PHARMACOLOGY

PART2

Introduction to Cell Physiology

cell cycle: life cycle of a cell, which includes the

phases G0, G1, S, G2, and M; during the M phase, the
cell divides into two identical daughter cells
cell membrane: lipoprotein structure that separates
the interior of a cell from the external environment;
regulates what can enter and leave a cell
cytoplasm: lies within the cell membrane; contains
organelles for producing proteins, energy, and so on
diffusion: movement of solutes from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration across
a concentration gradient
endocytosis: the process of engulfing substances and
moving them into a cell by extending the cell
membrane around the substance; pinocytosis and
phagocytosis are two kinds of endocytosis
endoplasmic reticulum: fine network of interconnected
channels known as cisternae found in the cytoplasm;
site of chemical reactions within the cell
exocytosis: removal of substances from a cell by
pushing them through the cell membrane
genes: sequences of DNA that control basic cell
functions and allow for cell division
Golgi apparatus: a series of flattened sacs in the
cytoplasm that prepare hormones or other substances
for secretion and may produce lysosomes and store
other synthesized proteins
histocompatibility antigens: proteins found on the
surface of the cell membrane; they are determined by
the genetic code and provide cellular identity as a
self-cell (i.e., a cell belonging to that individual)
lipoprotein: structure composed of proteins and lipids;
the bipolar arrangement of the lipids monitors
substances passing in and out of the cell
lysosomes: encapsulated digestive enzymes found
within a cell; they digest old or damaged areas of the
cell and are responsible for destroying the cell when
the membrane ruptures and the cell dies
mitochondria: rod-shaped organelles that produce
energy within the cell in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
nucleus: the part of a cell that contains the DNA and
genetic material; regulates cellular protein production
and cellular properties
organelles: distinct structures found within the cell
cytoplasm
osmosis: movement of water from an area of low
solute concentration to an area of high solute
concentration in an attempt to equalize the
concentrations
ribosomes: membranous structures that are the sites
of protein production within a cell

Anti-Infective Agents

bactericidal: substance that causes the death of

bacteria, usually by interfering with cell membrane
stability or with proteins or enzymes necessary to
maintain the cellular integrity of the bacteria
bacteriostatic: substance that prevents the replication
of bacteria, usually by interfering with proteins or
enzyme systems necessary for reproduction of the
bacteria
culture: sample of the bacteria (e.g., from sputum, cell
scrapings, urine) to be grown in a laboratory to
determine the species of bacteria that is causing an
infection
prophylaxis: treatment to prevent an infection before it
occurs, as in the use of antibiotics to prevent bacterial
endocarditis or antiprotozoal to prevent malaria
resistance: ability of bacteria over time to adapt to an
antibiotic and produce cells that are no longer
affected by a particular drug
selective toxicity: the ability to affect certain proteins
or enzyme systems that are used by the infecting
organism but not by human cells.
sensitivity testing: evaluation of bacteria obtained in a
culture to determine the antibiotics to which the
organisms are sensitive and which agent would be
appropriate for treatment of a particular infection
spectrum: range of bacteria against which an
antibiotic is effective (e.g., broad-spectrum antibiotics
are effective against a wide range of bacteria)
superinfection:
infections
that
occur
when
opportunistic pathogens that were kept in check by
the normal bacteria have the opportunity to invade
tissues and cause infections because the normal flora
bacteria have been destroyed by antibiotic therapy

Antibiotics

anaerobic: bacteria that survive without oxygen, which

are often seen when blood flow is cut off to an area of
the body
antibiotic: chemical that is able to inhibit the growth of
specific bacteria or cause the death of susceptible
bacteria
gram-negative: bacteria that accept a negative stain
and are frequently associated with infections of the
genitourinary or GI tract
gram-positive: bacteria that take a positive stain and
are frequently associated with infections of the
respiratory tract and soft tissues
synergistic: drugs that work together to increase drug
effectiveness

AMINOGLYCOSIDES

amikacin

gentamicin

kanamycin

neomycin

streptomycin

tobramycin
CARBAPENEMS

doripenem

ertapenem

imipenem-cilastin

CEPHALOSPORINS
First-Generation

cefadroxil

cefazolin

cephalexin
Second-Generation

cefaclor

cefoxitin

cefprozil

cefuroxime
Third-Generation

cefdinir

cefoperazone

cefotaxime

cefpodoxime

ceftazidime

ceftibuten
Penicillinase-Resistant
Antibiotics

nafcillin

oxacillin
SULFONAMIDES

cotrimoxazole

sulfadiazine

sulfasalazine

sulfisoxazole
TETRACYCLINES

demeclocycline

doxycycline

minocycline

tetracycline
ANTIMYCOBACTERIALS
Antituberculosis Drugs

capreomycin

cycloserine

ethambutol

ethionamide

isoniazid

pyrazinamide

rifampin

rifapentine

streptomycin
Leprostatic Drugs

dapsone

ceftizoxime

ceftriaxone
Fourth-Generation

cefditoren

cefepime
FLUOROQUINOLONES

ciprofloxacin

gemifloxacin

levofloxacin

lomefloxacin
moxifloxacin
norfloxacin
ofloxacin

PENICILLINS AND
PENICILLINASERESISTANT
ANTIBIOTICS
Penicillins

penicillin G benzathine

penicillin G potassium

penicillin G procaine

penicillin V
Extended-Spectrum
Penicillins

amoxicillin

ampicillin

carbenicillin

ticarcillin
OTHER ANTIBIOTICS
Ketolides

telithromycin
Lincosamides

clindamycin

lincomycin
Macrolides

azithromycin

clarithromycin

dirithromycin

erythromycin
Monobactams

Aztreonam
NEW CLASSES OF
ANTIBIOTICS AND
ADJUNCTS
New Classes of
Antibiotics

daptomycin

linezolid

quinupristin/dalfopristin

tigecycline
Adjuncts to Antibiotic
Therapy

clavulanic acid

thalidomide

sulbactam

Antiviral Agents

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS):

collection of opportunistic infections and cancers that
occurs when the immune system is severely
depressed by a decrease in the number of functioning
helper T cells; caused by infection with human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
AIDS-related complex (ARC): collection of less
serious opportunistic infections with HIV infection; the

decrease in the number of helper T cells is less

severe than in fully developed AIDS
CCR5 coreceptor antagonist:a drug that blocks the
receptor site the HIV virus needs to interact with in
order to enter the cell.
cytomegalovirus (CMV): DNA virus that accounts for
many respiratory, ophthalmic, and liver infections
fusion inhibitor: a drug that prevents the fusion of the
HIV-1 virus with the human cellular membrane,
preventing it from entering the cell
helper T cell: human lymphocyte that helps to initiate
immune reactions in response to tissue invasion
hepatitis B: a serious to potentially fatal viral infection
of the liver, transmitted by body fluids
herpes: DNA virus that accounts for many diseases,
including shingles, cold sores, genital herpes, and
encephalitis
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): retrovirus that
attacks helper T cells, leading to a decrease in
immune function and AIDS or ARC
influenza A: RNA virus that invades tissues of the
respiratory tract, causing the signs and symptoms of
the common cold or flu
integrase inhibitor: a drug that inhibits the activity of
the virus-specific enzyme integrase, an encoded
enzyme needed for viral replication, blocking this
enzyme prevents the formation of the HIV-1 provirus
interferon: tissue hormone that is released in
response to viral invasion; blocks viral replication
nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: drugs
that bind to sites on the reverse transcriptase,
preventing
RNA
and
DNA-dependent
DNA
polymerase activities needed to carry out the viral
DNA synthesis; prevents the transfer of information
that allows the virus to replicate and survive
nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: drugs that
prevent the growth of the viral DNA chain, preventing
it from inserting into the host DNA, so viral replication
cannot occur
protease inhibitors: drugs that block the activity of the
enzyme protease in HIV; protease is essential for the
maturation of infectious virus, and its absence leads
to the formation of an immature and noninfective HIV
particle
virus: particle of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein
coat that survives by invading a cell to alter its
functioning

AGENTS FOR
INFLUENZA A AND
RESPIRATORY
VIRUSES

amantadine

oseltamivir

ribavirin

rimantadine

zanamivir
AGENTS FOR HERPES
VIRUS AND
CYTOMEGALOVIRUS

acyclovir

cidofovir

famciclovir

foscarnet
ganciclovir
zalcitabine
zidovudine

Protease Inhibitors

atazanavir

fosamprenavir

indinavir

lopinavir

nelfinavir

ritonavir

saquinavir

tipranavir
Fusion Inhibitor
Enfuvirtide
CCR5 Coreceptor
Antagonist

maraviroc

valacyclovir

valganciclovir
AGENTS FOR HIV AND AIDS
Nonnucleoside Reverse
Transcriptase Inhibitors

delavirdine

efavirenz

nevirapine
Nucleoside Reverse
Transcriptase Inhibitors

abacavir

didanosine

emtricitabine

lamivudine

stavudine

tenofovir

Antifungal Agents

azoles: a group of drugs used to treat fungal

infections
Candida: fungus that is normally found on mucous
membranes; can cause yeast infections or thrush of
the GI tract and vagina in immunosuppressed patients
ergosterol: steroid-type protein found in the cell
membrane of fungi; similar in configuration to adrenal
hormones and testosterone
fungus: a cellular organism with a hard cell wall that
contains chitin and many polysaccharides, as well as
a cell membrane that contains ergosterols
mycosis: disease caused by a fungus
tinea: fungus called ringworm that causes such
infections as athletes foot, jock itch, and others

SYSTEMIC
ANTIFUNGALS
Azole Antifungals

fluconazole

itraconazole

ketoconazole
posaconazole
terbinafine
voriconazole

Echinocandin
Antifungals

anidulafungin

clotrimazole

econazole

ketoconazole

miconazole

oxiconazole

sertaconazole

sulconazole

terbinafine

terconazole

tioconazole

caspofungin

micafungin
Other Antifungals

amphotericin B

flucytosine

griseofulvin

nystatin
TOPICAL
ANTIFUNGALS
Azole Topical
Antifungals

Butoconazole
Other Topical
Antifungals

butenafine

ciclopirox

gentian violet

naftifine

tolnaftate

undecylenic acid

Antiprotozoal Agents

amebiasis: amebic dysentery, which is caused by

intestinal invasion of the trophozoite stage of the
protozoan Entamoeba histolytica
Anopheles mosquito: type of mosquito that is
essential to the life cycle of Plasmodium; injects the
protozoa into humans for further maturation
cinchonism:
syndrome
of
quinine
toxicity
characterized by nausea, vomiting, tinnitus, and
vertigo
giardiasis: protozoal intestinal infection that causes
severe diarrhea and epigastric distress; may lead to
serious malnutrition
leishmaniasis: skin, mucous membrane, or visceral
infection caused by a protozoan passed to humans by
the bites of sand flies
malaria: protozoal infection with Plasmodium,
characterized by cyclic fever and chills as the parasite

is released from ruptured red blood cells; causes

serious liver, CNS, heart, and lung damage
Plasmodium: a protozoan that causes malaria in
humans; its life cycle includes the Anopheles
mosquito, which injects protozoa into humans
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP): opportunistic
infection that occurs when the immune system is
depressed; a frequent cause of pneumonia in patients
with AIDS and in those who are receiving
immunosuppressive therapy
protozoa: single-celled organisms that pass through
several stages in their life cycle, including at least one
phase as a human parasite; found in areas of poor
sanitation and hygiene and crowded living conditions
trichomoniasis: infestation with a protozoan that
causes vaginitis in women but no signs or symptoms
in men
trophozoite: a developing stage of a parasite, which
uses the host for essential nutrients needed for
growth
trypanosomiasis: African sleeping sickness, which is
caused by a protozoan that inflames the CNS and is
spread to humans by the bite of the tsetse fly; also,
Chagas disease, which causes a serious
cardiomyopathy after the bite of the house fly

ANTIMALARIALS

chloroquine

hydroxychloroquine
OTHER
ANTIPROTOZOALS

atovaquone

metronidazole

mefloquine

primaquine

pyrimethamine

nitazoxanide

pentamidine

tinidazole

Anthelmintic Agents
Ascaris: the most prevalent helminthic infection; fertilized
roundworm eggs are ingested, which hatch in the small
intestine and then make their way to the lungs, where they may
cause cough, fever, and other signs of a pulmonary infiltrate
cestode: tapeworm with a head and segmented body parts that
is capable of growing to several yards in the human intestine
filariasis: infection of the blood and tissues of healthy
individuals by worm embryos or filariae
helminth: worm that can cause disease by invading the human
body
hookworms: worms that attach themselves to the small
intestine of infected individuals, where they suck blood from
the walls of the intestine, damaging the intestinal wall and
leading to severe anemia with lethargy, weakness, and fatigue
nematode: roundworms such as the commonly encountered
pinworm, whipworm, threadworm, Ascaris, or hookworm that
cause a common helminthic infection in humans; can cause
intestinal obstruction as the adult worms clog the intestinal
lumen or severe pneumonia when the larvae migrate to the
lungs and form a pulmonary infiltrate

pinworm: nematode that causes a common helminthic infection

in humans; lives in the intestine and causes anal and possible
vaginal irritation and itching
platyhelminth: flatworms, including the cestodes or tapeworms;
a worm that can live in the human intestine or can invade other
human tissues (flukes)
schistosomiasis: infection with a blood fluke that is carried by a
snail; it poses a common problem in tropical countries, where
the snail is the intermediary in the life cycle of the worm; larvae
burrow into the skin in fresh water and migrate throughout the
human body, causing a rash and then symptoms of diarrhea
and liver and brain inflammation
threadworm: pervasive nematode that can send larvae into the
lungs, liver, and CNS; can cause severe pneumonia or liver
abscess
trichinosis: disease that results from ingestion of encysted
roundworm larvae in undercooked pork; larvae migrate
throughout the body to invade muscles, nerves, and other
tissues; can cause pneumonia, heart failure, and encephalitis
whipworm: worm that attaches itself to the intestinal mucosa
and sucks blood; may cause severe anemia and disintegration
of the intestinal mucosa
DRUG LIST
Anthelmintics

albendazole

pyrantel

thiabendazole

ivermectin

mebendazole

praziquantel

Antineoplastic
Agents

alopecia: hair loss; a common adverse effect of many

antineoplastic drugs, which are more effective against
rapidly multiplying cells such as those of hair follicles
anaplasia: loss of organization and structure; property
of cancer cells
angiogenesis: the generation of new blood vessels;
cancer cells release an enzyme that will cause
angiogenesis or the growth of new blood vessels to
feed the cancer cells
antineoplastic agent: drug used to combat cancer or
the growth of neoplasms
autonomy: loss of the normal controls and reactions
that inhibit growth and spreading; property of cancer
cells
bone marrow suppression: inhibition of the bloodforming components of the bone marrow; a common
adverse effect of many antineoplastic drugs, which
are more effective against rapidly multiplying cells,
such as those in bone marrow; also seen in anemia,
thrombocytopenia, and leukopenia
carcinoma: tumor that originates in epithelial cells
metastasis: ability to enter the circulatory or lymphatic
system and travel to other areas of the body that are
conducive to growth and survival; property of cancer
cells

neoplasm: new or cancerous growth; occurs when

abnormal cells have the opportunity to multiply and
grow
sarcoma: tumor that originates in the mesenchyme
and is made up of embryonic connective tissue cells

Cancers arise from a single abnormal cell that

multiplies and grows.
Cancers can manifest as diseases of the blood and
lymph tissue or as growth of tumors arising from
epithelial cells (carcinomas) or from mesenchymal cells
and connective tissue (sarcomas).
Cancer cells lose their normal function (anaplasia),
develop characteristics that allow them to grow in an
uninhibited way (autonomy), have the ability to travel to
other sites in the body that are conducive to their growth
(metastasis), and can stimulate the production of blood
vessels to bring nutrients to the growing tumor
(angiogenesis).
Antineoplastic drugs affect both normal cells and
cancer cells by disrupting cell function and division at
various points in the cell cycle; new drugs are being
developed, such as protein kinase inhibitors, to target
cancer cell specific functions.
Cancer drugs are usually most effective against cells
that multiply rapidly (i.e., proceed through the cell cycle
quickly). These cells include most neoplasms, bone
marrow cells, cells in the GI tract, and cells in the skin or
hair follicles.
The goal of cancer chemotherapy is to decrease the
size of the neoplasm so that the human immune system
can deal with it.
Antineoplastic drugs are often given in combination so
that they can affect cells in various stages of the cell
cycle, including cells that are emerging from rest or
moving to a phase of the cycle that is disrupted by these
drugs.
Adverse effects associated with antineoplastic therapy
include effects caused by damage to the rapidly
multiplying cells, such as bone marrow suppression,
which may limit the drug use; GI toxicity, with nausea,
vomiting, mouth sores, and diarrhea; and alopecia (hair
loss).
Chemotherapeutic agents should not be used during
pregnancy or lactation because they may result in
potentially serious adverse effects on the rapidly
multiplying cells of the fetus and neonate.
The newest drugs developed as antineoplastic agents
target very specific enzyme systems or processes used
by the cancer cells but not by healthy human cells.
These drugs are not as toxic to the patient as traditional
antineoplastic drugs.