PRESSURE MAINS

P. Sounya sri1
(M.Tech, Transportation Engineering,)
Malla Reddy Engineering College
(Autonomous) Secunderabad-500100

S.Ashok Kumar2
Assistant Professor,
Malla Reddy Engineering College
(Autonomous) Secunderabad-500100

Introduction:
Pressure MAINS are most important components and acts as

Importance and Impact of pressure mains on

nerves of a LI scheme. Pressure mains are those which take the

Pumps and Cost:

water from pump house to cistern.

Pressure main is the key component in the LI scheme

While finalizing the pressure mains, the designer need to know

which works as nerves of the scheme and are very

the following aspects;

expensive. Whenever length of pressure mains is in kms.

They take away the lions share of 50% to 80% of the total

Importance and impact of pressure mains on the

cost of the scheme which reflects the importance and

scheme

Design considerations of pressure main

Various types of pressure mains

their design.

In view of the huge cost involvement on pressure mains,

the type and diameter are to be very carefully designed

Multiple pumps with less number of pressure mains

with cost economics on 2 or 3 alternatives. The type of

need manifold for smooth transmission of water. The

pipe shall be proposed depending on the heads , field

manifold diameter shall be twice diameter of pressure

conditions and longevity.

mains but not less than equivalent diameter of pressure

mains.

Further, as much as possible / whenever there is

feasibility or gravity canal for more than a KM, pressure

Various types of pressure mains:

mains shall be avoided by introducing intermediate

pumping station in between duly verifying the cost

Concrete pipes

Prestressed concrete pipes

Cast iron pipes

Steel or MS pipes

Ductile iron

Bar Wrapped steel cylinder concrete pressure pipes

provided as not only it is costly but also increases pump

Glass fibre reinforced plastic pipes(G.R.P)

capacity

economics.

Length of Pressure mains:

It is desirable that shorter length pipe line shall be

&

surge

protection

devices

and

has

compounding impact on the scheme cost.

Whenever MS pipes with huge heads are to be laid in the ground
they need protection against corrosion by applying epoxy coating

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS :

or cement mortar on both sides of the pipe which may escalate

the cost of the scheme further as MS pipe itself is uneconomical.

The pressure mains shall be designed for the velocity not

exceeding 2m/s for MS pipes and 1.5m/sec for PSC /

Owing to the smoother surface and economy over MS pipes,

importance of the GRP pipes is steadily increasing , but the
performance of them for longevity has to be established.

RCC pipes, as increase in the velocity increases frictional

losses & total head which has bearing on the HP of the
pump & the cost of the scheme .Similarly lengthy

pressure mains increases total head causing increase in

the IS codes. However it is reported that the instantaneous

HP of pump further.

pressures occurring in pumping mains can be as high as 10

Velocity

in

pipe

For

MS

pipes

with

IS:2002

times the working pressure. It is uneconomical to design a pipe

specifications can be allowed upto 3.0m/s.

line to with stand such high pressures. But water hammer

If the diameter of the pressure main is more than 2.0m

device manufactures claim that this surge pressure in pumping

then the cost may increase abnormally.

can be controlled below two times working pressures by

In view of the above ,the number of rows of pressure

providing air valves , pressure relief valves etc. Pump /

mains shall be decided duly considering the head

pressure main/water hammer device could possible throw

involvement, dia and type of material & considering

some more light on this aspect.

allowable velocity satisfying cost economics.

Factors influencing pipe line cost are:

Thickness required against internal pressure can be
determined using IS :5822 given below:
t = pD/(2a f e +p)
where D = dia of pipe in cm
p = internal pressure in kg per sq cms
= total head in m /10

Length

Head

Material of pipe line

Diameter:
Pressure main diameter shall be designed for the
velocity not exceeding 2.0 m/s for MS pipes (as against

f = yield stress in kg/sq.cm

allowable velocity of 3.0) and 1.5 m/s for PSC / RCC

a = design factor = 0.6 for working pressure

pipes ,as increase in the velocity increases frictional

losses & total head which has bearing on the HP of the
pump & the cost of the scheme

Allowable permissible stresses and deflection of MS pipe

using Sprangler equations.

Diameter

E = weld eff = 0.8 for field welding

Condition of verification to buried pipe line:

Head :
Head means

Working stress for combined bending and direct tensile

Static head +

stress shall not exceed 66% of yield stress of the material

Frictional losses in pipe line +

making due allowance of efficiency of welded joint

Head due to water hammer if any.

Working stress for combined bending and direct

compressive stress shall not exceed 50% of yield stress of

Frictional losses in pipe line:

the material making due allowance of efficiency of

Different formulae are available for calculating the

welded joint

loss of head due to friction .

The allowable deflection of pipe shall not be more than

Hazen Williams formula.

2% of outer dia of MS shell(pipes as rigid),for external

Mannings formula

load and

Darcy weisbachs formula.

Cole brook white formula.

partial vaccum pressure condition and for

external pressure and internal pressure condition

Hazen Williams formula

Water hammer in pumping mains :

In case of lengthy pressure mains , water hammer is important
phenomena to analyze and the measures to be taken care;
otherwise pressure mains may be susceptible to breakages by
surge pressure caused by water hammer. Generally pressure
mains are designed for two times the working pressure as per

For circular conduits

Q=1.292 x 10-5cd2.63s 0.45
Where
Q=discharge in m3/hr
d= diameter of pipe in mm
S= slope of hydraulic gradient
C=hazen williams coefficient

Mannings formula:

Forces on pipe line:

Pipe must resist a number of different

forces singlal y or in combination
Internal pressure equal to the full head of
water to which the conduit can be
subjected

For circular conduits

Q= 8.661 x 10 -7 x 1/n d8/3 s1/2
Where

d = diameter of pipeline in mm
S = slope of hydraulic gradient
N = manningss coefficient of roughness

Unbalanced pressure at bends,contractions

and closures.

Water hammer or measured internal

pressure caused by sudden reduction in the
velocity of water by closing of gate or
shutdown of pumps

External loads in the form of

backfill,traffic and their own weight
between supports.
Temperature force

Dracy-weisbachs formula:
S= H/L = F V2/2gD
Where
H= head loss due to friction in m
D= diameter of pipe in m
S =slope of hydraulic gradient
F= dimensionless friction factor
L=length of pipe in m .
G= acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
Material of pipe line:
Pipe line material shall be judiciously selected keeping in view

Overall cost of pipe line

Durability of pipe line
Availability in the location of project.
Operation and maintenance cost

The above forces will include the following stresses.

Choice of pipe line material:

1.

2.

metallic pipes : CI,DI,MS,GI

unlined metallic pipes

metallic pipes lined with CM or epoxy

non metallic pipes:

RCC, PSC, bar wrapped steel cylinder, concrete,

asbestos cement.

Plastic pipes: PVC, polyethylene, GRP

Etc.

Selection of pipe line material shall be based on:

Carrying capacity of pipe line.

Durability of pipe
Strength of pipe to resist the internal pressure and
external loads
Ease or difficult of transporter, handling and laying of
pipes under different conditions of topography, geology
and other prevailing conditions.
Availability of manufacturing sizes of pipes and specials.
Availability of skilled personal in construction and
commission of pipe lines.
Ease or difficulty of operation and maintenance.

Internal pressure including water hammer induces

transverse stress or hoop tension.
Bends and closures at dead ends produce unbalanced
pressure and longitudinal stress
When pipes are not permitted to change length due to
variation in temperature create longitudinal stress.
External loads including the weight of the pipe and
atomospheric pressure produce flexural stress.

Pipe line design criteria:

Conditions to be considered for the structural design of
pipe lines.
1.

Normal operating condition.

2.

Emergency condition of operation (under transient

condition).
Normal operation condition means flow in pipes
with pumps installed in the system at the rated
speed ,valves open and no dynamic pressure rise
or fall due to tripping of pumps/closure of valve.

Means dynamic pressure rise or fall due to

sudden pump failure, closure of valves or opening etc.
For MS pipe line:
Shell thickness is decided by

Deflection criteria
Stress criteria.
Buckling criteria

Deflection criteria:

C =1425/[1+kd/ECt]1/2

Shell thickness shall be such that under worst combination

external loads, where internal pressure is atmospheric or sub
atmospheric, deflection in pipe shall not exceed 2% of nominal
diameter of pipe.

Where,

Stress criteria
a.

compressive stress:

maximum stress developed in the shell under the combined effect

of flexural stress due to vertical external loads and direct
compressive stress shall not exceed 50% of yield stress of the
material i.e , 0.5 fy

K = bulk modulus of water

= 2.70 x 10 kg/m2
D = diameter of pipe line in m.
Ct = thickness of pipe in m.
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe in kg/m2
The details of pressure main in Lift I are as below:

Pressure mains:
b . tensile stress:
maximum tensile stress developed in the shell under the
combined effect of flexural stress due to minimum permanent
external loads and direct hoop stress due to internal pressure
shall not be exceed 60% of yield stress of the material i.e., 0.6fy.

Length

300m (Average) x 5 No.s

Diameters

3.0m 910 ft)

Buckling criteria:

Thickness

14.50mm

Thickness to be required for the resistance to buckling when

subjected external loads is

Max delivery level

+342.000 (1122 ft)

p = 2E (t/D)3

(centre line of delivery line at highest point of cistern)

where,

The main costly component of LI scheme is pressure main. Thus

p= pressure due to external loads in Kg/cm2

by properly aligning and designing the pressure main, lot of cost

(984 ft)

saving in LI scheme can be achieved.

E= modulus of elasticity
=2.1x 106 Kg/cm2

Various points to be attended to during construction of

pressure main are as follows:

T= thickness of pipe in cm
D=diameter of pipe in cm

Pressure main should preferably be underground as it will

not require any land acquisition, any costly supporting

Water hammer :

structure in the form of saddle supports, expansions joins

Water hammer or surge or hydraulic transients is a phenomenon

occurring in pipe line with rapid change in the flow rate (or
velocity ),which is leading to change in pressure ,for 1m/s
change in velocity , the pressure spike would be roughly 100m.

etc. for underground alignments, it should be ensured that

In the absence of detained analysis,the maximum water hammer

pressure can be computed using the formula,

the cover of soil above top of pipe is at least 1.2m so as

to avoid transfer of temperature stresses from the surface
to pipe;

into account various factors such as cultivable land, forest

land, submergence of reservoir, road crossing etc. so that

Hmaxi = maxi.pressure rise in pipe line in m.

C = velocity of pressure wave in m/s
G =acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
Vo=normal velocity in pipe line in m/s

Alignment of pressure main should be finalized taking

the work of raising main can continue uninterruptedly;

To avoid excessive surge pressure, the alignment of

pressure main should preferably be as straight as possible
with minimum number of bends in either vertical or
horizontal direction;

For above ground pipelines saddle supports should be

be preferred, as they are longer in length there by

constructed as per design height as the same is

reducing number of joints at site as compared to pipes

different at different location based on gradient of

fabricated at sites. For steel plates to be used for pipe

rising main in that reach. Also the top of the saddle

fabrication, third party inspection report is necessary

support can be sloping as per design based on the

from quality control view point. For pipes having

gradient of the pipeline. If this factor is not taken into

larger diameter, cross bracing from inside is must to

account while casting the saddle support, the pipeline

avoid loss of shape due to its own weight;

may not get support for full length of support thereby

shop and ultrasonic testing in the field. Such length to

support top can get damaged. Also to reduce the

be tested should be about 10% of weld length.

design pressure and entire pipeline should be again

tested for design pressure after laying to check water

the same;

tightness;

Before casting of anchor blocks on the rising main, it

During fabrication of pipe, ovality of the pipe should

should be ensured that the welding of the joint at the

be checked. The difference in diameter at both the ends

location is completed in all respect;

of the pipe should not be greater than 1% of pipe

Proper anti surge devices should be provided at the

diameter;

Straightness of the pipe need to be checked. various

commissioning of the scheme. This is very much

registers as mentioned below should be maintained at

important because rising main is not designed for full

the site;

Pipe history register containing details such as pipe

provided on the raising main, the pipeline may fail in

number, fabrication date, details about radiographic

case of occurrence of surge pressure;

and hydraulic testing ,sand blasting and gunitting

Generally one scour valve should be provided per km

details, details about curing, details about sand

length of rising main preferably at

blasting and painting, dispatch date and laying date etc;

the location of

lowest point along the alignment so as to facilitate

Hydraulic testing at workshop register containing date,

dewatering of rising main for maintenance;

pipe number, length, pressure applied, observation,

Air valves should always be provided at all summit

date of retesting etc;

points so as to facilitate entry/exit air to /from the

Each pipe should be hydraulically tested in shop for

should be fixed in the saddle support during casting of

surge pressure and if anti surge devices are not

steel plate as per design with lubricating arrangement

designed location as per detailed surge analysis before

Welding should be tested by radiographic testing in

creating point contact and sub sequently the saddle

frictional forces due to expansions of pipeline, support

Painting register containing pipe number, length,

pipeline this itself takes care of some part of surge

details about sand blasting and painting, date wise

pressure;

details about painting coat and quantity of paint

To

avoid

corrosion

of

mild

steel

consumed.

pipelines,

anticorrosive treatment in the form of zinc rich epoxy

paint is provided from inside. Outside treatment for

Utilization of tanks/Balancing reservoirs (BR) enroute

above ground pipeline is in the form of paint and for

the alignment:

underground pipeline, it is in the form of gunitting. For

painting, dry film thickness (DFT) should be measured

Whenever any tank is present enroute the alignment or

with Elcometer and the same should be observed. The

possibility of formation, it has to be examined as it has following

thickness should be as per the specification;

advantages:

The pipe for rising main can be obtained directly from

the factory or they can be fabricated at the site in
fabrication yard. Pipes fabricated in the factory should

Design discharge of pumps can be reduced by

preserving water in tanks to meet the peak requirement

of the crop period, which reduces the pump capacity

quantity of steel. More pipes with smaller diameter causes more

,pipe diameter and canal sizes

frictional losses and initial costs as well as recurring power costs

Usually LI schemes are adopted to lift flood waters

over less number of pipes with bigger diameter with same

which can be stored in the balancing reservoirs for

velocity. Further, more number of rows need more land

future needs to suit the cropping pattern.

acquisition .

LIS

with

multiple

stages

lifts

need

proper
Hence ,it is desirable to provide bigger diameter with

synchronization of all and failure of any single lift

leads to grinding halt of the system. Hence with the
presence of Balancing Reservoir .the above problem
minimizes.

Presure mains / water conductor system type of

material , diameter and number of rows
Pressure mains function as nerves to LI

less number of rows of pipes, particularly for the schemes with

lengthy pressure mains.
Precautions to be taken in laying and design of pressure
mains:
Pipe lines in soft soils:

Care shall be taken in designing and laying of pipes in

scheme and they consume share of the project cost

soft soils , Either pipe shall be designed for the soil

whenever pipe lengths are in kms. Type and diameter

condition or the refilling has to be done with selected

of pipe lines shall be judiciously adopted when ever

soils as the soil modulus is also one of the parameter in

lengthy pipes are proposed as length of pipe has

design pipe thickness.

direct bearing on pumping head there by on pump

capacity and surge protection system.

As the soil modulus is also one of the major property

influencing the pipe thickness .it is mandatory o have
the refilled soil gets compacted to achieve minimum of

Generally MS pipes and PSC pipes are

under more usage in irrigation schemes. While

90% proctors density

designing the pipe diameter it is desirable to limit the

velocity in MS pipes to 2.0m/sec and 1.5m/sec in PSC
pipes. Velocity more than 2.0m/sec in MS pipes may

uplifting of pipes.

areas.

pipes duly examining the impact of pump capacity

Deflection criteria

Stress criteria compressive and tensile stress

Buckling

Hence the above field conditions shall be conveyed to

the designer wherever the pipes pass through such

be considered for schemes with shorter length of

The MS pipe thickness may be calculated based on:

Water logged areas causes settlement of pipes or

Clear distance between pipes:

Clear distance between pipes shall be minimum of

3.0m for the schemes with pipes with more than two
rows for bigger diameter pipes fir the following
reasons :

Minimum thickness of MS pipe may be as per recommendations

When multiple number of rows of pipes are laid and

given in IS : 1916.However,as a thumb rule, the D/t ratio may be

some of the pipes are only in operation ,then pipes

provided 185 for pipes with shorter length & medium heads and

without water may create instability among the

D/t ratio upto 150 for high heads with lengthy pipes, subject to

combined trench or when pipes are closely placed.

satisfying the surge conditions.

There will scour sluices/ washouts with projections to

flush out the water in pipes and which get overlapped

Advantages of minimum number of rows for the pipes:

More number of pipes leads more frictional losses as
well as enhanced pumping heads / pumping capacities and more

whenever pipes are closely placed.

It is desirable to have independent thrust locks to avoid

problems during operation and maintenance in the
vicinity blocks particularly for lengthy pipes.

Whenever next pipe is to be laid after first was already

in operation ,it needs excavation and disturbs existing
pipe trench . Thus weakening the degree of compaction
made to first one and resulting imbalance of earth
pressure on existing pipe .If sufficient gap is provided,
the effect can be minimized.

Connection of pump delivery pipe and pressure

mains:

When multiple number of rows of delivery pipes are

required to be connected to a pressure main, a manifold is
required.

Whenever stand by pump is provided , cylindrical

manifold may be mandatory as the rotation of stand by
pump among the wye junctions is not possible to satisfy
equal discharge in pressure mains.