autoimmune disease is one in which the body identifies some self cells as non-self and
attacks them.
6c
A hormone is a chemical compound produced in a cell. It either acts within the cell or diffuses
or is transported to other cells where it brings about a specific response.
7a
Growing towards light: positive phototropism
Shoot growing upwards: negative geotropism

7e

Roots growing downward: positive geotropism (responding to gravity)

Damage on sensory neuron: The rate of transmission of the nerve impulse would slow down,
which could lead to a slower reaction and the person being burnt.
Alpha: glucagon (glycogen glucose)
Beta: insulin (increase uptake of glucose from blood)
Stimulus: state high/low calcium concentration

2009 Exam 1
MC
18
Suitable structure to enclose a drug: Phospholipid
best represents a component of the cell membrane is the phospholipid (e.g. liposome).
Protein, while a component of the cell membrane, X form suitable structure to enclose a drug.
S.Q
1c
Cholesterol makes the cell membrane:
more flexible
more stable
more fluid in colder temperatures
decrease the permeability of the bilayer to create small water-soluble molecules.
3e
Account for the difference: provide further information
higher light intensity, the more light can be absorbedthe rate of photosynthesis is greater
at higher temperatures, enzymes are denatured
6d
Positive feedback where the initial impulse passes through a series of neurons and refires the
original neuron. important to rhythmic breathing as continual reinforcement ensures
continual breathing.
7a
Not stem cell B lymphocyte
d
Autoimmune disease:
type 1 diabetes rheumatoid arthritis multiple sclerosis. NOT AIDS
8a
Damaging bone marrow cells
bone marrow produces blood cells a lack of a particular type of cell, such as less oxygen
carried due to fewer red blood cells or fewer antibodies due to fewer B cells.
2010 Exam 1
MC
17
The greatest amount of oxygen production occurs in red light, followed by blue, yellow
S.Q
4a
More plasma cells more antibodies can be produced against the virus
Mitochondria: site for aerobic respiration
2011 Exam 1
S.Q
1b
Chloroplast DNA: controls production of proteins for photosynthesis
2b
histamines are released accumulation of fluid causes blisters to form
5b

antibodies bind to bacteria and cause agglutination, macrophages then engulf and
destroy them

macrophages display foreign antigens of the bacteria; the cells stimulate the production
of antibodies.
6c

cortisol stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood a high level of cortisol

7b

leads to negative feedback lower levels of cortisol lead to decreased release of glucose.
the electron transport chain would be unable to provide larger amounts of ATP
there would be insufficient energy available to maintain life.

2012 Exam 1
S.Q
7a
Virus: non-cellular

not made of cells

does not undergo cellular processes

only reproduced by a host cell.

VCE Biology Unit 4

2002 Exam 2
MC
13
Bacteria evolve rapidly: because have a short generation time
S.Q
5c
There is only one band in lane 2 because individual 2 is homozygous, the others on the gel are
heterozygous or the two fragments of DNA are the same size or the number of repeats in the
two fragments is the same.
8a
Not 2 separate species despite being geographically separated
1. have not been isolated long enough for sufficient genetic differences to accumulate
2. 2 populations occupy similar habitats so similar selection pressures
Extinction

Disease may have spread th/ the populations

Predators may have been introduced

Habitat destroyed when humans cleared the land

2003 Exam 2
MC
20
For a species living in an unchanging environment: the selection pressures remain constant
S.Q
3b
Outcome of recombination

increases variation in the gametes or offspring

the recombining of maternal and paternal alleles

exchange of alleles or genetic material between homologous chromosomes resulting in

new combinations of alleles

2004 Exam 2
Crosses ratio: GENDER!
S.Q
1a
The diploid chromosome number is the number of chromosomes found as homologous pairs in
a cell (organism)
5a
The genetic code is universal which means that the codons in mRNA code for the same amino
acids irrespective of the species.
5b
How is the gene expressed within the blablabla species?
The DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus and then translated in the cytoplasm at the
ribosome into a polypeptide/protein.
6a
Identical twins are genetically identical, non-identical have variations in their DNA or alleles
8a
A genetic bottleneck results in a severe reduction in population size and as a consequence
allele frequencies may change by chance, which will decrease genetic diversity.
8c
Interbreeding 2 populations: to increase the genetic diversity of the wallabies, giving the
population a better chance of survival if the environment changes.
9e
The teeth or jaw would be used to determine that the animal was carnivorous.
9f
The scientists would compare the hard parts of the extinct animal to living species. They would
look for points of muscle attachment to animals living today and for indications on the fossil
bones where ligaments might have been attached to gain insight into musculature, or compare
the sizes and types of bones of the fossil to animals living today to help establish the weight of
the fossil.
2005 Exam 2
S.Q
1d
Zenkeys: unable to produce offspring: Chromosomes are not homologous and therefore will
not pair during meiosis.
2a
A gene locus is the position of a gene on a chromosome.
3b
DONT just say it skipped generations
3c
Inbreeding: breed from closely related people or animals
a reduction in the number of phenotypes/reduction in diversity/reduction in variation, and
populations with less variation are at risk if selective pressures change.
4b
Testing whether all parents are the same:
the crosses in the experiment are performed at 20 C
testcross each parent; that is, cross each parent to the homozygous recessive (virescent)
outcome: expect equal numbers of wild type (WT) (dark green) and virescent (pale green) in
the offspring
2006 Exam 2
MC
5
Haploid organisms produce gametes by mitosis
22
Chimpanzees: large canine teeth
S.Q
5a
Cloning: Making genetically identical copies (of organisms).
5c
The reason for the two numbers is that this locus is found on a pair of homologous
chromosomes.
5d
The different values indicate that the individual being tested is heterozygous for this locus,
indicating that the alleles are of different lengths.

6b

6c
6e
6g
7a
8a
8c

The chromosomes in the hybrid are not found in homologous pairs and are therefore unable to
line up during meiosis.
Due to the doubling process, the chromosomes from each species are now able to form
homologous pairs during meiosis, which can now proceed normally.
Polyploid: more than 2 sets of chromosomes
In selective breeding humans choose organisms with a desirable trait and breed them. In
random mating each bull and cow have an equal chance of mating.
Artificial insemination will influence the frequency of alleles in the next generation by one bull
contributing more frequently to the population.
Genes are only expressed when required to conserve energy or time.
Fertile and viable
Allopatric speciation: Over time there is an accumulation of genetic differences which changes
a trait, such as mating behaviour.

2007 Exam 2
S.Q
2g
Same banding pattern on electrophoresis: apply the same process to a different gene locus
3a
Gene regulation

genes are only activated/transcribed when required

required genes are expressed, which can save energy.

3d
when tryptophan is available, its presence prevents further tryptophan being produced
cell does not waste energy or resources producing tryptophan.
6c
Develop a variety of weeping rice grass with large seeds selective breeding

the farmer would choose the largest seeds from a crop and plant them

these plants then reproduce and the process would be repeated for many generations.
7a
Stratigraphy could be used, where the relative age of a fossil can be determined by the
position of that stratum.
8c
apes and monkeys are less dependent on smell or more dependent on vision
they would therefore have more pseudogenes or less smell genes.
9a
DNA 8ybridization involves the dissociation of different samples of DNA and their
reassociation, providing a measure of similarity
the greater the similarity of the DNA (determined by melting temperature), the more
closely related the two organisms are from which the samples were taken.
2008 Exam 2
MC
10
As Homo sapiens are thought to have originated and evolved in Africa, there has been more
time available for random mutations to occur in mitochondrial DNA and hence greater
genetic variation.
11
Darwins theory of evolution: before Mendels works and before DNA was discovered
He proposed particular characteristics suit an organism to its environment
12
Rock paintings: 30000
S.Q
4a
Appropriate factors to consider in the design of the experiment include:
select veterans from a range of socio-economic groups
select a control group of males for comparison with veterans
the age distribution of the control group selected to match that of the veterans chosen

4b

4c

7c
8c

living and work conditions of control group to be matched with those of the veterans
similar chromosome tests for veterans and controls
similar chromosome tests for children and grandchildren of veterans and controls.
parts of non-homologous chromosomes have been translocated
the insertion may have disrupted the function of other genes.
If mutation happens in the gonads of the veterans these changes are passed on to offspring
via gametes.
large sections of chromosomes have been translocated, and many bases are involved, not a
single base
Gonad: an organ that produces gametes; a testis or ovary.
Permanent change due to climate change: ponds may have dried up restricting location of

Larger brain case

a less prominent brow ridge

a more parabolic jaw.

No interbreeding between Sapiens and neanderthalensis?

different customs and lifestyle prevented interbreeding

different mating behaviour or rituals

mating occurred, however, viable offspring were not produced.

2009 Exam 2
S.Q
4a
Stratigraphy is where layers of sediment build up over time
the oldest fossils are found in the lowest stratum
5c
Copying a gene: Gene cloning, Gene replication and DNA replication
6a
Footprint
big toe is arranged parallel to other toes
big toe is not opposable prints indicate two feet, not four, or the use of hands/knuckles.
6d

the brain an increase in capacity leads to greater processing of information

precision grip led to the ability to make tools for fine manipulation

structures involved with speech led to communication through speech.

2010 Exam 2
S.Q
1c

eukaryotic chromosomes are linear // prokaryotic chromosomes are circular

eukaryotic chromosomes have histones // prokaryotic chromosomes do not

prokaryotic chromosomes are replicated during binary fission and eukaryotic

chromosomes are replicated during mitosis/meiosis.
2b

ribosomes read the mRNA code

tRNA anticodons attach to the mRNA codons

a protein/polypeptide is produced.
3e
For each homologous pair of chromosomes there are two choices of lining up.
6b
A sample is compared to the database and used to: identify endangered species identify
people selling incorrectly labeled fish monitor fish numbers.
7a
Assumption made about stratigraphy: strata are laid down in chronological order.
9c
Genetically modified: must be changes in DNA/genome/genes

2011 Exam 2
MC
5
Stem cells: can be obtained from a 2/4 cell embryo
S.Q
3b
Outcome of recombination

increases variation in the gametes or offspring

the recombining of maternal and paternal alleles

exchange of alleles or genetic material between homologous chromosomes resulting in

new combinations of alleles
5e
Why no restriction enzyme and gel electrophoresis?
There may not be a restriction enzyme available that cuts at the faulty position
7b
Modern humans evolved relatively recently
African populations are the oldest Humans are related to small number of ancestors
Humans evolved and migrated out of Africa
2012 Exam 2
S.Q
7a

share a common ancestor or both retain genes relating to animal-like characteristics

different mutations occurred as each animal evolved or different codons can code for the
same amino acid.
7b
Selective breeding involves humans choosing which organisms will breed. Natural selection is
where a selective agent removes the unsuited, and the suited then breed.
c
Organisms containing genes from other species
Genetically modified organism (GMO is a suitable abbreviation), transgenic or transfected
8a
Climbing trees: prehensile toe, longer upper limbs
precision grip: the making or using of tools
2013 Final
S.Q
8b

meiosis provides variation in offspring due to independent assortment/ crossing over and
recombination

fertilisation results in increased variation through joining of gametes

meiosis ensures gametes are haploid

increases the chance of a species surviving if there are different selection pressures.
8d
Same genotype and phenotype in the offspring if linked gene?

Yes. The same genotypes and phenotypes are possible if crossing over/recombination
occurred

No. Only two types of genotypes and phenotypes are produced, or the majority are of
two types.

Unit 3
AOS 1 Molecules of Life
1. Crossing membrane
Small, uncharged: water, CO2, O2: directly pass through transcient pores in bilayer diffusion
Small, uncharged polar: alcohol, steroids: dissolving in the bilayer diffusion
Small, charged: ions facilitated diffusion (protein channel)
Larger, uncharged: sugars, amino acids facilitated diffusion (carrier protein)
Limit the rate of sub uptake? Carrier proteins are saturated & working at full capacity
2. Electron Transport Chain
i.
FADH2 and NADH release e- and H+ ions
ii.
E- are transferred along a series of cytochromes and at the end of the transport chain
these couple with O2 2O2- accept H+ H2O
iii.
Energy is released. ATP synthase converts ADP + Pi into ATP
3. Plant: cell wall limits the expansion of the cell membrane X burst
4. Chloroplast: in mesophyll cells
Grana: a stack of thylakoids
5. Photosynthesis: * red light, followed by blue, yellow
6. Microvilli: absorption of material into the cell (greatly increases SA available for absorption)
Cilia: move particles out and away from internal spaces in lungs, nostrils
Flagella: locomotion
7. Enzyme denaturation
High temperature affects the hydrogen bonds and dispersion forces, interrupting tertiary
structure and secondary folding, thus the active site is changed.
Extremes of pH alter the active site by disrupting the ionic bonds in the tertiary structure
8. Competitive Inhibitors: bind to active site
Non-competitive inhibitors: binds to another site to change the shape of enzyme
9. Rational drug design
- Determine the structure of the disease-causing factor
- A new drug is designed to have a structure complementary to the active site of infective agent
- Locks into the active site inhibit (cant be released to infect other cells, no more symptoms)

AOS 2 Detecting and Responding

1. Neurotransmitters
- Impulse arrives at axon ending, Ca2+ diffuse in
- synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft (Exocytosis)
- binds to postsynaptic membrane receptors
- Na2+ rushes in action potential
2. Action potential: the memb has to exceed the threshold lvl for the action potential to occur
Resting potential: polarized and inactive K+//Na+ [negative]
Action potential (threshold all or none): influx of Na+
Repolarisation: K+ leave
Hyperpolarisation: more K+ outside than Na+ inside [too negative]
Refractory period: ions return to original sides

3. Reflex Arc
An automatic response that occurs without involvement of the brain.
Importance: it brings about immediate or fast response to protect the body from tissue
damage.
4. Myelinated nerves: myelin sheath
- increases the rate of conduction of a nerve impulse along the axon.
- electrical insulator, preventing impulse from unintentionally being passed to nearby neurons
5. Apoptosis: only nucleus and mitochondria are degraded by caspases (engulfed by phagocytes)
Other organelles are preserved in vesicles
Cytokines are secreted to inhibit inflammation protect surrounding cells
Intrinsic: If serious damage occurs inside a cell, proteins on the surface of mitochondria are
activated and Mt membrane breaks a cascade of events including

Caspases are activated within the cell: enter nuclear pores and break down DNA

A message goes out to phagocytes

Small fragments of DNA, nuclear protein and mitochondria bind to receptors on phagocytic
cells engulf (phagocytosis)

Phaogyctes secrete cytokines

Extrinsic: undeveloped, too many, outlived usefulness (cells between digits, T B cells)
death receptor: bind to extrinsic ligands and transduce intracellular signals that ultimately
result in the destruction of the cell activates caspases
6. Signal Transduction
the cascade of processes by which an extracellular signal (typically a
hormone/neurotransmitter) interacts with a receptor at cell surface/ inside the cytosol causing
a change in level of a second messenger and ultimately effects a change in the cells functioning

Reception (information is received by a cells receptor)

Steroid: able to pass through the membrane to bind onto receptors within the cytosol to
initiate transduction
Peptide: bind to receptors on the surface of the cell membrane, thereby activating a
second messenger within the cytosol to initiate transduction

Transduction (information from the receptor is passed on to an effector)

2nd messenger is formed in/ released into cytosol a cascade of reactions that amplify the
initial message, and can lead to a range of cellular responses

Induction/response (various cellular responses are initiated)

7. Responses to protein hormones faster > steroid hormones
- Protein hormone binds to external receptor to activate pre-existing proteins in cell
- Steroid hormone enters cell rapidly but activates specific genes in the nucleus,
trigger synthesis of new proteins slower
8. Cellular responses to hormones can be different depending on the nature of the signal
transduction pathway in the cell.
9. Steroid hormones: travel in blood via carrier protein
Peptide hormones: travel in blood unaided

10.
Animal hormones
Usually transported in the circulatory system
Usually very specific in their action

Plant hormones
no circulatory system
Same hormone many responses
A plant hormone may cause one response at
low conc and opposite at high conc
Actions overlap a lot

11. Plant hormones

Auxins: cell elongation: phototropism, geotropism, cell elongation
Gibberellins: germination, cell elongation
Cytokinins: cell division & differentiation growth
Ethylene: ripening, abscission
Abscisic acid: responds to environmental stress (inhibit things)
12. Phototropism
auxin is produced in the tips
light coming from one direction auxin moving to side away from light
results in elongation of cells on the shaded side which results in bending towards the light.
13. Geotropism
Auxin slows growth in the root lower cells X elongate, root curves downwards
Stimulates growth in the shoot lower cells in the stem elongate curves upward
Shoot growing upwards: negative geotropism
Roots growing downward: positive geotropism (responding to gravity)
14. Alpha: glucagon (glycogen glucose) Beta: insulin (increase uptake of glucose from blood)

AOS 2 Immunity
1. Non-cellular pathogen: Virus and prion

not made of cells

does not undergo cellular processes

only reproduced by a host cell.

Cellular pathogen: Bacteria, fungi, protozoa
2. Bone marrow cells: damaged lack of some white blood cells e.g. B cells reduce a.b.
3. B cells: mature in bone marrow
T cells: mature in thymus gland
4. LYMPHOCYTES
Cytotoxic T cells: kill infected cells with perforin
T helper cells:
- release chemicals to attract phagocytes
- stimulate B cell cell division
- activate cytotoxic T cells
B plasma cells: produce antibodies against specific pathogen
B memory cells: carries antibodies that recognise specific antigen, rapidly and immediately
produce antibodies against the specific pathogen in second exposure prevent

redevelopment of the disease

5. From breast milk: IgG and IgA
6. Vaccines of antigens: wont cause disease
The lack of nucleic acid host cell cannot be programmed to replicate viruses.
7. Antibody response increases with each vaccination?
A delay in the production of antibodies as there must be recognition of the antigen and cloning
of B cell in the first exposure.
The subsequent response is greater and faster because of the presence of memory cells.
8. Cocktail of drugs
Block

Binding of virus to T cells

Entry of the virus

Transcription of RNA to DNA

Integration of viral DNA into host DNA

Synthesis of viral proteins

Avoid the virus from mutating prevent them from being resistant to drugs
Viruses continually mutate in random ways, and increasing the number of drugs used increases
the chance that one of the drugs may be able to inhibit the action caused by a random change.
9. Autoimmunity: when body loses the ability to distinguish self from non-self and lymphocytes
begin to attack own bodys tissues
T Cells attack directly
B cells secrete antibodies to bind to self antigens, triggering immune response
E.g. Arthritis, Diabetes type 1
Genetic screen positive but absence of autoantibodies potential to develop the disease, but
it hasnt yet been switched on
10. Rejection of Transplanted Tissue: Cell mediated immunity

Foreign MHC antigens

T-helper cells activate cytotoxic T-cells and/or NK (natural killer) cells

Cytotoxic chemicals (perforin) are produced which destroy foreign cells or macrophages
engulf and destroy foreign material.
Minimise effect

Tissues are closely matched so donor and recipient share as many MHC antigens as p

Organ recipients are given drugs which suppress T cells antivity

11. Allergic response hypersensitivity
Sensitisation
- first exposure to allergen allergen binds to B cells produce IgE IgE binds mast cell
2nd exposure
- When allergen binds to IgE on mast cell, mast cell releases histamine
swelling and itchiness
12. Immunotherapy

Repeated tiny injection of an allergen increase level of specific IgG

When later challenged by that allergen, IgG bind with it before it binds to IgE on mast cells

13. Plant defences

- Plants: no blood circulatory system, each cell must fend for itself

Unit 4
AOS 1 Heredity
1. Chromatin condenses into chromosome (single arm: chromatid)
2. Why are chromatin uncondensed normally?
Easier for gene expression
3. Mitosis: chromosomes no. NEVER drop below diploid number (no. of chromatids changes)
4. Mutation: a change to the DNA composition that results in a change in allele
5. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes: BOTH are made of double-stranded DNA
6. Plasmid: both circular, many, less gene loci, additional gene, smaller
Prokaryote chromosome: one, many loci, genes for normal functioning, larger
7. Purines: adenine, guanine
Pyrimidines: cytosine, thymine
8. Centromeres: required for spindles to attach (necessary for mitosis)
(plasmids dont binary fission)
9. The inactivation of one centromere meiosis/cell replication to occur
gametes are able to be produced.
10. Sterile: Chromosomes are not homologous and therefore will not pair up and line up during
meiosis.
11. Homologous chromosomes: carry the same gene loci, same length, shape and banding patterns
12. Cell replication: helicase, DNA polymerase & DNA ligase
Transcription: RNA polymerase: copies DNA template & joins nucleotides
PCR: DNA Taq polymerase
Joining segments of DNA: DNA ligase
Single stranded cDNA from mRNA: Reverse transcriptase
13. All cells contain all the DNA present in the body - they are differentiated to have different
functions because they have different activator molecules
14. Translocation but still phenotypically normal?
There is a complete set of gene but just in different position
If involves disruption of functioning alleles cell malfunction
15. Anaphase I/II?
16. Nucleotides: from a pool of nucleotides
17. RNA

mRNA: to carry information coped from the DNA from the nucleus to the ribosome for
protein synthesis (instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins)

tRNA: to carry specific amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis

rRNA: a structural component of the ribosome.

18. Different amino acid sequence changes primary structure how protein chain folds
final shape of the enzyme
19. Gene regulation: only expressing genes when the product is needed conserve energy/time
20. Infertile Hybrids: Chromosomes are not homologous and therefore will not pair and line up at
MI during meiosis cant produce gametes infertile X new species
21. DNA: universal: codes for the same amino acid regardless of which organism
redundant: One amino acid is coded for by more than one triplet/codon. minimize the
influence of coding error if such occurs
22. Ribosome: RNA + protein
23. Alleles on different chromatids: same (copy, except for mutation)
24. Polyploid: more than 2 sets of chromosomes (common in plants)
25. DNA triplet codon anticodon
26. PCR 2n semi-conservative
1. Denaturation: Separate DNA strands by heating them to 94C
2. Annealing: cool to 55C, add primers to DNA to promote replication process (at specific seq)
3. Extension: DNA polymerase and free nucleotides are added (72C)
27. Hybridisation
2 complementary DNA/RNA strands from different sources joining together
e.g. RNA probes complementary to DNA fragments on gel locate them
DNA comparison (hybridization)
DNA from two different sources is made single-stranded and mixed together, and the degree of
bonding is determined by the melting temperature
28. Mitosis v.s. Meiosis
meiosis produces gametes, mitosis produces somatic cells
homologous chromosomes pair in meiosis, not in mitosis
crossing over or non-disjunction occur in meiosis, not in mitosis.
29. Haploid organisms: make gametes through mitosis
30. Enucleating
the DNA of the donor is removed + only desired DNA/correct no. of chromosomes in the clone
31. Gene therapy
Insert a normal/functioning allele into the cell of an organism who possesses a faulty allele
enable the cell to express the normal form of the gene

AOS 2 Change Over Time

1. Water better environment for fossilization?
Remains can be rapidly buried by sediment deposited underwater reduce chance of
breakdown
2. Molecular clock
The concept that the more time that has passed since separation from a common ancestor
the more time for mutations

 the more differences in DNA (or amino acid)

the more time has passed since divergence from a common ancestor
3. Natural Selection
- natural variation
- selective pressure
- better suited ones survive and pass favourable trait to next generation
- favoured phenotypes increase in number
4. Selective breeding:
humans choose the phenotype they want and let those with this p interbreed
changes in allele frequencies
reduced biodiversity
Greater susceptibility (low genetic variation more vulnerable to selecting agents less
likely to survive environmental change (e.g. disease) extinction)
5. Greater diversity greater phenotypic variation environmental changes greater chance
of survival
6. Increase genetic variation
- breed with members of populations from other places
- captive breeding program
- habitat protection
Lack of variation: change in selection pressure respond in the same way extinction
7. Gene therapy: insert a functioning allele of the faulty gene concerned
8. Why mitochondrial DNA?
- Inherited from mother
- No crossing over/recombination in mDNA
- Mutation rate is known and used to determine evolutionary time
9. Primates hominoids homonins homo
10. Larger brain case
Snout lowered: decreased importance on smell
Smaller teeth (jaw: more parabolic instead of U)
Reduced brow ridge allows larger brain
Pelvis: broad and short greater support for internal organs
Foremen magnum: more forward
Feet: transverse arch improve walking (bipedalism)
Make tools (precision grip + opposable thumb)
Development of culture and technology
11. Primates: Climbing trees: prehensile toe, longer upper limbs
11. Summary:
Afarensis
Africanus
Habilis
Erectus
Neanderthalensis
Sapiens

4-3 Myr BP
2-3 Myr BP

175000-

Bipedal, Lucy
Bipedal
Larger brain, tools, fire
Outside Africa
Largest brain, burial rituals
Rock painting (30000), us