Diss 1998 Dielectric of Cement

Development and Testing of a
Capacitor Probe to Detect

Deterioration in Portland Cement
Concrete
by
Brian K. Diefenderfer
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
In
Civil Engineering
APPROVED
_______________________
Dr. Imad L. Al-Qadi, Chair
Professor of Civil Engineering
___________________________
Dr. Sedki M. Riad
Professor of Electrical Engineering
_____________________
Dr. Gerardo W. Flintsch
Assistant Professor of Civil
Engineering
September 1998
Copyright 1998, Brian K. Diefenderfer
Development and Testing of a Capacitor Probe to

Detect Deterioration in Portland Cement Concrete
Chair: Dr. Imad L. Al-Qadi
The Via Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Abstract
Portland cement concrete (PCC) structures deteriorate with age and need to be
maintained or replaced.
Early detection of deterioration in PCC (e.g., alkali-silica
reaction, freeze/thaw damage or chloride presence) can lead to significant reductions in

maintenance costs. Portland cement concrete can be nondestructively evaluated by
electrically characterizing its complex dielectric constant in a laboratory setting.
parallel-plate capacitor operating in the frequency range of 0.1 to 40.1 MHz was
developed at Virginia Tech for this purpose. While useful in research, this approach is
not practical for field implementation. In this study, a capacitor probe was designed
and fabricated to determine the in-situ dielectric properties of PCC over a frequency
range of 2.0 to 20.0 MHz. It is modeled after the parallel-plate capacitor in that it
consists of two conducting plates with a known separation. The conducting plates are
flexible, which allows them to conform to different geometric shapes. Prior to PCC
testing, measurements were conducted to determine the validity of such a system by
testing specimens possessing known dielectric properties (Teflon). Portland cement
concrete specimens were cast (of sufficient size to prevent edge diffraction of the
electromagnetic waves) having two different air contents, two void thicknesses, and two
void depths (from the specimens surface).
Two specimens were cast for each
parameter and their results were averaged. The dielectric properties over curing time
were measured for all specimens, using the capacitor probe and the parallel-plate
capacitor.
The capacitor probe showed a decrease in dielectric constant with
increasing curing time and/or air content. In addition to measuring dielectric properties
accurately and monitoring the curing process, the capacitor probe was also found to
detect the presence and relative depth of air voids, however, determining air void
thickness was difficult.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author expresses his gratitude to his advisor, Dr. Imad L. Al-Qadi for
contributing to this opportunity to conduct research and providing the guidance
necessary to undertake such a research project. In addition, thanks are given to the
committee members, Drs. Sedki M. Riad and Gerardo W. Flintsch, for giving their time
and expertise to help in the completion of this work.
Thanks are given to Jason Yoho for his friendship, hard work, and patience as a
research partner.
His help in the author's overall understanding and assistance in
specimen preparation were instrumental to the completion of this work.

The author extends his heartfelt appreciation to his family for their unending
support and understanding. Additionally, the assistance of the author's colleagues,
Amara, Salman, Walid, Alex, Erin, James, Kiran, Ramzi, and Stacey from the Civil
Engineering Materials Program and Iman from the Electrical Engineering Time Domain
Lab greatly contributed to the author's knowledge as well as the progress of this
research.
The author also recognizes the support and interest received from the United
States Air Force Kirtland Base contract # F29650-W0542 under the direction of John
Rohrbaugh and Wes Tucker and the National Science Foundation grant # MSS9212318 under the direction of Ken P. Chong.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES __________________________________________________ vii
LIST OF TABLES ____________________________________________________ ix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION___________________________________________ 1
1.1 Background_____________________________________________________ 1
1.2 Problem Statement _______________________________________________ 3
1.3 Objectives of Research ____________________________________________ 4
1.4 Scope of Research _______________________________________________ 4
CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND ___________________________________________ 6

2.1 Portland Cement Concrete _________________________________________ 8
2.1.1 Hydration of Portland Cement _________________________________ 9
2.1.2 Hydrated Cement Paste_____________________________________ 13
2.1.3 Aggregate Phase __________________________________________ 14
2.1.4 Transition Zone ___________________________________________ 15
2.2 Deterioration of PCC _____________________________________________ 16
2.2.1 Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in PCC __________________________ 16
2.2.2 Alkali-Silica Reaction _______________________________________ 19
2.2.3 Freeze-Thaw Damage ______________________________________ 20
2.3 Dielectric Materials ______________________________________________ 21
2.3.1 Polarization Concepts ______________________________________ 25
CHAPTER 3 PARALLEL-PLATE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM _________________ 31

3.1 System Design and Setup_________________________________________ 31
3.2 Theoretical Background of the Parallel-Plate Capacitor __________________ 32
3.3 Parallel-Plate Capacitor Model _____________________________________ 34
iv
3.4 Parallel-Plate Calibration Standards _________________________________ 38

3.4.1 Open Calibration Standard___________________________________ 38
3.4.2 Load Calibration Standard ___________________________________ 38
3.4.3 Short Calibration Standard___________________________________ 39
3.5 Equations Governing the Parallel-Plate System ________________________ 40
3.5.1 Parallel-Plate Measurement System Calibration __________________ 43
3.5.2 Determination of Remaining Unknowns _________________________ 48
3.6 Calibration Schemes _____________________________________________ 52
CHAPTER 4 CAPACITOR PROBE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ________________ 55

4.1 Physical Construction of the Capacitor Probe__________________________ 57
4.1.1 Capacitor Probe Design _____________________________________ 57
4.2 Capacitor Probe Plate Configurations ________________________________ 59
4.3 Capacitor Probe Calibration Standards_______________________________ 60
4.3.1 Open Calibration Standard___________________________________ 60
4.3.2 Load Calibration Standard ___________________________________ 60
4.3.3 Short Calibration Standard___________________________________ 61
4.3.4 Known Dielectric Material Calibration Standard ___________________ 61
4.4 Equations Governing the Capacitor Probe System ______________________ 62
4.4.1 Load Calibration ___________________________________________ 63
4.4.2 Open Calibration __________________________________________ 65
4.4.3 Calibration Using Material of Known Dielectric Constant ____________ 66
4.4.4 Short Calibration __________________________________________ 67
4.4.5 Determination of Remaining Unknowns _________________________ 69
4.4.6 Correction Function ________________________________________ 75
CHAPTER 5 TESTING PROGRAM ______________________________________ 78

5.1 Specimen Preparation____________________________________________ 78
5.2 Dielectric Constant Measurements __________________________________ 80
CHAPTER 6 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS_______________________ 83

6.1 Discussion of Data ______________________________________________ 88
6.2 Parallel-Plate Capacitor vs. Capacitor Probe __________________________ 93
6.3 Final Remarks __________________________________________________ 94
CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS_____________________________ 95

7.1 Findings ______________________________________________________ 95
7.2 Conclusions____________________________________________________ 96
CHAPTER 8 RECOMMENDATIONS _____________________________________ 97
REFERENCES ______________________________________________________ 98
APPENDIX A ______________________________________________________ 107
APPENDIX B ______________________________________________________ 110
APPENDIX C ______________________________________________________ 114
APPENDIX D ______________________________________________________ 145
APPENDIX E ______________________________________________________ 154

vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1
Typical atom in (a) the absence of and (b) under an applied field (after
Balanis, 1989) ____________________________________________ 22
Figure 2.2
Parallel-plate capacitor in the presence of (a) a vacuum and (b) dielectric

material (after Callister, 1994) ________________________________ 23
Figure 2.3
Representation of dielectric polarization: (a) ionic (b) electronic, (c) dipole,

(d) heterogeneous (after Jastrzebski, 1977) _____________________ 26
Figure 2.4
A model representation the molecular interaction effect (after Debye,

1929) ___________________________________________________ 28
Figure 3.1
Schematic setup for the parallel-plate capacitor___________________ 32
Figure 3.2
Electric field distribution between the two plates of the parallel-plate

capacitor_________________________________________________ 33
Figure 3.3
Parallel-plate capacitor with and without specimen under test ________ 35
Figure 3.4
Parallel-plate load calibration standard__________________________ 39
Figure 3.5
Large height calibration standard base _________________________ 39
Figure 3.6
Small height calibration standard base__________________________ 40
Figure 3.7
Short calibration standard____________________________________ 40
Figure 3.8
Schematic of parallel-plate measurement system and model. ________ 41
Figure 3.9
(a) General parallel-plate system model and (b) general S-parameter

model ___________________________________________________ 43
Figure 3.10 (a) Load parallel-plate system model and (b) load S-parameter model _ 44
Figure 3.11 (a) Open parallel-plate system model and (b) open S-parameter model 46
Figure 3.12 (a) Short parallel-plate system model and (b) short S-parameter model_ 47
Figure 3.13 (a) MUT parallel-plate system model and (b) MUT S-parameter model _ 50
Figure 3.14 Real part of dielectric constant of nylon using different calibrations____ 53
Figure 3.15 Imaginary part of dielectric constant of nylon using different calibrations 54
Figure 4.1
The capacitor probe ________________________________________ 55
Figure 4.2
Schematic of EM field distribution at (a) high frequency and (b) low

frequency ________________________________________________ 56
Figure 4.3
Capacitor probe load calibration standard _______________________ 60
Figure 4.4
Capacitor probe short calibration standard_______________________ 61

vii
Figure 4.5
(a) General capacitor probe model, (b) general S-parameter model of the
interface network, and (c) general S-parameter model of the combined
network__________________________________________________ 63
Figure 4.6
(a) Load capacitor probe model and (b) load S-parameter model _____ 64
Figure 4.7
(a) Open capacitor probe model and (b) open S-parameter model ____ 65
Figure 4.8
(a) Material capacitor probe model and (b) material S-parameter model 67
Figure 4.9
(a) Short capacitor probe model and (b) short S-parameter model ____ 68
Figure 4.10 (a) MUT capacitor probe model and (b) MUT S-parameter __________ 74
Figure 5.1
Schematic of Styrofoam placement in PCC slabs _________________ 80
Figure 5.2
Dielectric properties of PCC measured with capacitor probe comparing

Styrofoam and an Air Bag used to apply a systematic and repeatable
pressure _________________________________________________ 81
Figure 5.3
Dielectric properties of Teflon measured with parallel-plate capacitor __ 82
Figure 6.1
Average dielectric properties (real part) for type A specimens at 42 days

after mixing_______________________________________________ 83
Figure 6.2
Average dielectric properties (imaginary part) for type A specimens at 42

days after mixing __________________________________________ 84
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1
Reflection coefficients from the measured calibration standards ______ 49
Table 4.1
Plate size and spacing of the different capacitor probes ____________ 59
Table 4.2
Reflection coefficients from the measured calibration standards ______ 69
Table 5.1
Mix design and specimen characteristics ________________________ 79
Table 6.1
Dielectric constant for type A specimens (2% air content, w/c = 0.45)
measured using capacitor probe a _____________________________ 84
Table 6.2
Dielectric constant for type C specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45)
Table 6.3
measured using the parallel-plate capacitor ______________________ 85
Table 6.4
Dielectric constant for type C specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45)
Table 6.5
Dielectric constant for type D specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45,
and 7.5 mm thick void at 25 mm depth) measured using capacitor probe a
________________________________________________________ 86
Table 6.6
Dielectric constant for type E specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45,
and 7.5 mm thick void at 50 mm depth) measured using capacitor probe a
________________________________________________________ 86
Table 6.7
Dielectric constant for type F specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45,
and 15 mm thick void at 25 mm depth) measured using capacitor probe a
________________________________________________________ 87
Table 6.8
Dielectric constant for type G specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45,
and 15 mm thick void at 50 mm depth) measured using capacitor probe a
________________________________________________________ 87
Table 6.9
Dielectric constant for type D specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45)
Table 6.10 Dielectric constant for type F specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45)
Table 6.11 Difference in dielectric constant due to air content as measured using
capacitor probe a __________________________________________ 90
ix
Table 6.12 Difference in dielectric constant due to void depth (7.5 mm thick void) as
Table 6.13 Difference in dielectric constant due to void depth (15 mm thick void) as
Table 6.14 Change in dielectric constant due to void thickness (25 mm void depth) as
Table 6.16 Change in dielectric constant of type A specimens (6% air, 0.45 w/c) due
to different capacitor probes__________________________________ 93
Table 6.17 Change in dielectric constant of type G specimens (6% air, 0.45 w/c, 15
mm thick void at 50 mm depth) due to different capacitor probes _____ 93
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The ability of any industrialized nation to produce and sustain economic growth
is directly related to its ability to transport the goods and services that it creates.
Without a viable infrastructure system, basic public services (e.g., food distribution,
water supply, waste removal, and medical facilities) cannot be effectively disbursed.
The success of such a system depends on the ability of government policy makers to
strike a balance between available funds and the need for repair or replacement of
infrastructure components. This balance often proves difficult to achieve in a political
climate that gauges success and progress with the creation of new facilities and not the
rehabilitation of existing ones.
In the United States there are more than 581,000 bridges in the national
highway infrastructure system. Nearly 32% of these bridges are listed as structurally
deficient or functionally obsolete (ASCE, 1998). Approximately forty-five percent of the
bridges in the United States were constructed between the end of World War II and
1975. As these older structures approach (and exceed) their designed service life, a
plan must be implemented to categorize the need for repair or rehabilitation, based on
the level of deterioration associated with a given structure.
1.1 Background
Portland cement concrete (PCC) is the most widely used construction material in
the world due to its ease of preparation and molding, its low price (relative to other
construction materials), and the abundance of its constituent materials (cement,
aggregate, and water). However, there is more to PCC than simply mixing a collection
of materials together and placing the resultant composition in a form. When properly
designed, consolidated, and cured, PCC (with adequate reinforcing steel) will provide
excellent structural properties in the field. Improper design, preparation or placement
can yield an inferior quality PCC of low strength and high porosity. Poor quality control
can produce various forms of deterioration.
The main causes of deterioration in PCC are chloride-induced corrosion of the
reinforcing steel, freeze-thaw damage, and alkali-silica reaction. Chlorides found in
PCC structures, often come from the use of salts as a deicing agent on roads, their
presence in spray areas near salt-water bodies, and their inclusion during mixing.
Freeze-thaw damage in PCC results from the expansion of moisture caused by
freezing temperatures. This cyclic process exerts destructive tensile pressures within
the PCC.
Alkali-silica reaction occurs when an aggressive reaction takes place
between alkalis in the PCC pore water and silica ions (from amorphous, high-silica
content aggregate). This also causes tensile pressures to build within the PCC.
Generally, the aforementioned deleterious factors are active beneath the PCCs
surface and cannot be accurately assessed by visual observation. A majority of repair
and rehabilitation funds are therefore used to fix conditions unseen until the work is
contracted and repair work begins or until the deterioration is visible, because it has
reached such an advanced stage that it may hinder the use and function of the
structure. Recognizing the potential for damage before it occurs will help to preserve
the facilitys structural integrity, reduce life-cycle costs, and minimize the disturbance to
facility users.
To asses the physical condition of large PCC structures without causing further
damage, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods have been developed.
Their
importance results from the noninvasive nature of the techniques used and the
anticipated rapidity of the measurements. However, not all NDE methods have been
welcomed (or understood) by many practicing civil engineers, who do not have the
interdisciplinary background or the inclination to learn how to properly transform
noninvasive methods into an operational tool. Consequently, although the concept of a
noninvasive measurement technique is attractive these engineers, there is a gap
between laboratory concept and field application.
Portland cement concrete is a composite containing a variety of materials each
with different electrical properties. However, electromagnetic (EM) characterization of
2
PCC using NDE methods can be used to impart information about its constituent
materials, thereby revealing information about the properties of the composite itself.
The EM properties of interest in this regard are conductivity and relative permittivity
(dielectric constant). These electrical properties are related to the composite properties
of the aggregate, aggregate size, cast water to cement (w/c) ratio, chloride content, and
moisture content.
As chemical and physical changes occur within PCC due to
deterioration, the local and bulk EM material properties and the propagation of EM
waves in the material also change.
The dielectric properties of PCC have been investigated in a laboratory setting
at Virginia Tech using a parallel-plate capacitor operating in the frequency range of 0.140.1 MHz (Al-Qadi and Riad, 1996). This capacitor setup consists of two horizontalparallel plates with an adjustable separation for insertion of a dielectric specimen (e.g.,
PCC).
The parallel-plate capacitor has shown that detection of different types of
deterioration in PCC is feasible, but it is frequency dependent. Chloride contamination,

for example, can be easily detected at low radio frequencies (0.1-40.1 MHz), but is
difficult to detect at low microwave frequencies (1-10 GHz). The parallel-plate results
were correlated to the chloride content and different prediction models were
established (Al-Qadi et al., 1997).
1.2 Problem Statement

Civil engineering structures constructed with PCC deteriorate with time and
need to be maintained or replaced. Preventative maintenance procedures can often
reduce the life-cycle cost of such structures.
Techniques that would allow civil
engineers to detect subsurface deterioration during routine inspections would aid in

their efforts to prevent major defects from occurring.
However, by the time such
deterioration becomes evident on the surface, it is often too late to apply low-cost
maintenance procedures. Early detection and evaluation of deterioration in PCC (e.g.,
alkali-silica reaction, freeze-thaw damage or chloride presence) would allow engineers
to optimize the life-cycle cost of a constructed facility and minimize disturbance to its
users.
3
While useful in research, the parallel-plate capacitor is not practical for field
implementation. Therefore, a new instrument, based on the parallel-plate capacitor,
needs to be developed for civil engineers to detect internal deterioration and to provide
field measurements of the dielectric properties of PCC.
1.3 Objectives of Research

The objective of this research is to develop a capacitor probe that yields
measurement results comparable to those of the parallel-plate capacitor. Since the
parallel-plate capacitor has proved to give accurate and reliable measurements of the
dielectric properties of materials, it has been chosen as the standard measurement
device to which the capacitor probe will be compared. Since it is also desirable to
produce a capacitor probe that is reusable for multiple measurement events, it is to be
an in-situ probe that is lightweight, flexible, durable, and inexpensive.
1.4 Scope of Research

To achieve the objectives of this study, a capacitor probe was developed to
measure the effect of different parameters on the complex dielectric constant of PCC
over low radio frequencies (2-20 MHz). This was accomplished by preparing PCC
mixes with different PCC parameters such as air content. Control mixes were prepared
using a water to cement (w/c) ratio of 0.45 and air contents of 2 and 6%. Deterioration
was induced in some specimens prepared at a 0.45 w/c ratio and 6% air content by
inserting a Styrofoam layer during the casting process. The effect of PCC maturity was
studied by evaluating the dielectric properties at different curing times.
Chapter 2 sets out the physical and chemical properties of PCC, mechanisms of
common forms of deterioration, and basic dielectric theory. Chapter 3 describes the
parallel-plate capacitor measurement system and the theoretical equations governing
its operation. Chapter 4 presents the newly developed capacitor probe measurement
system and the theoretical equations regarding its usage.
4
Chapter 5 yields the
experimental program involved in this research experiment. Chapter 6 presents and

discusses the results of the experimentation. Chapter 7 offers the summary, findings,
and conclusions, and Chapter 8 makes recommendations for further studies.
CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND
Current NDE methods typically use EM waves as a vehicle to gather information

about the material under examination.
One of the earliest adaptations of EM
technology to civil engineering involves EM pulse radar. Although originally used for
geological exploration (Lundien, 1971; Hipp, 1971; Ellerbruch, 1974; Feng and
Delaney, 1974; Moffat and Puskar, 1976; Lord et al., 1979; McNeill, 1980; Shih and
Doolittle, 1994; Feng and Sen, 1985; and Shih and Myhre, 1994), this technique has
been used for highway and bridge applications (Steinway et al., 1981; Clemena, 1983;
Carter et al., 1986; Clemena et al., 1986; Chung and Carter, 1989; Eckrose, 1989;
Bungey and Millard, 1993; and Maser, 1996). Pavement condition studies have been
conducted in which subsurface voids were detected (Steinway et al., 1981; Clemena et
al., 1987) and layer thickness and subsurface moisture measurements were performed
(Bell et al., 1963; Maser et al., 1989; Al-Qadi et al., 1989).
Additionally, dielectric properties have been measured to determine the
moisture content of soils (Topp et al., 1984; Dobson and Ulaby, 1986; Jackson, 1990;
Campbell, 1990; Scott and Smith, 1992; Brisco et al., 1992; and Straub, 1994).
Electromagnetic waves have been used for agricultural applications (Nelson, 1985) and
for measuring the dielectric properties of food items (Bodakian and Hart, 1994). Liu et
al. (1994) and Steeman et al. (1994) measured dielectric properties of various materials
for characterization in the electronics industry.
Before PCC can be characterized successfully, the electromagnetic properties
of the constituents of this composite material must be understood.
In this regard,
McCarter and Curran (1984) have demonstrated that characteristics of the electrical
response of cement paste could be used as an effective means for studying the
progress of hydration and structural changes occurring within cement paste. Taylor
and Arulanandan (1974) have also investigated the relationship of mechanical and
electrical properties (conductivity and capacitance) of cement pastes measured at early
ages over a frequency range of 1 to 100 MHz. Whittington and Wilson (1986) have
6
researched the effect of curing time on the conductivity of PCC and its relationship with
compressive strength. A detailed discussion of the hydration of Portland and nonPortland cements within the first 24 hours with respect to conductivity has been
presented by Tamas et al. (1987) and Perez-Pena et al. (1989). They discussed the
influence on conductivity due to accelerators and retarders (from 2 Hz to 2 MHz) and
the effect of inorganic admixtures (chlorides and hydroxides at 1, 10, 100, and 1000
kHz).
Wilson and Whittington (1990) have presented the relationships between
conductivity of PCC and frequency during early stages of curing.

The electrical resistivity of PCC has also been investigated.
Whittington,
McCarter, and Forde (1981) have compared the measured resistivity values for PCC of
varying composition with a theoretical model. A new technique for observing the time
dependent resistivity measurements of PCC with varying compositions has been
developed by Hansson and Hansson (1983) and compared with a theoretical model.
Wilson and Whittington (1990) have discussed the validity of a developed theoretical
model which describes the frequency based (1 to 100 MHz) dependence of the
resistivity of PCC.
Similarly, De Loor (1962), Wittmann and Schlude (1975), Perez-Pena et al.
(1989), and Moukwa et al. (1991) have studied the dielectric properties of PCP over the
RF and microwave frequencies. Whittington et al. (1981), McCarter and Whittington
(1981), Hansson and Hansson (1983), McCarter and Curran (1984), McCarter et al.
(1985), and Wilson and Whittington (1990) have performed measurements of dielectric
properties of PCC over RF. Hasted and Shah (1964) and Shah et al. (1965) have
measured the dielectric properties of bricks, Portland cement, and PCC at different w/c
ratios. Results are compared to theoretically obtained values.
Dielectric properties of PCC have been measured in an effort to gain a better
understanding of its mechanical properties. However, the basic relationships between
electromagnetic and mechanical properties of PCC structures are not always well
understood. These properties have been measured using three different systems over
a wideband frequency: a parallel-plate capacitor, a coaxial transmission line, and TEM
Horn antenna. Al-Qadi et al. (1994b, 1995, and 1997), Al-Qadi and Riad (1996), and
Haddad (1996) have presented the development and use of a parallel-plate capacitor
7
operating in the low radio frequency range (0.1 to 40.1 MHz). Al-Qadi et al. (1994a and
1995) and Al-Qadi and Riad (1996) have developed a coaxial transmission line fixture
that operates over a frequency range of 0.1 to 1 GHz. Ghodgaonkar et al. (1989) have
developed a microwave measurement fixture employing an antenna to determine the
dielectric constant at a frequency range of 14.5 to 17.5 GHz. While Al-Qadi et al.
(1991) have implemented a new setup to measure the dielectric constant of hot-mix
asphalt at 8.9-12.4 GHz. Al-Qadi et al. (1996) and Al-Qadi and Riad (1996) describe
another antenna fixture developed to measure the influences of induced deterioration
on the dielectric properties of PCC slabs from 1 to 10 GHz.
Tewary et al. (1991) presents theory regarding a non-contact system to
measure the capacitance of materials. This capacitance probe was modeled to operate
in a manner similar to a parallel-plate capacitor, except that the plates lie within the
same horizontal plane. A similar but expanded method was developed (Diefenderfer et
al., 1997; Yoho, 1998) creating a surface probe to measure in-situ dielectric properties
of PCC. An overview of PCC and dielectric measurements follows.
2.1 Portland Cement Concrete

Portland cement concrete is a composite material consisting of cement, water,
and coarse and fine aggregate. While anhydrous Portland cement does not posses
any bonding properties, its union with water allows it to act as an adhesive to unite
these materials into a cementitious composite.
Upon inception of this hydration
reaction, PCC begins to harden and hydration products are formed. Unlike most other
construction materials, PCC is a dynamic system. Some components of PCC continue
to gain strength with time; in fact, the word concrete is derived from the Latin term
concresure meaning to grow together (Lewis and Short, 1907).
The hydration process of cement determines the internal structure of PCC. The
type of cement, stage of hydration, curing and temperature conditions, and the
proportions of the mixture ingredients define PCC's final internal structure. Although
the aggregate is often considered filler in ordinary strength PCC, it plays an important
8
role in determining the mixtures durability. For the purpose of examination, PCC can
be broken down into three distinctly different parts: hydrated cement paste, aggregate,
and transition zone which is located between the cement paste and the aggregate.
2.1.1 Hydration of Portland Cement

The main ingredients used to produce Portland cement are lime, silica, alumina,
and iron oxide. These materials react in a kiln during the production of Portland cement
to form more complex compounds, the main components are abbreviated by civil
engineers as C3S (Tricalcium silicate), C2S (Dicalcium silicate), C3A (Tricalcium
aluminate), and C4AF (Tetracalcium aluminoferrite) where C = CaO, S = SiO2, A =
Al2O3, and F = Fe2O3. Minor constituents include MgO, TiO2, Mn2O3, K2O, and Na2O.
Their listing as minor describes only their relative quantity (a small percent of the weight
of the Portland cement) and not their importance in the PCC mixture. Of particular
interest to civil engineers are sodium and potassium oxides, which have been found to
react with certain types of aggregates. The products of this reaction have been shown
to cause disintegration in PCC (Neville, 1981).
The processes by which Portland cement and water form a bonding substance
take place in a water-cement paste. That is, in the presence of water, the silicates and
aluminates listed above react to form products of hydration. The principal cementing
agent (comprising approximately 50-60% of the total solid volume of hydration
products) is calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). A material of poor crystalline structure, CS-H is made up of an extremely fine (less than 1 m) conglomeration of calcium silicate
hydrate and other crystallites formed as a result of the hydration of Portland cement.
The other main hydration product (comprising approximately 20-25% of the total solid
volume of hydration products) is calcium hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide, thought to be
much less cementitious than C-S-H, probably adds little to the cementitious properties
of the final mixture.
With time, these products of hydration become the hardened
cement paste. This hydration process begins at a rapid rate that then decreases with
time.
If maintained at 100% relative humidity, approximately 75% of the cement
hydrates within the first 28 days. However, the process has been noted to continue for
9
up to 50 years and is believed to never completely cease should water be present

(Taylor and Arulanandan, 1974).
The equations denoting the chemical reactions involved in the hydration process
were developed assuming that each reaction is independent of the others. While this is
not entirely true, it does provide an accurate assessment of the reaction process. The
following equations give a simplified view of the reactions involved in the hydration
process (Mindess and Young, 1981):
2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3CH
(2.1)
2C2S + 4H C3S2H3 + CH
(2.2)
C3A + 3CSH2 + 26H C6AS3H32
(2.3a)
2C3A + C6AS3H32 + 4H 3C4ASH12
(2.3b)
C4AF + 3CSH2 + 21H C6(A,F)S3H32 + (A, F)H3
(2.4a)
C4AF + C6(A,F)S3H32 + 7H 3C4(A,F)SH12 + (A,F)H3
(2.4b)
where
H = Water (H2O);
C3S2H3 = Calcium hydrate silicate (C-S-H);
CH = Calcium hydroxide;
CSH2 = Gypsum;
C6AS3H32 = 6-calcium aluminate trisulfate-32-hydrate (Ettringite);
3C4ASH12 = Tetracalcium aluminate monosulfate-12-hydrate
(monosulfoaluinate); and
3C4ASH12 = tetracalcium aluminate monosulfate-12-hydrate.
10
Calcium SIlicates
The first of five reaction stages describing the hydration of calcium silicates in
Portland cement is defined by a rapid evolution of heat; it lasts for only a few minutes
after mixing water with Portland cement. The hydrolysis of C3S (Equation 1) begins
quickly and releases both calcium and hydroxide ions into solution. The pH of the
mixture rises above 12, indicating high alkalinity.
The first product formed in the
hydration reaction, calcium hydrate silicate (C-S-H) gel, has a CaO:SiO2 ratio of nearly
3. This is identical to the molar ratio in the anhydrous C3S compound.
Dicalcium
silicate (C2S) will hydrate in a simillar manner to tricalcium silicate (C3S); however, C2S
is much less reactive and, therefore, less heat is evolved during this process (Equation
2).
Stage 2 begins when calcium silicate hydrate begins to coat the remaining C3S
and retards further hydration.
This action also marks a dormant period of little
hydration activity, which temporarily keeps PCC in a plastic state. This temporary halt
to hydration is needed to achieve a certain concentration of ions in solution before the
next hydration products can form from crystal nuclei. The initial products of hydration,
however, are unstable and begin to crystallize from solution when calcium and
hydroxide concentrations reach a critical value. This results in an accelerated reaction
involving C3S, marking the onset of stage three.
During the third stage of the hydration reaction, another hydration product is
formed: C-S-H (I) gel with a CaO:SiO2 ratio of 1.5 or less. This is followed immediately
by C-S-H (II) gel with a CaO:SiO2 ratio of 1.5 to 2.0. During stage three, the rate of
heat evolution increases to a peak at approximately 6 to 11 hrs after the onset of
hydration.
Calcium silicate hydrate continues to coat the C3S grains in an ever-
thickening barrier. Therefore, water is only able to penetrate the anhydrous C3S grains
through diffusion.
Stage four is marked by both chemical- and diffusion-controlled
rates of hydration involving the coated C3S. Eventually, this process is totally controlled
by the rate of diffusion, thus marking the onset of the diffusion-controlled stage five.
Hydration in this manner is quite slow and approaches 100% hydration asymptotically.
11
Tricalcium Aluminate
The hydration of C3A involves reactions with sulfate ions supplied by gypsum
(CSH2). Gypsum is added to the vitrified cement (also called clinker) during production
in the kiln to prevent flash setting, which is an immediate stiffening of cement paste due
to the reaction of C3A and water. The hydration of C3A, described in Equation 2.3a,
produces a material known as ettringite. The formation of ettringite slows the hydration
of C3A by forming a diffusion barrier around the unhydrated grains, much as C-S-H
slows the hydration of calcium silicates.
Ettringite is a stable product so long as
sufficient sulfate is available (supplied in the form of gypsum).
Once all available
sulfate is consumed, ettringite transforms into monosulfoaluminate (Equation 2.3b),

another calcium sulfoaluminte hydrate which contains less sulfate. This transformation
again allows C3A to rapidly react with water and typically occurs within 12 to 36 hrs after
all gypsum has been used to form ettringite.
The initial heat release observed within approximately five minutes of adding
water to cement occurs because the hydration retardation properties of gypsum have
yet to begin. Tricalcium aluminate is undesirable in PCC, because when hardened
cement paste is attacked by sulphates, formation of calcium sulphoaluminate from C3A
causes expansion in the hardened paste. Adding little or nothing to the strength of
cement except at early ages, C3A acts as a flux to reduce the temperature required to
burn the clinker during the manufacture of Portland cement and aids in the combination
of lime and silica.
Ferrite Phase
Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite (C4AF) and tricalcium aluminate (C3A) form similar
sequences of hydration products. However, C4AF can form these with or without the
presence of gypsum. Additionally, the reactions involving C4AF (Equations 2.4a and
2.4b) are much slower and produces less heat than the hydration reactions of C3A.
Iron oxide which modifies the rate of hydration, can be substituted for alumina (as seen
from the compound C6(A,F)S3H32) with little change in the hydration reaction.
12
2.1.2 Hydrated Cement Paste

In addition to the solid phase described above (including unhydrated clinker),
hydrated cement paste (HCP) is also comprised of void spaces that may contain water
in various forms.
These voids are neither uniform in size nor uniformly distributed
throughout the paste.

Voids in Hydrated Cement Paste
On average, the bulk density of the products of hydration is less than the bulk
density of the anhydrous Portland cement. It has been estimated that one cm3 of
Portland cement occupies approximately two cm3 of space after complete hydration
(Mehta and Monteiro, 1993). Various types of voids, which account for this differing
bulk density, are present in hydrated cement paste (HCP), interlayer space in C-S-H,
capillary voids, and air voids.
The interlayer space in C-S-H is considered to be approximately 5-25 in size.
While this void space is too small to have any adverse effect on strength, it may
contain enough water by hydrogen bonding that its release (by breaking the hydrogen
bond) into the capillary void structure may contribute to drying shrinkage and creep.
The volume and size of the capillary voids is determined by the cast w/c ratio
and the degree of hydration. The total volume of the capillary voids is calculated by
determining the porosity of the mixture. Capillary voids may vary in size from 10-50 nm
for well-hydrated pastes with a low w/c ratio to 3-5 m for high w/c ratio pastes at early
ages. Macropores, capillary voids larger than 50 nm, are thought to play a role in
determining strength and permeability. Micropores, capillary voids smaller than 50 nm,
are thought to affect drying shrinkage and creep.
It is assumed that the capillary pores form an interconnected network that can
be assessed by fluids and gases that penetrate and permeate the concrete. The main
mechanism of fluid transport in PCC is due to capillary forces and hydrostatic pressure.
Gaseous flow is attributed to partial pressure gradients and external pressures. The
ease with which fluids and gases can pass through PCC increases with increasing
porosity of the PCC. The w/c ratio is an important factor in determining the porosity of
13
PCC. At the same degree of hydration, a low w/c ratio mixture produces fewer pores of
smaller size than a high w/c ratio mixture.
Typically spherical in shape, air voids are the largest voids in the HCP. Air voids
can result from air entrainment or air which is entrapped during the mixing process.
Entrapped air voids are approximately up to 3 mm in diameter, while entrained air voids
range from 50 to 200 m in diameter. Entrapped and entrained air, being larger than
capillary voids, can affect the strength and permeability of the concrete mixture.
2.1.3 Aggregate Phase

Although usually considered an inert filler, aggregate (including both fine and
coarse) makes up nearly 60 to 80%, by volume, of PCC.
The aggregate is
predominately responsible for the unit weight, elastic modulus, and dimensional stability
of the concrete mixture (Mehta and Monteiro, 1993). These properties are determined
not by their chemical composition but by their physical attributes, such as volume, size,
pore distribution within the aggregate, shape, and texture. These attributes are derived
from the parent rock, exposure conditions, and processes used to manufacture the
aggregate.
Aggregate can be divided into two classes by size and two classes by weight.
Coarse aggregate is typically larger than 4.75 mm, while fine aggregate is generally
between 4.75 mm and 75 m in size. Normal weight concrete (approximately 2400
kg/m3) can be made using aggregate with a bulk density of 1520-1680 kg/m3.
Lightweight and heavyweight concrete can be made using aggregate with a bulk
3
density less than 1120 kg/m , and from aggregate with a bulk density greater than 2080
kg/m3, respectively.
Many factors can influence the effect of aggregate on PCC, including the
maximum size, coarse/fine aggregate ratio, shape, texture, and material composition.
Concrete with a larger maximum aggregate size requires less mixing water than
concrete with a smaller maximum aggregate size.
The former generally leads to
stronger concrete; however, larger aggregate tends to have weaker transition zones.
14
The net effect of these two tendancies is a function of the w/c ratio of the PCC and the
applied stress. If the maximum aggregate size and the w/c ratio are kept constant and
the coarse/fine aggregate ratio is increased, the strength usually decreases.
Crushed aggregate is usually stronger in tension than naturally weathered
gravel of the same mineralology. Also, it is assumed that a stronger mechanical bond
between the aggregate and the cement paste exists. This bond preference is more
pronounced at early ages.
Although crushed aggregate may be stronger than
smoother gravel, more mixing water is required to achieve the same workability when
using more roughly textured aggregate. This may offset any advantages gained by
aggregate texture.
2.1.4 Transition Zone

As the weakest link of the chain, the transition zone is considered the strengthlimiting phase of PCC. The transition zone exists between large particles of aggregate
and the HCP. Even though it is composed of the same components that exist in the
HCP, the properties of the transition zone differ from the HCP. This difference is seen
as the transition zone fails at a much lower stress level than either of the two main
components of PCC.
In fact, 40-70% of the ultimate strength is a large enough
quantity to extend cracks already present in the transition zone. At 70% of the ultimate
strength, stress levels are sufficiently high to initiate cracking in large voids in the HCP.
As stresses increase beyond this level, the cracks will begin to extend from the HCP to
the transition zone. This makes the crack continuous and, thus, ruptures the material.
While it is difficult to extend cracks in PCC under compressive loading, it is relatively
easy to extend cracks under tensile loading. This, in part, explains why PCC is much
weaker in tension than in compression.
Adhesion between the hydration products and aggregate particles is due to Van
der Waals forces of attraction.
Therefore, the strength of the transition zone is
dependent upon the size and volume of voids present. At early stages, the size and
volume of voids in the transition zone are larger than in the bulk HCP. Consequently,
the strength of the transition zone is lower than the bulk HCP. However, with time, the
15
transition zone becomes nearly as strong as the bulk HCP. It is assumed that this
occurs due to the formation of new products in the void spaces by slow reactions
between the constituents of the cement paste and the aggregate. These reactions also
reduce the amount of the less-adhesive calcium hydroxide. Additionally, microcracks
help to weaken the transition zone. The number of microcracks is a function of the
aggregate size and grading, cement content, w/c ratio, degree of consolidation, curing
conditions, environmental humidity, thermal history of the concrete mixture, impact
loads, drying shrinkage, and sustained loads at high stress levels (Mehta and Monteiro,
1993). However, some microcracks are present even before the finished structure is
loaded.
2.2 Deterioration of PCC

Generally, deterioration of PCC takes place involving one or more of the
constituents of PCC and aggressive reactants from the external environment. Among
these forms of deterioration are the electrochemical corrosion of embedded steel due
to chloride intrusion into PCC, carbonation, alkali-silica reaction (ASR), and freeze-thaw
damage.
Deterioration often begins as a chemical reaction but results in physical
defects such as increased porosity and permeability, decreased strength, and/or

cracking and spalling. In-situ PCC structures may experience several chemical and
physical deterioration processes simultaneously; in fact, some may accelerate the
effects of others. A brief description of three forms of deterioration follows.
2.2.1 Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in PCC

Bradford (1992) states that the direct cost of structural deterioration due to
corrosion of reinforcing steel in an industrialized nation consumes approximately 4.9%
of the gross national product of that nation.
Metallic reinforcing is used in PCC
structures for several reasons, one of which is because the failure of metallic reinforced
PCC is less brittle than the failure of unreinforced PCC. Metallic reinforcement placed
in PCC structures is usually concentrated in areas of greatest tensile forces. If the
16
structure were to fail due to these tensile forces, the metallic reinforcement would
stretch to a certain degree due to its high ductility. However, an unreinforced PCC
structure would undergo catastrophic brittle failure. Steel is most often used as metallic
reinforcement in PCC since the coefficients of thermal expansion for steel and PCC are
similar.
Properly mixed and placed PCC (having a sufficient cover depth) usually
provides adequate protection for internal reinforcing. In addition, the high pH of PCC
(typically 12.5-13.5) provides an environment in which the oxides of iron are
thermodynamically stable. A passive protective film of iron oxide is created around the
steel reinforcement in the presence of water, oxygen, and water-soluble alkaline
products (predominately calcium hydroxide) from the hydration of cement. This film of
corrosion products slows the rate at which further corrosion can occur and protects the
remaining metal from further corrosion. In this passive state, steel corrodes at a rate
approximately equal to 10 x 10-6 cm/yr (Hansson and Sorensen, 1990). However, if this
film becomes soluble, the passivity of the steel is eliminated and corrosion continues at
an increased rate.
Two ways, in which the passive film layer is destroyed, are a reduction in the
alkalinity of the concrete and an electrochemical reaction involving chloride ions in the
presence of oxygen.
The alkalinity can be reduced by the leaching of alkaline
substances with water or by a neutralization effect involving carbon dioxide. Chlorides

are often present due to use of salts as a deicer on roads, spray from seawater, and
inclusion during mixing. However, reinforcing steel is usually covered by approximately
25 mm of PCC (at least when properly constructed).
Therefore, these deleterious
results only occur when the corrosion-causing agents reach the steel after penetrating
the PCC.
The electrochemical process describing the corrosion of reinforcing steel in PCC
involves an anode (site of electrochemical reduction), a cathode (site of oxidation), an
electrolyte (in PCC, the paste-pore solution), and an electrically continuous connection.
The removal of any one of these four components will halt the corrosion reaction. The
anode and cathode sites develop as corrosion cells of differing electrochemical
potential, where the reaction occurring at the cathode consumes electrons produced by
17
a reaction at the anode. Electrochemical potentials can form from the presence of
dissimilar metals (e.g., steel reinforcing and aluminum conduit) and differences in
concentrations of dissolved ions (alkalis, chlorides, and oxygen) near the reinforcing
steel.
One of the most common causes of corrosion of reinforcing steel in PCC is the
presence of chlorides (Rosenberg et al., 1989). The proper amounts of oxygen and
moisture in close proximity to the internal reinforcing steel, combined with chlorides,
can lead to deterioration (ultimately by delamination and spalling) of the PCC structure.
According to Al-Qadi et al. (1993) reinforcing steel will begin to corrode when the
concentration of chloride ions in the pore solution reaches a threshold level of 0.6 kg/m3
of PCC.
Chlorides, in the form of salt-contaminated aggregate, deicing salts, or
seawater can penetrate PCC structures through cracks or diffusion through the PCCs
pore water.
Free chloride ions (Cl-) moving through the PCC pore system react with Fe2+ in
areas where the passive coating (-Fe2O3) surrounding the embedded steel has been
destroyed. This passive layer is reported to be stable when the pH of the pore solution
remains above 11.5 (Mehta and Monteiro, 1993).
Additional Cl- and H+ ions are
released and iron hydroxide is formed when FeCl2 undergoes further reactions in the
presence of moisture. The newly-formed iron hydroxide reacts with oxygen to form
Fe2O3 (rust). This transformation of metallic iron to rust is also accompanied by an
increase in volume, potentially occupying up to six times the original metallic volume.
This process results in a reduction of the effective area of the reinforcing steel and
creation of tensile forces in the PCC structure; ultimately, this processs can lead to
cracking, delamination (between the reinforcing steel and the surrounding PCC), and
spalling. Cracks that extend to the surface of the PCC allow more chlorides to intrude
into the PCC and thus perpetuate the reaction.
There are many factors that will influence and control the rate at which the
corrosion of reinforcing bars occurs.
Higher temperatures will increase the rate of
corrosion by up to two times for every 10C increase in temperature. A higher moisture
content in the concrete will also increase the rate of corrosion by providing an
electrolyte for the transfer of electrons from the anode to the cathode.
18
However,
oxygen can diffuse more easily into dry concrete than wet concrete, because diffusion
through water is much slower than diffusion through air.
2.2.2 Alkali-Silica Reaction

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is an expansive chemical reaction involving alkali
ions present in the PCC paste and certain siliceous materials present in the aggregate.
The high pH level present in the PCC pore solution results in a highly alkaline solution
in which aggregates formed from silica and siliceous materials do not remain stable
after long periods of exposure. Ultimately, this expansive reaction can lead to pop-outs
and exudation of an alkali-silicate fluid. Alkali-silica reaction was first recognized as a
problem in the United States in the New River Valley area of Virginia in the 1930s
(Hobbs, 1988).
In order for this expansive reaction to occur, both hydroxyl ions and alkali-metal
ions are necessary. Hydroxyl ions are present in hydrated Portland cement due to the
existance of calcium hydroxide; therefore, the amount of alkali-metal ions will control
the degree of ASR reaction. These alkali-metal ions are introduced into PCC through
alkali-containing admixtures, salt-contaminated aggregates or penetration of seawater
or deicing solutions containing sodium chloride.
Alkaline hydroxides, derived from alkalis (Na2O and K2O), attack siliceous
material in the aggregate. This process results in the formation of an alkali-silicate gel
that swells in size due to the osmosis of water. Since this gel is confined within the
surrounding cement paste, destructive tensile forces develop within the PCC. Two
theories exist that may explain the mechanism of expansion caused by ASR (Hobbs,
1988). One theory attributes the stresses generated within the PCC to expansion of
the ASR gel by absorption of the pore fluid. The other theory attributes the induced
stresses to an osmotic pressure generated across impermeable memebranes.
According to the absorption theory, expansion depends on the volume
concentration, growth rate, and physical properties of the alkali-cement gel.
Additionally, the amount of damage is proportional to the rate of gel growth. At a high
19
growth rate, the PCC cannot absorb any tensile stresses by particle movement. As the
tensile stresses increase and exceed the tensile strength of PCC, cracking occurs. The
osmotic cell pressure theory suggests that the cement paste acts as an impermeable
memebrane for the silicate ions. This membrane allows water, hydroxyl ions, and alkali
metal ions to diffuse through it, but does not permit the diffusion of silicate ions.
Therefore, a site undergoing ASR exerts a pressure against the restraining paste.
2.2.3 Freeze-Thaw Damage

Environmental conditions profoundly influence the performance of PCC.
Constantly changing external temperatures and thermal gradients within a PCC
structure create cyclic stresses.
Temperature extremes that include freezing and
thawing cycles can be destructive to PCC, especially if the mix contains low durability
aggregate and/or high water content. Partially saturated PCC (approximately 70% of
the pores initially saturated with water at 91%) can experience damage from freezing
conditions. The amount of damage depends on the number of applied freezing and
thawing cycles, the internal structure of PCC (pore size distribution and total porosity)
for both the Portland cement and the aggregate, and the presence of an air-entraining
agent.
The damage to PCC caused by freezing and thawing is created by two
mechanisms: hydraulic (Powers, 1945) and osmotic pressures (Powers, 1956).

However, whatever the prevailing mechanism, the movement of water during freezing
develops an internal pressure that creates damage in the PCC pore system. Cracks
are induced in the PCC surface and eventually the repeated stresses cause failure
from fatigue.
The hydraulic pressure theory (Powers, 1945) suggests that deterioration by
freeze and thaw is caused by hydraulic pressures created by the expansion of water
upon freezing. This hypothesis suggests that PCC is a closed system where stresses
are generated by the flow of unfrozen water out of large pores. Since the resistance to
flow is proportional to length of the pathway, there is a critical flow path length beyond
which hydraulic pressures exceed the stress necessary to crack the PCC after repeated
freeze-thaw cycles.
20
The osmotic pressure theory (Powers, 1956) suggests that an osmotic pressure
is created by a difference in ion concentration in the capillary water between the pore
barriers.
Freezing water that has accumulated in the larger pores creates the
difference. This results in a higher ion concentration in the remaining unfrozen water,
which attempts to create a concentration equilibrium by moving to adjacent pores of
lower ion concentration. This movement creates the same effect as water movement
due to hydraulic pressure.
Air entrainment is added to PCC mixes to induce air bubbles (approximately 10
to 1000 m in diameter) to reduce the flow path of the pressurized water (Kosmatka
and Panarese, 1988).
Entrained air also affects the total air content, the spacing
factor, and the specific surface of the voids.
Additionally, the coarse aggregate
physical properties and critical size contribute to the freeze-thaw behavior of PCC.
High resistance to freeze-thaw is found when coarse aggregate with low porosity and
large pore sizes is used in PCC. Each specific aggregate has a critical aggregate size.
This critical size marks the largest size that still provides resistance to freeze-thaw
regardless of the number of cycles applied.
2.3 Dielectric Materials

Materials that are electrically characterized as dielectrics are insulators (nonconductors) and consist of atoms with an electric dipole structure.
This structure
means that there is a physical separation between positively and negatively charged
entities on an atomic level. These charges are bound by atomic forces and are not free
to travel. Ideal dielectrics, as shown in Figure 2.1a, do not contain any free charges (as
do conductors) and are neutrally charged on a molecular level. However, when an
external field (e.g., an electric field) is applied, as shown in Figure 2.1b, the bound
positive and negative entities are able to slightly shift their positions, opposing the
atomic forces. This shift allows dielectric materials to store energy, like a stretched
spring, as potential energy.
21
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.1 Typical atom in (a) the absence of and (b) under an applied field (after
Balanis, 1989).
Figure 2.2 illustrates the conceptual model describing a dielectric material in an

external field (e.g., between charged plates of a parallel-plate capacitor).
When a
vacuum exists between the two plates, equal but opposite free surface charge densities
(+s and -s C.m-2) accumulate at the two plates (Figure 2.2a). The electric intensity at
the plates, E o (V.m-1), is given as:
Eo = s
o
(2.5)
where
o = permittivity of free space, 8.85 x 10-12 [F/m].

However, when a material is placed between the two plates, a bound system of
dipole charges is formed in the material; this phenomenon is called dielectric
polarization (Figure 2.2b). The net charges within the material remain equal to zero
since this polarization is assumed to be uniform (Tomboulian, 1965). Thus, the bound
charges can be represented by an electric field, E i , given as:
Ei = si
o
(2.6)
22
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
V
Vacuum
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
_ _ _P _
&E _ _
+ +P +& E
+ + +
_ __ __ __ __ _ _ _ _
Dielectric
b)
a)
Figure 2.2 Parallel-plate capacitor in the presence of (a) a vacuum and (b) dielectric
material (after Callister, 1994).
where
si = induced surface charge density [C.m-2].

The strength of the total electric field, E , can be written as the sum of the
electric field due to free charges (Eo) and the electric field due to induced charges (Ei).
A polarization vector, P [C.m-2], is also present and is equal to the sum of the induced
surface charge density. From these relationships and from Equation 2.5, the electric
flux density, D [C.m-2], can be expressed as:
D = o E + P
(2.7)
Two independent electromagnetic properties describe the interaction of a

material with electric and magnetic fields: the complex permittivity, *, and the complex
(magnetic) permeability, *.
These two characterizing properties of materials are
defined as the electromagnetic constitutive relations and are given as follows:

D = * E
(2.8)
B = * H
(2.9)
where
23
D = electric flux density [C.m-2];

E = electric field strength [V.m-2];
B = magnetic flux density [W.m-2]; and
H = magnetic field strength [A.m-1].
However, most dielectric materials, including PCC, can be described by * alone as
they are nonmagnetic (therefore, * o = 4 x 10-7 [H.m-1]).
The complex permittivity
of a material, *, is defined as:
* = j
(2.10)
where
= real part of the complex permittivity;

= imaginary part of the complex permittivity; and
j = 1 .
By dividing Equation 2.10 by the permittivity of free space, o, a relation of
dimensionless quantity results and is given as:
=
j
o
o o
r * = r jr
(2.11)
where
r * = relative complex permittivity or dielectric constant;

r = real part of the relative complex permittivity; and
24
r = imaginary part of the relative complex permittivity.

The real part of the relative complex permittivity indicates a materials abililty to
store an electric charge, while the imaginary part depicts the loss due to conduction
and molecular friction. The imaginary part is always greater than zero and is usually
much smaller than the real part for low loss dielectric materials (Buyukozturk, 1997).
2.3.1 Polarization Concepts

Common to all dielectric materials is their ability to store energy when an
external field is applied; this phenomenon is called polarization. There are four ways in
which PCC at low radio frequencies can be electrically polarized (i.e., polarization due
to an electric field): ionic, electronic, dipole, or heterogeneous. Ionic (or molecular)
polarization, shown in Figure 2.3a, occurs in materials that posses positive and
negative ions which tend to displace themselves when an external field is applied.
Ionic polarization also contributes to the formation of induced dipoles. Ionic polarization
is less detectable at microwave frequencies. This is due to a phenomenon known as
anomalous dispersion (discussed in section 2.3.1.1) and to ionic bonds that are very
strong. Thus, the bonds strongly resist rotational forces induced by an electric field.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an example of a material that undergoes ionic polarization.
Electronic polarization, shown in Figure 2.3b, occurs in materials in which the
electron cloud center surrounding the nucleus of the atom is displaced relative to the
center of the nucleus when an external field is applied. The magnitude of this type of
polarization is dependent upon the strength of the applied field and the attraction forces
imposed on the electrons by the nucleus.
Additionally, electronic polarization
contributes to the formation of induced dipoles.

Dipole (or orientation) polarization, shown in Figure 2.3c, occurs in substances
composed of polar molecules (e.g., water), which posses permanent dipoles where the
molecules are randomly oriented when no external field is applied. However, when an
external field is applied, the dipoles align themselves with the applied field. This type of
polarization is strongly temperature dependent, because the randomization of the polar
25
Direction of Applied
Electromagnetic Field
E
a)
b)
+
d)
Figure 2.3
+
+
+
+
c)
+
+
Representation of dielectric polarization: (a) ionic, (b) electronic, (c)

dipole, (d) heterogeneous (after Jastrzebski, 1977).
molecules is supported by thermal agitation. Rotation of the polar molecules is also

affected by the substance's phase. Lattice forces restrict this type of polarization in
solid substances. Thus, the dielectric constant for water is approximately eight times
higher than the dielectric constant of ice. Dipole polarization is easy to detect at both
radio and microwave frequencies. This is due to the fact that the forces that hold
dipoles together are relatively weak.
Heterogeneous polarization (Figure 2.3d) occurs in dielectric materials in which
conducting volumes are distributed.
A relaxation effect takes place at a critical
frequency. Charge carriers can redistribute themselves within the conductive particles,
if the applied frequency is less than the critical frequency. This yields an artificially high
26
dielectric constant and low electrical loss associated with a low value of conductivity.
However, if the applied frequency of the field is greater than the critical frequency, the
charge carriers cannot redistribute fully. This leads to a reduction in dielectric constant
and an increase in conductivity.
The dielectric constant of many liquids and solids usually depends on the
frequency of the measurement. The dependence generally decreases from a static
value, s, at low frequencies to a smaller limiting value, , at high frequencies.
Between which lies a transition region of anomalous dispersion, in which "absorption
conductivity" occurs yielding a complex dielectric constant, r.
*
In an alternating electric field, the orientation of polar molecules is opposed by

the effect of the thermal agitation and molecular interaction (Cole and Cole, 1941).
Debye (1929) models the second effect by viscous damping, where the molecules are
regarded as spheres in a continuous medium with the macroscopic viscosity shown in
Figure 2.4. Theoretical analysis of this behavior is presented in the following:
= +
(2.12)
1 + ( 0 )2
( s ) 0
1 + ( 0 )2
(2.13)
where
= angular frequency, 2f;

= dielectric constant at infinite frequency;
s = static dielectric constant;
0 = relaxation time [sec]; and
f = frequency.
27
0 -
Figure 2.4 A model representation the molecular interaction effect (after Debye,
1929).
For a static field, 0 ranges from 10-6 to 10-13 sec. The relaxation time depends on
temperature, chemical composition, and structure of the dielectric. In heterogeneous
materials, consisting of two or more components having a discrepancy n the
conductivity potentials, a dispersion known as the Maxwell-Wagner effect arises. This
dispersion can be modeled using Debye's equations after modifying s and values.
Historical Development of Polarization Concepts
Electricity has been known as a natural phenomenon since ancient times.
However, experimental studies were not performed until the 18th century. In 1745,
Caneus and Musschenbroek constructed a condenser consisting of two conducting
plates separated by an insulating material. When it was found that this condenser
could store large quantities of charge, it became popular for experimental studies under
the name of Leyden jar.
Little attention was paid to the insulating material until 1837 when Faraday
published the first numerical analysis of the insulating material that he called a
dielectric. His experiments showed that the capacity of a condenser was dependent on
the properties of the insulating material between the two conducting surfaces. Faraday
also introduced the term specific inductive capacity, defined as the ratio between the
capacity of a condenser filled with a dielectric and the capacity of the same condenser
when empty. This is the same quantity now called the permittivity or dielectric constant.
28
Summarizing the investigations of electric and magnetic phenomena, Maxwell

published his unified theory of electromagnetic phenomena.
In this theory, the
permittivity is given as the ratio of the electric field intensity and the dielectric
displacement. Maxwell also thought that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation.
He, therefore, saw that for most dielectrics, the dielectric constant should be equal to
the square of the refractive index, n. The relation, = n2, is known as the Maxwell
relation (Bttcher, 1973).
In the later part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth
century, the dielectric constant was determined for a number of materials, especially to
evaluate the validity of the Maxwell relation. The experimental results agreed well with
the theoretically obtained values for most solids and even some liquids and gases.
However, for many substances, called associating, the dielectric constant was
measured to be higher than the square of the refractive index over frequencies in the
visible region.
These same experiments revealed that some substances absorbed
energy at frequencies in the visible region and that an anomalous dispersion (or a
decrease in the refractive index with an increase in frequency) always accompanied
this energy absorption. Thus, it was possible to extend the validity of Maxwells relation
by determining the dielectric constant using a complex frequency-dependent relation
(where the imaginary part measures the absorption of energy) and the refractive index.
It was theorized that the discrepancy between actual measurements and
theoretically obtained results was attributable to a permanent electric dipole moment
associated with the molecules.
However, this theory remained vague and largely
qualitative until Debye published his quantitative theory (Debye, 1922). Debye
developed an expression for the dielectric constant that depended not only on the
molecular polarizability but also the permanent dipole moment of the molecule.
Debye later explained the anomalous dispersion of the dielectric constant by
pointing out that the orientation process of the permanent dipole moments associated
with changes in an applied electric field required a time interval due to the rotational
process involved in orienting the molecule. From Debyes assumptions, it was stated
that after the removal of an externally applied field, the average dipole orientation
decays exponentially with time; this was defined as the relaxation time.
29
Debye
concluded that the time lag between the average orientation of the molecules and a
change in the electric field became noticeable when the frequency of the field
approached the same order as the inverse of the relaxation time.
The molecular
relaxation time led to the anomalous dispersion of the dielectric constant and
subsequent absorption of electromagnetic energy; this process is defined as dielectric
relaxation.
Several modifications and additions have been proposed to Debyes theory for
the dielectric relaxation time. These have led to the general replacement of a single
relaxation time by a set of relaxation times dependent on the description of the
macroscopic relaxation process.
As an example, the Cole-Cole plot represents a
graphical interpretation to distinguish cases of continuous distribution of relaxation time

from those of single relaxation times (Cole and Cole, 1941).
30
CHAPTER 3
PARALLEL-PLATE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
The parallel-plate capacitor was originally designed at Virginia Tech (Al-Qadi et
al., 1994a) to characterize materials based on their dielectric properties and is relatively
easy to use because of its simplicity, suitability for low RF frequency range
measurements, and the convenience of casting or cutting parallel-faced PCC
specimens. The parallel-plate capacitor induces a uniform electric field over a fairly
large volume of space. Therefore, large specimens can be measured with acceptable
accuracy. The custom made fixture allows measurement of different specimen sizes
due an adjustable separation between its plates.
An HP-4195A Network/Spectrum
Analyzer (Hewlett-Packard Co., Santa Clara, Calif.) was connected to the fixture to
measure the capacitor impedance.
Rectangular-shaped specimens, used for this
setup, simplified both the design and the casting mold required.
3.1 System Design and Setup

Figure 3.1 shows the experimental setup of the parallel-plate capacitor. The
capacitor plates are mounted in a horizontal direction. Each stress-relieved plate is
approximately 460 x 460 x 13 mm and is made of steel. A supporting rod at each
corner fixes the upper plate. The lower plate is mounted on a threaded rod located at
its center, allowing the lower plate to move vertically. Fifty-mm-long sleeves on the
supporting rods maintain the lower plate in a horizontal position, allowing a range of 50
to 130 mm displacement between the two plates. The PCC is placed at the center of
the parallel-plate capacitor. Carefully cast rectangular PCC blocks allow for complete
surface contact with the plates.
31
HP-4195A Network/Spectrum
Analyzer
PCC
Specimen
Capacitor
Plates
Figure 3.1 Schematic setup for the parallel-plate capacitor.
The
impedance
of
the
capacitor
is
measured
using
an
HP-4195A
Network/Spectrum Analyzer. A change in the impedance of the capacitor results from

the lossy and dielectric nature of PCC. Through an internal mathematical process, the
HP-4195A analyzer transforms the received signal into the complex impedance (real
and imaginary parts) in the frequency domain.
3.2 Theoretical Background of the Parallel-Plate Capacitor

The measurement techniques are based on planar transmission line principles.
The measuring device assumes a plane transmission line in the form of a parallel-plate
capacitor configuration. The specimen under test forms the dielectric media between
the plates. To ensure a uniform electric field in the middle of the plates where the
specimen is placed (see Figure 3.2), the length of each plate should be at least three
times the largest dimension of the tested specimen to minimize edge diffraction effects
(Al-Qadi, 1992). Thus, the uniform electric field equation can be used (see Equation
2.8).
32
D = *E
(3.1)
Vo = EdL = s
d
(3.2)
Q = CVo
(3.3)
where
Vo = potential [V];
d = thickness of the dielectric specimen in the direction of EM wave
propagation [m];
L = length of parallel-plate capacitor plate [m];
s = surface charge density [C/m2];
Q = total charge [C]; and
C = capacitance [F].
460
mm
46 cm
Figure 3.2 Electric field distribution between the two plates of the parallel-plate
capacitor.
33
From equations 3.1 through 3.3, the following results:

C = *
S
d
(3.4)
where S is the surface area of the specimen in contact with one plate and is
2
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation [m ]. Equation 3.4 is valid for an

infinitely large parallel-plate capacitor that guarantees low edge disturbance.
3.3 Parallel-Plate Capacitor Model

The calibrated impedance is assumed to be due to the complex capacitance,
C*, given by:
YL =
1
= j2 f (C* - C0) = GL + jBL
ZL
(3.5)
where
YL = complex load admittance;
GL and BL = load conductance and susceptance, respectively;
f = frequency; and
j=
1 .
C0 is the capacitance due to an equivalent sample of air (air capacitance), as illustrated

in Figure 3.3. In equation 3.5, the difference (C* - C0) is used since C0 is included as
part of the open circuit calibration.
Assuming a uniform electric field distribution at the center of the capacitor and a
homogeneous specimen, the complex capacitance is given by:
C* = 0 r *
= 0 r j r
d
d
S
34
(3.6)
Zm
Z0
Co
C*
Figure 3.3 Parallel-plate capacitor with and without specimen under test.
Where 0 is the free space permittivity (0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m); r * is the complex
relative permittivity of the specimen; r and r are the real and imaginary part of the
dielectric constant, respectively; and S and d are the cross-sectional area and the
thickness of the specimen being measured, respectively.
The capacitance of the air-filled capacitor is given as follows:
C0 = 0
S
d
(3.7)
Hence, the complex permittivity is given in terms of the calibrated load as follows:
r = 1 +
r =
Bd
2fS
(3.8)
Gd
2fS
(3.9)
For simplicity, the loss tangent can be defined as follows:
tan =
(3.10)
The designed capacitor fixture can be treated as a waveguiding system

consisting of two parallel-plates of large extent confining a dielectric region between
35
them.
The mode of propagation is the principle mode or the transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) field mode. The electric field lies vertically between the plates,
while the magnetic field lies along a horizontal plane parallel to the plates. The wave
propagates between the conducting planes with a phase velocity equal to the free
space velocity of light (air dielectric). Assuming a width of b and a thickness of a at
the center (of the PCC specimen), the following parameters can be defined for such a
transmission line:
Capacitance, C: Capacitance per unit length of a parallel-plate transmission line may
be expressed as follows:
C=
b
a
(3.11)
Phase velocity, v p : The phase velocity is found using the following expression:
vp =
(3.12)
Resistance, R: The resistance per unit length may be expressed as follows:
R=
2R s
b
(3.13)
where Rs is the surface resistivity in ohms.

Characteristic Impedance, Z0: The characteristic impedance has the following
expression:
Z0 =
1
v pC
(3.14)
Although the dimensions of the fixture can vary, the ones used in this study are as
follows:
Length, l = 460 mm;
36
Width, w = 460 mm;

Height, a = 76 mm;
Rs (for steel) = 188 x 10-6
f ; and
Width (of PCC specimen), b = 102 mm.

From the values given above, the electrical parameters of interest can be
evaluated for an air-filled transmission line as:
C = 2 x (8.854 x 10-12) F/m;
v p = 3 x 108 m/s;
R = 25 x 10-6
f ; and
Z0 = 188.38 .
Higher order models can also exist in a parallel-plate transmission line. The
higher order waves or the complementary waves can exist for a nonzero incidence
angle on the conducting plates. The following expression gives the cut-off frequency
( f c ) for higher order modes for both transverse electric (TE) field mode and transverse
magnetic field (TM) mode:
fc =
nv p
(3.15)
2a
where n = 1, 2, any integer value denoting the order of the modes.

With a = 76 mm, the value for cut-off frequency ( f c ) for an air-dielectric line is given
9
by f c = (2 x 10 ) n = 2 n GHz.
37
3.4 Parallel-Plate Calibration Standards

The calibration measurements include open, load (matched impedance), and
short standards.
3.4.1 Open Calibration Standard

The open calibration standard is simply an air dielectric between the plates of
the parallel-plate system. It is known, however, that using air as an open calibration
standard introduces a small amount of error due to the capacitance that is present
between the plates. This error is taken into consideration with simulation performed to
find the average value of this capacitance over different values of spacing between the
parallel capacitor plates. It would be very difficult to make a high quality open
calibration standard for this system due to the systems physical attributes. Therefore,
an air dielectric is used for this calibration measurement.
Since the capacitance
measurement is dependant on the distance between the plates, the distance for each
of the calibration standards must be the same as the distance between the plates when
measuring the material with unknown dielectric constant.
3.4.2 Load Calibration Standard

The load standard is a 50 resistor. This calibration standard needs to have
the ability to adjust for different distances between the plates for the same reason
mentioned in section 3.4.1 Open Calibration Standard. Shown in Figure 3.4 are the
designed load calibration standard and the standards dimensions.
The standard is
constructed of two solid brass pieces (similar to a piston) with six low tolerance three
hundred ohm (300) resistors in series with a dielectric medium separating the plates
where the resistors are connected. A brass spring is used to allow adjustment for
different plate separations.
The narrow end of the load calibration standard containing the spring is inserted
into a base. Two bases have been constructed with different heights to allow for a
38
37.8 mm
30.4 mm
24.0 mm
52.1 mm
18.6 mm
10.0 mm
Figure 3.4 Parallel-plate load calibration standard.
wide range (approximately 73 mm to 111.2 mm) of parallel-plate measurement

distances. Having multiple bases will allow for flexibility in measuring different sized
specimens. The base diagrams are shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6.
3.4.3 Short Calibration Standard

The short calibration standard is shown in Figure 3.7. This calibration standard
is a solid piece of brass with a cylinder removed from the underside for placement of a
spring. This standard is also used with the two calibration bases shown in Figures 3.5
and 3.6. Making a perfect short calibration standard is easier than making an open
calibration standard, because the effects of a parasitic capacitance and/or other noise
24.2 mm
24.5 mm
57.5 mm
Figure 3.5 Large height calibration standard base.

39
30.2 mm
contributions do not exist. Since the quality of this type of short standard is very high,
it, therefore, is assumed a perfect short standard.
3.5 Equations Governing the Parallel-Plate System

A scattering parameter matrix is a valuable representation of a multiport network
and is helpful in developing the equations governing the parallel-plate system. The
scattering matrix of any n port device is unique to that device and is independent of the
loads at the n ports. In the case of the parallel-plate test fixture, there are a total of two
ports (n=2), one at the measurement plane and one at the reference plane, as
illustrated in Figure 3.8. A network analyzer is connected to the reference port and
various loads (open, short, matched, known dielectric material, or unknown dielectric,
24.2 mm
30.2 mm
24.5 mm
43.5 mm
Figure 3.6 Small height calibration standard base.
3.02 mm
27.0 mm
50.8 mm
10.0 mm
19.6 mm
Figure 3.7 Short calibration standard.

40
24.0 mm
Network Analyzer
Interface (cables and connectors)
a1
Parallel-plate Structure
b2
S21
S11
b1
S22
S12
a2
Measurement
Plane
Reference
(Port 2)
Plane
Figure 3.8 Schematic of parallel-plate measurement system and model.
material such as PCC) are connected to the measurement port. The open, short, and
matched loads are employed in order to determine the scattering parameters of the
matrix. Once these parameters are defined at a given frequency, the test fixture is
defined and a unique relationship is established between the unknown loads and the
reflection coefficient measured by the network analyzer. Figure 3.8 is a schematic of
the measurement system with the two port scattering parameters where
a1 = voltage wave input by network analyzer;
b1 = voltage wave reflected by the entire measurement system to the network
analyzer;
a2 = voltage wave reflected by load between parallel-plates;
41
b2 = voltage wave incident to load between parallel-plates;

M = reflection coefficient measured by network analyzer at the reference plane
(= b1/a1); and
L = reflection coefficient of the load between the parallel-plates at the
measurement plane (= a2/b2), L is what is desired to be determined from
the measured M.
For the 2 port, parallel-plate capacitor fixture, the scattering matrix is as follows:
b 1 S 11 S12 a 1
=

b 2 S 21 S 22 a 2
(3.16)
Evaluating the scattering matrix results in the following equations:

b1 = S11a1 + S12 a 2
(3.17)
b 2 = S 21a1 + S 22 a 2
(3.18)
Recalling that the point of the parallel-plate capacitor calibration scheme is devised to
define the four scattering parameters (S11, S21, S12, and S22), dividing equation 3.17 by
a1 yields the following equation for m:
a
b
m = 1 = S11 + S12 2
a1
a1
(3.19)
Dividing equation 3.18 by a2 yields the following equation for L-1:

a
b
1
= 2 = S 22 + S 21 1
L a 2
a2
(3.20a)
Rearranging equation 3.20a results in the following relation between a2 and a1:
a2
L S 21
=
a1 1 L S 22
(3.20b)
42
Substituting equation 3.20b into equation 3.19 yields the following equation for the
reflection coefficient at the reference plane in terms of the reflection coefficient at the
measurement plane and the scattering parameters:
M = S 11 +
S 12 S 21 L
1 S 22 L
(3.21)
The four scattering parameters are a property of the test fixture and are independent of
the load or the network analyzer. The following sections will describe each of the three
calibration measurements in detail and how they are used for error compensation. The
calibration coefficients, consisting of the scattering parameters, will then be applied to
generate an expression to determine the complex permittivity of a material under test.
3.5.1 Parallel-Plate Measurement System Calibration

The parallel-plate measurement system, as seen in Figure 3.9, is calibrated
using a one port calibration method. This method uses three calibration standards for
error compensation. These three calibration measurements consist of an open circuit
(Ya), a short circuit (Ys = ), and a 50 load (YL) between the conducting plates of the
Ymeasurement
a)
m
a1
b2
S21
b)
m
b1
S11
S
S12
Reference
Plane
S22
Y measurement
a2
Measurement
Plane
Figure 3.9 (a) General parallel-plate system model and (b) general S-parameter model.
43
system; where Y is an admittance. These three calibration measurements are used to

solve a three-unknown calibration model. The unknowns generated by the model are
the scattering parameters of the model, S11, S21S12, and S22; where S11 and S21
represent the reflection and transmission, respectively, at the plane of reference and
S22 and S12 represent the same parameters at the plane of measurement. Since the
plates are assumed large enough that the fields are vertical between the plates in the
area that the measurement is taken, the measurements are assumed to be
independent of fringing effects.
Load Calibration
The load calibration model, shown in Figure 3.10, also includes the admittance
of the load calibration standard, YL, and the admittance compensation for the load
standard, Yerr (which can also be written as YL-YO, where YO is the admittance of the
50 line). The resistance and capacitance values of the load standard were found to
be RL=50.7 and CL=3.4pF, respectively.
This initial step in the load calibration
description corrects the measured value of the 50 load calibration standard by

compensating for the admittance of the 50 line (YO).
Next, the quantity YL-YO is
introduced into the S-parameter model, leaving YO as the only value not included in the
S-parameter model. By including the admittance compensation for the load (Yerr) in the
YL
a)
ml
b)
ml
Yerr=YL YO
YO
Figure 3.10 (a) Load parallel-plate system model and (b) load S-parameter model.
44
S-parameter model, the reflection coefficient at the measurement plane generated from
the load standard (ml) is simplified. Thus, the complexity of the entire equation set can
be reduced and Yerr can be written as follows:
Yerr = YL YO
(3.22a)
Yerr = (GL GO ) + jCL
(3.22b)
where
j=
1 ;
= 2f;
f = frequency;
GL = conductance of the load standard (1/RL);
G0 = conductance of a 50 load; and
CL = capacitance of the load standard.
The reflection coefficient at the reference plane of the load measurement is as follows:
Y Yo
L = o
=0
Yo + Yo
(3.23)
The reflection coefficient, L, reduces to zero by leaving only the YO term outside the Sparameter load model. After obtaining the value for L, m can be found, as shown in
Figure 3.9. Using the S-parameter model, the reflection coefficient of the parallel-plate
system with a 50 load calibration standard, ml, is equal to S11:
ml = S11
(3.24)
45
Open Calibration
The admittance compensation for the load, Yerr, must be accounted for in all of
the calibration measurements. Therefore, it can be included in the open S-parameter
model, shown in Figure 3.11, as in the load calibration measurement. To accomplish
this, the admittance of the air calibration standard, Ya, is corrected to account for the
admittance compensation. The positive value of the admittance compensation, Yerr, is
then included in the S-parameter model, leaving the corrected admittance of the open
calibration standard (Yop) separated from the S-parameter model. Thus, the actual
value for Yop is as follows:
Yop = Ya Yerr
(3.25a)
Yop = (Go GL ) + j(C a CL )
(3.25b)
The admittance of the open calibration standard, Ya, was determined when the parallelplate measurement system was simulated using (Zeland Software's IE3D Microwave
Structure Simulator) and the value of Ca, the capacitance of the air between the plates,
was found to be 0.37pF. The equation for Ya is developed from the simulated value of
Ca as follows:
Ya = jC a
(3.26)
Ys
a)
ms
b)
ms
Yerr=YL YO
Short
Figure 3.12 (a) Short parallel-plate system model and (b) short S-parameter model.
46
where Ca simulated capacitance of the air between the parallel conducting plates.
The reflection coefficient of the open calibration measurement, op, is as follows:
op =
Yo Yop
(3.27)
Yo + Yop
After obtaining the value for op, m can be found as shown in Figure 3.9. Using the Sparameter model, the reflection coefficient of the parallel-plate measurement system
using an open calibration standard, mop, may be obtained as the following:
mop = S11 +
S12 S 21op
(3.28)
1 S 22 op
Short Calibration
The short calibration measurement is assumed to be a perfect short. Thus, the
short S-parameter model, shown in Figure 3.12, decreases in complexity since the
admittance compensation (Yerr) is not included in the model. The admittance for any
short is defined as infinite. Therefore, the admittance for the measured short, Ys, is as
follows:
Ys =
(3.29)
Ya
a)
mop
b)
mop
Yerr=YL YO
Yop
Figure 3.11 (a) Open parallel-plate system model and (b) open S-parameter model.
47
The reflection coefficient of the short measurement, s, is given as:

Y
s = o
= 1
Yo +
(3.30)
After obtaining the value for s, m can be found as shown in Figure 3.9. Using the Sparameter model, the reflection coefficient of the parallel-plate system using a short
calibration standard, ms, is given as:
S S
ms = S11 12 21
1 + S 22
(3.31)
Solving for the scattering parameters, the product of S21S12 can be written as Sp:
Sp = S21S12
(3.32)
The equations developed above are summarized in Table 3.1.
These equations
represent the reflection coefficients at the input side of the system, denoted as ml,
mop, and ms in Figures 3.10 through 3.12, respectively.
3.5.2 Determination of Remaining Unknowns

Determining the remaining unknowns begins by developing a new equation from
those shown in Table 3.1. One of the unknowns, S11, has already been determined,
since it was found to be equal to the reflection coefficient of the parallel-plate system
with a 50 load calibration standard, ml.
This is a main reason for including the load
compensation admittance in the S-parameter model. Subtracting the load reflection

coefficient from the short reflection coefficient yields:
ms ml =
Sp
(3.33)
1 + S22
48
Table 3.1 Reflection coefficients from the measured calibration standards.

Calibration
Reflection Coefficient ( m )
Load
ml = S11
Open
mop = S11 +
Short
S12 S 21op
1 S 22 op
S S
ms = S11 12 21
1 + S 22
Subtracting the load reflection coefficient from the open reflection coefficient yields:
mop ml =
S p op
(3.34)
1 S 22 op
Equations 3.33, and 3.34 can be reduced to obtain an equation that is defined as the
variable, Q. Equation 3.35 was obtained by dividing the expression found in Equation
3.33 by the expression found in Equation 3.34.
1 S 22 op
ms ml
=
=Q
mo ml
op (1 + S 22 )
(3.35)
Equation 3.35, referred to as Q, can now be solved for S22:

S 22 =
1 + Qop
(3.36)
op (Q 1)
Using the results from Equation 3.24 and Equation 3.31, Sp can be written as follows:
S p = (ml ms )(1 + S 22 )
(3.37)
49
The equations developed for determining the dielectric constant of a material

under test (MUT) can now be addressed. As with the calibration measurements, the
admittance compensation for the load (Yerr) is common to all of the measurements and
is included in the S-parameter model, shown in Figure 3.13. Also, the admittance of
the MUT, Ym, must be corrected using the admittance compensation, Yerr. By including
the positive value of the admittance compensation in the S-parameter model, the
corrected admittance value of the MUT, Ymut, is given as:
Ymut = Ym Yerr
(3.38)
The reflection coefficient of the MUT measurement (mut), developed from the equation
given above for Ymut, is given as follows:
mut =
Yo Ymut
Yo + Ymut
(3.39)
After obtaining the value for mut, m can be determined as shown in Figure 3.9. Using
the S-parameter model, the reflection coefficient of the MUT (mm) can be determined:
mm = S11 +
S p mut
(3.40)
1 S 22 mut
Ym
a)
mm
b)
mm
Yerr=YL YO
Ymut
Figure 3.13 (a) MUT parallel-plate system model and (b) MUT S-parameter model.
50
The expression for mm from Equation 3.40 can be rewritten in terms of mut as:
mut =
mm ml
S p + S 22 (mm ml )
(3.41)
From Equation 3.40, a numerical value for the reflection coefficient of the MUT in
Equation 3.41 can be obtained using known parameters determined by calibration. In
order to solve for the complex dielectric constant of the MUT, *mut, Equation 3.39
needs to be written in terms of Zmut:
Y=
1
Z
(3.42a)
Z mut = Z O
(1 + mut )
(1 mut )
(3.42b)
Equation 3.42b can be written in terms of an admittance as follows:

Ymut =
(3.43)
Z mut
From Equation 3.38, the admittance of the MUT, Ym, is known and can be expressed
as follows:
Ym = Ymut + Yerr
(3.44a)
Ym = Gm + jCm
(3.44b)
Substituting the classical equations for a parallel-plate capacitor and conductivity

(Equations 3.45 and 3.46 respectively), the new form of the admittance of the MUT can
be expressed in Equation 3.47.
A
C= o r
d
G=
(3.45)
A
d
(3.46)
51
Ym =
A
A
+ j o r
d
d
(3.47)
By dividing both sides of Equation 3.47 by the following expression:

A
j o
d
(3.48)
The resulting form of Equation 3.47 is as follows:
Ym
= r j
o A
o
j
d
(3.49)
The final two identities needed to complete the solution are given as follows:
r"
Ym
"
=
=
= Im
o o
j o A
Y
m
r' = r = Re
j o A
d
(3.50)
(3.51)
Equations 3.50 and 3.51 are the real and imaginary portions of the complex dielectric
constant ( and , respectively) extracted from Equation 3.49.
3.6 Calibration Schemes

When the developed calibration standards were used as the sole standards in
the calibration process, the output was excessively noisy. This noise could be a result
of the estimation of the true value of the standards. Two methods were developed to
optimize the calibration scheme. These two methods involve calibrating the system up
to a certain point using HP calibration standards, and then completing the calibration
with the developed standards. The first scheme used the HP standards to calibrate the
52
vector network analyzer directly at the device. This scheme was found to decrease the
noise, but the imaginary portion of the dielectric constant appears to be negative,
Figures 3.14 and 3.15.
The second method was to calibrate the vector network
analyzer at the end of the cable that connects the analyzer to the parallel-plate test
fixture.
This calibration scheme developed the best measurement results and was
used as the calibration scheme for future measurements.
Real Part of the Dielectric Constant
3.5
Calibration Method 2
2.5
1.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 3.14 Real part of dielectric constant of nylon using different calibrations.
53
Imaginary Part of the Dielectric Constant
0.5
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 3.15 Imaginary part of dielectric constant of nylon using different calibrations.
54
CHAPTER 4
CAPACITOR PROBE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
The capacitor probe, in design, resembles a parallel-plate capacitor in the sense
that it consists of two conducting plates with a known separation. However, a parallelplate capacitor does not allow for nondestructive in-situ measurements, whereas the
capacitor probe does, because its plates are placed on the surface of the tested
specimen or structural element.
The capacitor probe, shown in Figure 4.1, was
designed as a surface probe to measure the capacitance properties of materials. From

these capacitance measurements, the dielectric constant of the material under test can
be found. The capacitor probe can be implemented as a field-ready measurement tool
to characterize the physical properties of PCC based on the materials dielectric
constant. The capacitor probe, therefore, was designed to be small, lightweight, and
durable.
The plates are manufactured of flexible metal sheet (e.g., copper or brass) that
allows complete contact when placed on the PCC structural element. Rubber backing
is used for mechanical strength, handling, and protection purposes.
The probe is
Cable to Instrument
Flexible Backing
Capacitor Probe Plates
Figure 4.1 The capacitor probe.

55
flexible so that it can conform to different geometric shapes, such as the curved surface
of a column or pile. Different overall sizes were considered for measurement purposes;
however, typically the total length is approximately 50 to 100 mm to ensure adequate
bulk averaging of the properties of the structures constituents.
As shown in Figure 4.2, EM fields will emanate from the capacitor plates and
excite the test medium. The distribution of EM fields will govern the impedance of the
probe. Impedance measurements of this probe will result in information related to the
average dielectric performance of the bulk media in the EM field. Internal flaws and
chloride presence will alter the field distribution and dielectric properties, thus affecting
a change in the impedance of the probe. In addition, by changing the frequency of the
EM excitation and/or adjusting the distance between the plates, it is possible to reveal
different information at different depths in the PCC structure.
The capacitor probe NDE system will include a portable frequency-domain
measurement instrument and a portable personal computer for on-site data acquisition
and processing. The system is calibrated using known standards to ensure accurate
determination of the electrical properties of the structure being tested.
a)
b)
Figure 4.2 A schematic of EM field distribution at (a) high frequency and (b) low frequency.
56
The capacitor probe is designed to maximize the interaction of the EM fields and
the PCC material.
In addition, the frequency used should be in the range where
specific polarization (such as the ionic polarization in the case of chloride presence or
alkali-silica reaction) is dominant over other effects. Based on the size, shape, and the
location of the probe, in addition to the excitation frequency of the EM waves, the
degree of interaction and the depth of penetration of EM waves in the PCC structural
element can be controlled.
4.1 Physical Construction of the Capacitor Probe

Several probes were constructed during this study with each new design more
adaptive to a field environment. The four types of capacitor probes that have been
designed and tested will be discussed in this section.
4.1.1 Capacitor Probe Design

Plexiglas Probe
An initial capacitor probe was made using two square brass conducting plates
(75 x 75 x 5 mm with a 50 mm separation) mounted on a 12-mm-thick sheet of
Plexiglas approximately 600 x 600 mm in size. These plates were mounted to the
Plexiglas with brass screws that were inserted into holes in the Plexiglas and fastened
with wing nuts.
This capacitor probe was used with the existing Hewlett-Packard
Spectrum/Network Analyzer (Model 4195A). The outer conductor of the coaxial-type

connecting cable connected to one of the plates while the inner conductor connected to
the other plate.
A 600 x 600 x 300 mm wooden box was constructed (using no metallic
connectors) and filled with Ottawa sand.
This measurement box was used to
determine if the preliminary capacitor probe design could detect changes in the
dielectric properties of sand due to insertion and relative placement of inhomogeneities.
No attempts were made to measure the actual dielectric constant of the sand or any
57
inserted inhomogeneities, because a calibration system had not been completed.

However, it was determined that changes in the dielectric properties of the sand could
be detected.
Rubber-Backed Capacitor Probe
A second capacitor probe was built using two 75 mm square brass sheets (0.04
mm thick with a 50 mm separation) as electrodes and a sheet (250 x 125 x 3 mm) of
natural rubber sheet as a backing material. Initially, computer jumper stands and pins
were to be used as connectors to attach the capacitor probe to a cable. However, after
unsuccessful attempts to locate a commercial source, DC power adapter plugs and
jacks were used as interface connectors. Later, it was decided that the DC adapter
would not be used in a final design because of questions about its suitability: therefore,
a change in the connector was made. The question of the connectors' suitability came
from the fact that the DC adapter was not designed as a connector for a coaxial fixture.
The brass electrodes were affixed to the backing material by means of 1.6 mm
thick double-sided tape. This design was very well suited for field use due to the
rubber backings high durability and flexibility. The rubber backing and the doublesided tape on this design, as well as the Plexiglas in the initial design, were found to
have a minimal effect on the measurements. The minimal error effect was achieved
using an error parameter inserted into the calibration model to compensate for the
space above the probe.
Tape-Backed Capacitor Probe
A third capacitor probe, resembling the rubber-backed capacitor probe in
appearance, was built using masking tape as a backing material and similar conducting
plates (without the double-sided tape) in the same geometric configuration. By using
the masking tape, intentions were to reduce the effects (if any) of the backing material
on the measurements and to have a means of fastening the probe to the material
under test. A RCA connector was used to connect the capacitor probe to a cable since
the RCA connector is specifically designed to work with a coaxial-type fixture. The
outer conductor of the RCA plug makes solid contact around the entire connector
(which was connected to the network analyzer).
58
Final Capacitor Probe Design

The final capacitor probe design consisted of the rubber backing also 250 x 125
mm in size, but only 0.6 mm thick. Along with the natural rubber sheet as a backing,
copper tape with a conductive adhesive was used as the conducting plates.
The
copper tape was also 75 mm wide; however, it could be cut to any desired length to
conform to the previous designs. Using the tape allows easy change of the electrical
conducting plates in the field. The RCA connectors will also be used in any future
designs.
4.2 Capacitor Probe Plate Configurations

Several capacitor probes were constructed with varying plate size and plate
separations to determine whether a change in plate configuration would yield data
indicating a change due to the depth of measurement. In future experimentation, the
spacing between the plates will be used to control the depth of the measurement into a
specimen. The dimensions of the different capacitor probes are described in Table 4.1.
Illustrations of the different capacitor probes are located in Appendix A: Figures A1
through A6.
The data associated with these measurements will be presented in
Chapter 5.
Table 4.1 Plate size and spacing of the different capacitor probes.
Capacitor probe
Plate Size
Plate Spacing
75 mm x 75 mm
50 mm
75 mm x 75 mm
75 mm
75 mm x 75 mm
100 mm
50 mm x 50 mm
50 mm
50 mm x 125 mm
50 mm
75 mm x 75 mm
150 mm
59
4.3 Capacitor Probe Calibration Standards

Three calibration standards are used for the capacitor probe and are presented
in the following subsections.
4.3.1 Open Calibration Standard

The open calibration standard is simply an air dielectric between the plates of
the capacitor probe system. It is known that using air as an open calibration standard
introduces a small amount of error due to the capacitance present between the plates.
However, this error is taken into consideration with the fourth calibration measurement,
explained in Section 4.3.4.
It would be very difficult to make a high quality open
calibration standard for this system due to its physical attributes; therefore, an air
dielectric is used for this calibration measurement.
4.3.2 Load Calibration Standard

The load standard is a 50 equivalent resistance. Shown in Figure 4.3, the
standard is constructed of two solid brass plates with six low tolerance 300 resistors
310 mm
150 mm
Figure 4.3 Capacitor probe load calibration standard.

60
in series mounted on two long pieces of thin Plexiglas. The plates were attached to the
Plexiglas using standard epoxy. This standard was measured in the laboratory over
the frequency range of interest and the resistance was found to be 50.5 and the
capacitance 71.0pF.
4.3.3 Short Calibration Standard

The short calibration standard is shown in Figure 4.4. This calibration standard
is a solid sheet of brass. A short calibration standard is easier to construct than an
open calibration standard because the effects of parasitic capacitance and/or other
noise contributions are minimal. Since this short standard is of very high quality, it is
assumed that this calibration standard acts as a perfect short circuit.
4.3.4 Known Dielectric Material Calibration Standard

Materials used for this calibration consist of a PCC slab (450 x 300 x 100 mm)
and ultra high molecular weight (UHMW) polyethylene slab (450 x 300 x 100 mm). The
dielectric constant is obtained from the parallel-plate capacitor measurement system
300 mm
150 mm
Figure 4.4 Capacitor probe short calibration standard.

61
and set as a reference value. This reference dielectric constant of the known material
is used in the calibration equations of the capacitor probe measurement system as
*rm1.
4.4 Equations Governing the Capacitor Probe System

The impedance of the capacitor probe is measured using a network analyzer is
connected to the capacitor probe through an interface network that consists of a cable
and an adapter. The analyzer is used to measure the reflection coefficient, , at its
reference plane. This reflection coefficient is a function of the S-parameters of the
interface network (Sint) as well as the impedance of the capacitor probe when applied to
the PCC material. The measured is used to evaluate the complex impedance (real
and imaginary parts) of the PCC material as a function of frequency.
To ensure proper evaluation of the dielectric properties of a material under test,
four calibration measurements are taken. Three calibration measurements are taken
with the capacitor probe open-circuited, short-circuited, and terminated in a nominal
50 load at the terminals of the capacitor. The fourth calibration measurement is taken
using a material of known dielectric properties (*m1) at the frequencies desired. The
admittance of the four calibration standards are Ya, Ys = , YL, and YM for the open
(air), short, load, and material terminations, respectively.
The general calibration model, shown in Figure 4.5, can be simplified by
including the admittance of the backside of the capacitor probe, Yb, in the S-parameter
model of the combined network (lumping the unknowns).
The error YLYO,
representing the deviation of YL from its nominal value (1/50), is also included in the
S-parameters of the combined network. These four calibration measurements are used
to solve a four-unknown calibration model. The unknowns generated by the model are
the admittance of air (Ya) and S11, the product S21S12, and S22.
62
Interface Network
Yb = admittance
of background
Network
Analyzer
a)
Material Under Test
Yst = YO, S, L, M
Combined Network
Interface Network
b)
S11
S21
Sint S22
Yb
c)
Yst
S21
Sint S22
S12
S12
Reference
Plane
S11
Yb+
Yerr
Yst
Yerr
S = SCombined Network
Measurement
Plane
Figure 4.5 (a) General capacitor probe model, (b) general S-parameter model of the
interface network, and (c) general S-parameter model of the combined
network.
4.4.1 Load Calibration

The load calibration model also includes the admittance of the load calibration
standard, YL, and the admittance compensation for the load standard, Yerr (which can
also be written as YL-YO, where YO is the admittance of the 50 line). The resistance
and capacitance values of the load standard were found to be RL=50.5 and
CL=71.0pF, respectively. This initial step in the load calibration description corrects the
measured value of the 50 load calibration standard by compensating for the
admittance of the 50 line (YO). The load calibration model is shown in Figure 4.6
63
ml
Yb
a)
Yst = YL
ml
b)
YO
Figure 4.6 (a) Load capacitor probe model and (b) load S-parameter model.
Next, the admittance value Yb and the quantity YL-YO are included in the Sparameter model, leaving YO as the only value not included in the S-parameter model.
By including the admittance compensation for the load, Yerr, in the S-parameter model,
the reflection coefficient at the measurement plane generated from the load standard
(ml) is simplified. By including these two values within the model, the complexity of the
entire equation set can be reduced. The reflection coefficient at the reference plane of
the load measurement is as follows:
L =
Yo Yo
=0
Yo + Yo
(4.1)
The reflection coefficient, L, reduces to zero by not including the YO term in the
S-parameter load model. After obtaining the value for L, m can be found, as shown in
Figure 4.5. Using the S-parameter model, the reflection coefficient of the capacitor
probe system with a 50 load calibration standard, ml, is equal to S11 as follows:
ml = S11
(4.2)
64
4.4.2 Open Calibration

The admittance value of air above the capacitor probe, Yb, is common to all the
calibration measurements. Therefore, it can be introduced into the open S-parameter
model, shown in Figure 4.7, as in the load calibration measurement. The admittance
compensation for the load, Yerr, must also be included in the open S-parameter model.
To accomplish this, the admittance of the air calibration standard, Ya, is corrected to
account for the admittance compensation.
The positive value of the admittance
compensation, Yerr, is then included in the S-parameter model, leaving the corrected
admittance of the open calibration standard (Yop) and the negative value of the load
admittance compensation outside the S-parameter model. Thus, the actual value for
the unknown Ya is as follows:
Yop = Ya Yerr
(4.3)
The admittance of the open calibration standard, Ya, can be described in terms
of a capacitance-containing variable F. Replacing Ya as one of four unknowns that will
be determined through the four calibration measurements, the value of F is as follows:
Ya = j o F
(4.4)
mo
Yb
a)
Yst = Ya
b)
mo
Ya - Yerr
Figure 4.7 (a) Open capacitor probe model and (b) open S-parameter model.
65
where F C/O results from the general admittance equation, Y=jC.

The reflection coefficient of the open calibration measurement, op, is as follows:
op =
Yo Yop
(4.5)
Yo + Yop
After obtaining the value for op, m can be found, as shown in Figure 4.5. Using the Sparameter model, the reflection coefficient of the capacitor probe system using an open
calibration standard, mo, may be obtained as the following:
mo = S 11 +
S 12 S 21op
(4.6)
1 S 22 op
4.4.3 Calibration Using Material of Known Dielectric Constant

As mentioned previously, the admittance value of air behind the capacitor probe
(Yb) is common to all the calibration measurements. This background admittance is
included in the S-parameter model, shown in Figure 4.8, as with the load and open
calibration measurements. Also, the admittance compensation for the load, Yerr, must
be included in the material S-parameter model. As with the load and open calibration
measurements, the admittance of the material calibration measurement, Ym1, must be
corrected using the admittance compensation, Yerr. Thus the corrected admittance of
the material calibration measurement, Ym1e, is as follows:
Ym1e = Ym1 Yerr
(4.7)
The admittance of the material calibration standard, Ym1, can also be described in terms
of the unknown variable, F. Equation 4.8 yields Ym1, where m1* is the known dielectric
constant of the calibration material:
Ym1 = j *m1F
(4.8)
where F C/*m1 results from the general admittance equation, Y=jC.

66
mm1
Yb
a)
Yst = Ym1
b)
mm1
Ym1 - Yerr
Figure 4.8 (a) Material capacitor probe model and (b) material S-parameter model.
The reflection coefficient of the material measurement, m1, can be given as follows:
m1 =
Yo Ym1e
Yo + Ym1e
(4.9)
After obtaining the value for m1, m can be found, as shown in Figure 4.5. Using the
S-parameter model, the reflection coefficient of the capacitor probe system using the
known material calibration standard, mm1, can be determined as:
mm1 = S11 +
S12 S 21m1
1 S 22 m1
(4.10)
4.4.4 Short Calibration

Since the short calibration is assumed a perfect short, the short calibration Sparameter model (shown in Figure 4.9) decreases in complexity, since no correction
parameters (i.e., Yb and Yerr) are needed to complete the model. As for any short
67
ms
a)
Yb
Yst = Ys
b)
ms
Short
Figure 4.9 (a) Short capacitor probe model and (b) short S-parameter model.
standard, the admittance is equal to infinity. Thus, the admittance for the measured
short measurement, Ys, is as follows:
Ys =
(4.11)
The reflection coefficient of the short measurement, s, is given as:
s =
Yo
= 1
Yo +
(4.12)
After obtaining the value for s, m can be found, as shown in Figure 4.5. Using the Sparameter model, the reflection coefficient of the capacitor probe system using a short
calibration standard, ms, is given as:
ms = S 11
S 12 S 21
1 + S 22
(4.13)
Solving for the scattering parameters, the product of S21S12 can be written as Sp:
S p = S 21S12
(4.14)
68
The equations developed above are summarized in Table 4.2.
These equations
represent the reflection coefficients at the input side of the system, denoted as ml, mo,
mm1, and ms, in Figures 4.6 through 4.9, respectively.
Table 4.2 Reflection coefficients from the measured calibration standards.
Calibration
Reflection Coefficient ( m )
Load
ml = S11
Open
mo = S 11 +
Material
mm1 = S11 +
Short
S 12 S 21op
1 S 22 op
S12 S 21m1
1 S 22 m1
ms = S11
S 12 S 21
1 + S 22
4.4.5 Determination of Remaining Unknowns

Determining the remaining unknowns begins by developing three new equations
from those shown in Table 4.2.
One of the unknowns, S11, has already been
determined, since it was found equal to the reflection coefficient of the capacitor probe
system with a 50 load calibration standard, ml.
This is a main reason for including
the load compensation admittance in the S-parameter model. Subtracting the load
reflection coefficient from the short reflection coefficient yields:
ms ml =
Sp
(4.15)
1 + S 22
Subtracting the load reflection coefficient from the open reflection coefficient yields:
69
mo ml =
S p op (F)
(4.16)
1 S 22 op (F)
where op is a function of F.
Subtracting the load reflection coefficient from the material reflection coefficient yields:
mm1 ml =
S p m1 (F)
(4.17)
1 S 22 m1(F)
where m1 is also a function of F.

Equations 4.15 through 4.17 can be reduced to obtain two equations with two
unknowns. Equation 4.18 was obtained by dividing the expression found in Equation
4.15 by the expression found in Equation 4.16.
Equation 4.19 was formulated by
dividing the expression found in Equation 4.15 by the expression found in Equation
4.17. The two unknowns remaining in these equations are the values of F and S22.
The values m1 and op are functions of the variable F.
1 S22op
ms ml
=
=A
mo ml
op (1 + S22 )
(4.18)
ms ml
1 S22m1
=
=B
mm1 ml
m1(1 + S22 )
(4.19)
Equations 4.18 and 4.19, referred to as A and B, need to be solved simultaneously to

yield the two unknowns. The values of A and B are known quantities since all of the
variables on the left of the first equality sign are measured values.
Equations 4.18 and 4.19 can be written in terms of the reflection coefficients,
m1 and op, respectively. The resulting equations are as follows:
op =
1
S 22 (1 A ) A
(4.20)
70
m1 =
1
S 22 (1 B) B
(4.21)
Equations 4.5 and 4.9 need to be written in terms of Yop and Ym1e as follows:
Yop = Yo
1 op
(4.22)
1 + op
Ym1e = Yo
1 m1
1 + m1
(4.23)
Substituting equations 4.20 and 4.21 into equations 4.22 and 4.23, respectively, the
following can be written:
Yop = Yo
S 22 (1 A ) A 1
S 22 (1 A ) A + 1
(4.24)
S 22 (1 B) B 1
S 22 (1 B ) B + 1
(4.25)
Ym1e = Yo
Using the relation found in equation 4.4, an equation can be written for Ya using the
expression for Yop found in equation 4.24. Equation 4.5 relates Ya to the unknown
variable F.
Ya = Yo
S 22 (1 A ) A 1
+ Yerr = j o F
S 22 (1 A ) A + 1
(4.26)
Similarly, using the relation found in equation 4.7, an equation for Ym1 can be presented
using the expression for Ym1e found in equation 4.28. Equation 4.8 relates Ym1e to the
unknown variable F.
Ym1 = Yo
S 22 (1 B ) B 1
*
+ Yerr = j o rm
1F
S 22 (1 B) B + 1
71
(4.27)
The result shown in equation 4.27 uses the relation for the dielectric constant in terms
of the relative complex dielectric constant of the material, *rm1, multiplied by the
dielectric constant of air, o, as shown in equation 4.28.
*
*
m
1 = o rm1
(4.28)
An expression can be obtained for the relative dielectric constant, *rm1, by dividing the
expression found in equation 4.27 by the expression found in equation 4.26. The
resulting equation is shown as follows:
S 22 (1 B) (1 + B )
+ Yerr
S 22 (1 B) + (1 B )
=
S (1 A ) (1 + A )
Yo 22
+ Yerr
S 22 (1 A ) + (1 A )
Yo
*
rm
1
(4.29)
Using the relations given in equations 4.30a and 4.30b, equation 4.29 can be reduced
to the expression found in 4.31.
C=
1+ A
1 A
(4.30a)
D=
1+ B
1 B
(4.30b)
*
rm
1 =
Yo (S 22 D) + Yerr (S 22 + 1)
Yo (S 22 C) + Yerr (S 22 + 1)
(4.31)
Separating the unknown variable S22 from the expressions found in the numerator and
denominator of equation 4.31 results in an equation for *rm1 as follows:
*
rm
1 =
S 22 ( Yo + Yerr ) DYo + Yerr

S 22 ( Yo + Yerr ) CYo + Yerr
(4.32)
The numerator and denominator of equation 4.32 can be divided by Yo+Yerr to isolate
S22 and the following expressions are defined:
72
D' =
DYo + Yerr
Yo + Yerr
(4.33a)
C' =
CYo + Yerr
Yo + Yerr
(4.33b)
Using the identities found in equations 4.33a and 4.33b, equation 4.32 can be reduced
to the expression found in equation 4.34.
*
rm
1 =
S 22 + D'
S 22 + C'
(4.34)
Solving equation 4.34 in terms of S22 will produce the following expression:
S 22 =
*
D' rm
1C'
(4.35)
*
rm
1 1
Using the expression found in equation 4.15, Sp can be written as follows:
S p = (ml ms )(1 + S 22 )
The final unknown variable, F, can be obtained using the expression found in equation
4.4. The value of Ya is obtained from substituting the expression for S22 found in
equation 4.35 into equation 4.26.
F=
Ya
j o
(4.36)
The equations that are developed for determining the dielectric constant of a
material under test (MUT) are similar to the equations for the material of known
dielectric constant for calibration purposes. As mentioned previously for the material
calibration measurements, the admittance value of air above the capacitor probe (Yb) is
common to all of the measurements and is included in the S-parameter model, shown
in Figure 4.10. The admittance compensation for the load, Yerr, must again be included
in the material S-parameter model. As before, the admittance of the MUT, Ym2, is
73
mm
Yb
a)
Yst = Ym2
b)
mm
Ym2 - Yerr
Figure 4.10 (a) MUT capacitor probe model and (b) MUT S-parameter.
corrected using the admittance compensation, Yerr. By including the positive value of
the admittance compensation in the S-parameter model, the corrected admittance
value of the MUT, Ym2e, is given as:
Ym 2e = Ym 2 Yerr
(4.37)
The admittance of the MUT, Ym2, in terms of the known variable F is given as follows:
*
Ym 2 = j m
2F
(4.38)
where m2* is the dielectric constant of the MUT.

The reflection coefficient of the MUT measurement (m2), developed from the equations
given above for Ym2e and Ym2, is given as follows:
m 2 =
Yo Ym 2 e
Yo + Ym 2e
(4.39)
74
After obtaining the value for m2, m can be determined, as shown in Figure 4.5. Using
the S-parameter model, the reflection coefficient of the MUT (mm) is given as follows:
mm = S11 +
S p m 2
(4.40)
1 S 22 m 2
The expression for mm from equation 4.40 can be rewritten in terms of m2:
m 2 =
mm S11
S p S11S 22 + S 22 mm
(4.41)
From equation 4.41, a numerical value for the reflection coefficient of the MUT can be
obtained using known parameters determined by calibration. In order to solve for the
complex dielectric constant of the MUT, *2m, equation 4.39 needs to be written in terms
of Ym2e:
Ym 2 e = Yo
1 m 2
1 + m 2
(4.42)
Using equations 4.37 and 4.38, the relative complex dielectric constant can be
expressed as:
*
rm
2 =
Ym 2 e + Yerr
j oF
(4.43)
4.4.6 Correction Function

A correction function was devised to account for undesirable systematic
effects/errors (e.g., penetration of EM waves beyond the dimensions of the specimen
and effects due to influence of the operator). The correction function is defined as a
scaling function to be applied to the values of the dielectric constant of the material
used as a calibration standard. This scaling function is applied so that the calculated
dielectric constant of the material under test will be identical to values obtained using
the parallel-plate capacitor measurement system.
75
The correction function was developed using an iterative approach where the
dielectric constant of the material under test is determined using a reference material
for calibration with a dielectric constant in the range of the MUT. Using the known
dielectric constant of the material standard (e.g. UHMW and nylon), the dielectric
constant of the MUT is evaluated. The ratio between the dielectric constant values
obtained from the capacitor probe and that obtained from the parallel plate capacitor is
used to scale the dielectric constant of the material used for calibration. Equations 4.44
and 4.45 express the calculation performed to accomplish this scaling:
'calmat_used =
"calmat_used =
'MUT_pp
( 'calmat_known )
(4.44)
("calmat_known )
(4.45)
'MUT_cp
"MUT_pp
"MUT_cp
where
mut = the reference (parallel plate) and the generated (capacitor probe)
dielectric constant data in the range of the dielectric constant of the MUT;
and
calmat = the scaled and known values of the dielectric constant of the calibration
material.
This iterative process was applied until the dielectric constant obtained from the
capacitor probe system converged to the results obtained from the parallel plate. The
final ratio of the scaled values of the calibration material with the known values is called
the correction function:
Correction Function =
*
calmat_use
d
*calmat_known
where
76
(4.46)
used = the dielectric constant of the calibration material after the iterative
process; and
measured = the known dielectric constant of the calibration material.

It is important to state that the correction function was consistent throughout different
sample and material measurements.
Therefore, one correction function worked
acceptably for measurements of different PCC samples using different calibration

materials (UHMW and extruded nylon).
77
CHAPTER 5
TESTING PROGRAM
The effects of different mix properties and induced deterioration on the dielectric
properties of PCC slab specimens have been studied. The PCC mixes were prepared
using type I Portland cement and limestone aggregate. Prism-shaped specimens were
prepared for testing using the parallel-plate capacitor. Two specimens were prepared
for each mix parameter. The physical and chemical properties of the coarse and fine
aggregate are shown in Tables B.1 and B.2 (Appendix B), respectively. The chemical
analysis of the cement can be found in Table B.3 (Appendix B). Two air contents, two
internal void thicknesses, and two internal void depths were evaluated. In addition, six
different capacitor probe configurations (including plate size and separation) were
studied to determine their influence on measurements of a PCC slab with an induced
void.
5.1 Specimen Preparation

The proportioning procedure recommended by ACI committee 211, absolute
volume method for selecting proportions for normal weight PCC, was followed. The w/c
ratio was kept constant for all specimens to ensure that the changes in PCC dielectric
properties were attributable to the desired condition and not a change in water content.
The mix proportions are found in Table B.4 (Appendix B).
To begin mixing, aggregate was oven dried for 24 hrs at 105C. The aggregate
was then allowed to cool to the ambient laboratory temperature before mixing with the
Type I Portland cement and tap water using a 0.04 m3 mixer. The PCC mixes were
prepared at a w/c ratio of 0.45 (Table 5.1). To achieve the 6% air content, Master
Builders Micro-Air entraining mixture was used according to the manufacture's
recommended dosages. A dosage rate of approximately 66 ml/100 kg of cement was
used. To achieve a mixture with approximately 2% air, no air entraining agent was
78
used. Quality control measurements including slump, unit weight, and air content were
taken in accordance with ASTM standards designation C 138-92. In addition, cylinders
(150 mm in diameter and 300 mm long) were cast according to ASTM standards
designation C 39-94. Results of the quality control measurements are listed in Table
B.5 (Appendix B).
Table 5.1 Mix design and specimen characteristics.
Specimen
Name
w/c
ratio
Aggregate
type
Air void
content
Void
(depth)
Void
Thickness
A*
0.45
Limestone
2%
None
C*
0.45
Limestone
6%
None
D*
0.45
Limestone
6%
25 mm
7.5 mm
0.45
Limestone
6%
50 mm
7.5 mm
F*
0.45
Limestone
6%
25 mm
15 mm
0.45
Limestone
6%
50 mm
15 mm
* prism specimens were prepared for these mixes (without

Styrofoam)
Portland cement slab specimens were cast in plywood molds (approximately

450 x 300 x 100 mm in size) for capacitor probe measurements, and prism specimens
were cast in stainless steel molds (approximately 100 x 75 x 75 mm in size) for
measurement using the parallel-plate capacitor. After mixing, the PCC was placed in
the molds in two lifts. Each lift was compacted using a compacting rod. Styrofoam
slabs were placed in selected slab specimens at the desired depths, as shown in
Figure 5.1. The remaining PCC was carefully placed on top and tamped so as not to
disturb the Styrofoam.
79
The surface of each slab and prism specimen was troweled to a smooth finish.
The slab and prism specimens were then placed in a moist curing room at 25C for 10
days after which they were demolded and returned to the curing room until 28 days
after casting. After 28 days in the curing room, the specimens were stored in the
laboratory under ambient room temperature and humidity. The slab specimens were
removed for approximately 2 hrs to conduct testing on each of the first 10 days and on
the 14th, 21st, 28th, and 42nd day after casting. Prism specimens were measured on the
first day after mixing and again on the 28th day after mixing.
5.2 Dielectric Constant Measurements

Prior to dielectric constant measurements using the capacitor probe and the
parallel-plate capacitor, all PCC specimens were removed from the moist curing room,
toweled dry, and then allowed to air dry for approximately 45 minutes at ambient
laboratory room temperature. Each capacitor probe specimen was placed on a frame
(constructed using no metallic fasteners) approximately 500 mm above the floor
surface. This ensured that the underlying floor would not affect the measurements.
The capacitor probe was placed on the surface of each slab and a constant pressure
was applied to the back of the probe. A block of Styrofoam approximately 150-mmthick allowed the operator to apply pressure without influencing the measurement. An
PCC slab
specimen
Styrofoam slab
Thickness: 7.5 or 15 mm
Depth: 25 or 50 mm
Figure 5.1 Schematic of Styrofoam placement in PCC slabs.
80
additional measurement, shown in Figure 5.2, using an inflatable plastic air bag of
approximately the same thickness was used to ensure that the Styrofoam had little
effect on the measurements.
A calibration process was also performed daily employing an open, load, and
short calibration, and measurement of a material of known dielectric constant. The
complex impedance of the calibration measurements and each specimen was
measured by an HP 4195A Network Analyzer over a frequency range of 2-20 MHz.
The results were then entered into a spreadsheet to determine the complex dielectric
constant of the material under test.
Each prism-shaped specimen was measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
The prism specimens were centered between the two parallel plates; the complex
impedance between the plates was measured using an HP 4195A Network Analyzer.
40
Styrofoam - real
Styrofoam - imaginary
Air Bag - real
Air Bag - imaginary
Dielectric Constant
30
20
10
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
20
Frequency, MHz
Figure 5.2
Dielectric properties of PCC measured with capacitor probe

comparing Styrofoam and an Air Bag used to apply a systematic
and repeatable pressure.
81
A systematic pressure was applied to the prism specimens by the parallel plates. A
calibration process was performed on each day of measurement using an open, load,
and short calibration at each specimen height.
The accuracy of the parallel-plate
capacitor was verified through the measurement of a cylindrical Teflon specimen

(Figure 5.3). The Teflon specimen, approximately 140 mm in diameter and 75 mm
thick, was also measured over a frequency range of 2-20 MHz.
Dielectric Constant
2.5
2
real
1.5
1
imaginary
0.5
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
20
Frequency, MHz
Figure 5.3 Dielectric properties of Teflon measured with parallel-plate capacitor.
82
CHAPTER 6
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
The results of the dielectric constant measurements using the capacitor probe
(75 mm x 75 mm plates at a 100 mm separation) are presented in Appendices C and E.
Appendix C shows each specimen individually as curing time progresses. Appendix E
shows the dielectric constant of each specimen versus curing time over three
frequencies (5, 10, and 20 MHz). All measurements shown in Appendices C and E
were conducted in duplicate. The average of the measurements is used in the data
analysis as shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2. Each plot in Appendices C and E is an
average of two specimens. No significant differences were noted between duplicate
measurements.
To study the effect of air content in PCC on its dielectric properties, two air
contents, 2% and 6%, were used to prepare capacitor probe and parallel-plate
Real Part of Dielectric Constant
100
A1 - 42 days - real
A2 - 42 days - real
A - 42 days - real avg
80
60
40
20
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure 6.1 Average dielectric properties (real part) for type A specimens at 42 days
after mixing.
83
20
capacitor specimens.
The results of the testing using the capacitor probe are
presented in Tables 6.1 and 6.2. The results of the testing using the parallel-plate
capacitor are presented in Tables 6.3 and 6.4.
Imaginary Part of Dielectric Constant
100
A1 - 42 days - imag
A2 - 42 days - imag
A - 42 days - imag avg
80
60
40
20
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
20
Frequency, MHz
Figure 6.2 Average dielectric properties (imaginary part) for type A specimens at 42 days
after mixing.
Table 6.1
measured using capacitor probe a.
Specimen A
5 hours
12 hours
21 hours
1 day
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
42 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
88.75
448.56
91.98
154.38
86.91
98.92
67.55
72.05
59.08
63.93
63.19
61.49
54.78
51.20
49.28
45.55
49.41
45.79
10 MHz
real
imaginary
79.22
216.29
66.65
89.10
55.49
62.09
43.64
46.74
39.81
38.90
38.76
39.48
38.76
31.93
35.35
27.80
35.77
30.39
84
20 MHz
real
imaginary
57.64
142.47
45.75
66.11
32.86
51.71
31.16
33.37
30.32
26.18
30.77
25.87
30.50
22.87
28.34
19.31
26.44
21.11
Table 6.2 Dielectric constant for type C specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45)
Specimen C
10 hours
19 hours
1 day
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
42 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
79.08
175.42
83.62
83.78
64.81
64.58
52.60
46.11
57.35
46.57
49.54
42.14
48.05
41.83
45.48
39.16
10 MHz
real
imaginary
62.61
95.28
54.11
55.20
42.30
43.05
35.62
29.40
36.27
31.90
35.52
26.76
34.93
26.13
33.44
26.30
20 MHz
real
imaginary
45.24
63.62
33.36
48.13
30.22
30.78
27.13
20.27
28.99
21.83
28.14
19.28
27.93
17.97
24.97
18.49
TTable 6.3 Dielectric constant for type A specimens (2% air content, w/c =
measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
Specimen A
1 day
28 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
43.76
75.72
24.10
38.53
10 MHz
real
imaginary
26.57
44.94
17.58
22.64
0.45)
20 MHz
real
imaginary
18.61
26.57
14.47
13.33
Table 6.4 Dielectric constant for type C specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45)
Specimen C
1 day
28 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
47.14
67.53
24.66
32.27
10 MHz
real
imaginary
29.04
42.52
17.66
19.80
20 MHz
real
imaginary
19.79
26.09
14.43
12.09
The capacitor probe data for type A specimens is presented graphically in

Figures C.1 through C.6 (Appendix C). These figures represent plots of the real and
imaginary parts of the dielectric constant for three ranges of curing time. The first or
early curing time plots (Figures C.1 and C.2) consist of 5, 12, 21 hr, and 1 and 3 day
measurements. The second or middle curing time plots (Figures C.3 and C.4) consist
of 1, 3, 7, and 14 day measurements. The third or overall curing time plots (Figures
C.5 and C.6) consist of 1, 3, 7, 28, and 42 day measurements. The parallel-plate
capacitor data for type A specimens is presented graphically in Figures D.1 through D.4
(Appendix D).
85
The capacitor probe data for type C specimens is also presented graphically in
Appendix C.
These figures represent plots of the real and imaginary parts of the
dielectric constant for three ranges of curing time. The first or early curing time plots
(Figures C.7 and C.8) consist of 10 and 19 hour, and 1 and 3 day measurements. The
second or middle curing time plots (Figures C.9 and C.10) consist of 1, 3, 7, and 14 day
measurements. The third or overall curing time plots (Figures C.11 and C.12) consist
of 1, 3, 7, 28, and 42 day measurements. The parallel-plate capacitor data for type C
specimens is presented graphically in Figures D.5 through D.8 (Appendix D).
To study the effect of air voids in PCC on its dielectric properties, two void
thicknesses (7.5 mm and 15 mm) and two void depths (25 mm and 50 mm) were used
to make capacitor probe specimens. Styrofoam (300 x 150 x 7.5 mm and 300 x 150 x
15 mm) was used to simulate an air void since it possesses the same dielectric
properties as air. The results of this testing are presented in Tables 6.5 through 6.8.
Table 6.5 Dielectric constant for type D specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45, and 7.5
mm thick void at 25 mm depth) measured using capacitor probe a.
Specimen D
1 day
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
42 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
50.16
47.20
40.91
32.89
41.13
33.94
36.22
31.64
34.53
28.72
34.21
28.71
10 MHz
real
imaginary
32.70
32.13
28.14
22.04
26.73
22.64
26.74
19.76
25.59
17.85
25.71
19.37
20 MHz
real
imaginary
24.43
23.63
21.20
14.73
21.52
15.20
21.40
13.83
20.82
12.17
19.54
13.80
Table 6.6 Dielectric constant for type E specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45, and
7.5 mm thick void at 50 mm depth) measured using capacitor probe a.
Specimen E
1 day
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
42 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
66.29
73.06
49.55
50.82
56.95
62.25
45.97
47.57
43.16
42.12
40.26
39.30
10 MHz
real
imaginary
41.45
46.61
33.33
31.42
35.32
38.80
33.19
28.44
31.57
25.22
29.86
25.66
86
20 MHz
real
imaginary
29.57
33.14
25.00
20.34
28.33
25.28
26.37
19.46
25.49
16.96
22.35
17.19
Specimens for measurement in the parallel-plate capacitor were also prepared;

however, no Styrofoam was placed in these prism specimens. Therefore, prism type D
and F specimens are identical and were cast for repeatability analysis. The results of
testing the parallel-plate specimens are presented in Tables 6.9 and 6.10.
Table 6.7 Dielectric constant for type F specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45, and 15
mm thick void at 25 mm depth) measured using capacitor probe a.
Specimen F
5 hours
1 day
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
42 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
70.03
387.93
47.91
63.86
41.57
58.56
40.87
47.30
39.55
45.48
36.25
39.99
35.80
37.86
10 MHz
real
imaginary
57.32
208.45
34.80
37.29
30.78
34.03
29.81
29.25
28.44
26.93
26.20
24.07
26.46
22.82
20 MHz
real
imaginary
40.40
118.65
24.91
26.44
23.13
20.29
21.71
17.68
22.74
19.00
21.11
15.82
21.42
15.14
Table 6.8 Dielectric constant for type G specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45, and
15 mm thick void at 50 mm depth) measured using capacitor probe a.
Specimen G
1 day
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
42 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
58.07
63.48
43.48
54.32
46.21
52.47
44.62
39.92
41.70
42.02
39.63
39.92
10 MHz
real
imaginary
40.35
38.81
31.22
31.92
33.60
32.82
31.82
25.87
29.83
25.40
28.90
24.20
20 MHz
real
imaginary
29.91
29.24
23.50
19.14
24.66
20.36
25.21
19.85
23.81
16.71
23.15
15.80
Table 6.9 Dielectric constant for type D specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45)
Specimen D
1 day
28 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
39.19
74.16
22.56
29.55
10 MHz
real
imaginary
24.83
43.47
16.35
18.15
87
20 MHz
real
imaginary
17.88
25.63
13.34
10.93
Table 6.10 Dielectric constant for type F specimens (6% air content, w/c = 0.45)
Specimen F
1 day
28 days
5 MHz
real
imaginary
43.79
99.11
24.14
38.20
10 MHz
real
imaginary
28.02
56.02
18.09
22.41
20 MHz
real
imaginary
20.41
32.24
14.57
13.62
The data for type D, E, and G specimens is presented graphically in Appendix

C. This data is represented by plots of the real part and the imaginary part of the
dielectric constant for two ranges of curing time for each specimen. The first or initial
curing time plots consist of 1, 3, 7, and 14 day measurements (Figures C.13 and C.14,
Figures C.17 and C.18, and Figures C.27 and C.28 for type D, E, and G specimens,
respectively). The second or overall curing time plots consist of 1, 3, 7, 28, and 42 day
measurements (Figures C.15 and C.16, Figures C.19 and C.20, and Figures C.29 and
C.30 for type D, E, and G specimens, respectively). The parallel-plate capacitor data
for type D and E specimens is presented graphically in Figures D.9 through D.12
(Appendix D) and Figures D.13 through D.16 (Appendix D), respectively.
The capacitor probe data for type F specimens is presented graphically in
Appendix C (Figures C.21 through C.26).
These figures show plots of the real and
imaginary parts of the dielectric constant for three ranges of curing time. The first or
early curing time plots (Figures C.21 and C.22) consist of 5 hr, 1, and 3 day
measurements.
The second or middle curing time plots (Figures C.23 and C.24)
consist of 1, 3, 7, and 14 day measurements. The third or overall curing time plots
(Figures C.25 and C.26) consist of 1, 3, 7, 28, and 42 day measurements. The parallelplate capacitor data for type F specimens is presented graphically in Figures D.17
through D.20 (Appendix D).
6.1 Discussion of Data

All specimens were prepared in duplicate and the average measurement is
presented in the appendices. The relationship between the real and imaginary parts of
88
the dielectric constant and changes in frequency can be seen in Appendix C. These
figures show that both the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant decrease
with increasing frequency.
This behavior may be attributed to a reduction in
conductivity and the effects of heterogeneous polarization with the frequency

increases, as described by De Loor (1962).
The effect of curing time on the dielectric properties of PCC can be seen in
Tables 6.11 through 6.15. These tables show that both the real and imaginary parts of
the dielectric constant decrease with increasing curing time over all frequencies. This
phenomenon can be attributed to one or more of the following:
(a) a reduction in the Portland cement paste conductivity may occur when water
becomes adsorbed from its initial bulk form, reducing the effect of dipole
polarization (Hasted, 1973; Whittington and Wilson, 1986);
(b) a decrease in the overall pore diameter of the Portland cement paste pore
system, restricting the movement of ionized water, may lead to reducing the
effects of ionic polarization (De Loor, 1962). Also, a reduction in Portland
cement paste interface conductivity may occur due to further reduction in
the pore sizes and changes in the pore shape from elliptical to spherical (De
Loor, 1962);
(c) a reduction in the ion concentration in the capillary water, due to the
Portland cement hydration process, at early stages of curing will reduce the
effects of ionic conduction (McCarter and Curran, 1984).
The effect of air content on the dielectric properties is clear for all ages, as seen
in Table 6.11, which shows that an increased air content lowers both the real and the
imaginary part of the dielectric constant. This effect is noted over all frequencies. It is
expected that if these voids are air-filled or water-filled, the real and imaginary parts of
the dielectric constant will decrease and increase, respectively.
The effect of void location on the dielectric properties is shown in Tables 6.12
and 6.13 for 7.5 mm and 15 mm void thickness, respectively. Changes in dielectric
properties due to void depth are a function of the depth of penetration of the EM
89
Table 6.11 Difference in dielectric constant due to air content as measured using
capacitor probe a.
Specimen
name and age
A - 1 day
C - 1 day
A - 7 days
C - 7 days
A - 28 days
C - 28 days
A - 42 days
C - 42 days
Measured air
content, %
1.6
5.8
1.6
5.8
1.6
5.8
1.6
5.8
5 MHz
real
imaginary
67.55
72.05
64.81
64.58
63.19
61.49
57.35
46.57
49.28
45.55
48.05
41.83
49.41
45.79
45.48
39.16
10 MHz
real
imaginary
43.64
46.74
42.30
43.05
38.76
39.48
36.27
31.90
35.35
27.80
34.93
26.13
35.77
30.39
33.44
26.30
20 MHz
real
imaginary
31.16
33.37
30.22
30.78
30.77
25.87
28.99
21.83
28.34
19.31
27.93
17.97
26.44
21.11
24.97
18.49
Table 6.12 Difference in dielectric constant due to void depth (7.5 mm thick void) as
Specimen
name and age
D - 1 day
E - 1 day
D - 7 days
E - 7 days
D - 28 days
E - 28 days
D - 42 days
E - 42 days
Void
depth, mm
25
50
25
50
25
50
25
50
5 MHz
real
imaginary
50.16
47.20
66.29
73.06
41.13
33.94
56.95
62.25
34.53
28.72
43.16
42.12
34.21
28.71
40.26
39.30
10 MHz
real
imaginary
32.70
32.13
41.45
46.61
26.73
22.64
35.32
38.80
25.59
17.85
31.57
25.22
25.71
19.37
29.86
25.66
20 MHz
real
imaginary
24.43
23.63
29.57
33.14
21.52
15.20
28.33
25.28
20.82
12.17
25.49
16.96
19.54
13.80
22.35
17.19
waves. The depth of penetration is dependent upon the plate spacing (see Figure 4.2)
and the frequency of the EM waves. In this study, the plate spacing was held constant
at 50 mm. The depth of penetration of EM waves would increase at lower frequencies.
Thus, more of an effect should be expected on the dielectric properties due to void
depth at 5 MHz than at 20 MHz. This trend can be seen for nearly all curing ages in
Tables 6.12 and 6.13. It is also evident that the voids at a 50 mm depth (for both 7.5
mm and 15 mm void thickness) have less effect on the dielectric constant than voids at
a 25 mm depth. This is seen as higher values for both the real and imaginary parts of
the dielectric constant for PCC specimens with 50 mm void depth as compared to the
25 mm void depth. These results indicate that the capacitor probe penetration at this
plate spacing is limited and did not provide sufficient penetration of the EM energy to
the 50 mm void depth.
90
The effect of void thickness on the dielectric properties is shown in Tables 6.14
and 6.15 for 25 mm and 50 mm void depth, respectively.
Changes in dielectric
properties due to void thickness are a function of the wavelength of the EM wave. As
the frequency of an EM wave increases the wavelength decreases. Thus, a larger
difference in the dielectric properties at 20 MHz than at 5 MHz is expected. However,
at the frequency range stated (2-20 MHz) the wavelength is significantly larger than the
thickness of the void to be detected. Therefore, the data in Table 6.14 cannot be
analyzed with respect to the frequency used in this study. This frequency used is
necessary since, at this larger wavelength, PCC appears to the capacitor probe as a
homogeneous material.
Table 6.13 Difference in dielectric constant due to void depth (15 mm thick void) as
Specimen
name and age
F - 1 day
G - 1 day
F - 7 days
G - 7 days
F - 28 days
G - 28 days
F - 42 days
G - 42 days
Void
depth, mm
25
50
25
50
25
50
25
50
5 MHz
real
imaginary
47.91
63.86
58.07
63.48
40.87
47.30
46.21
52.47
36.25
39.99
41.70
42.02
35.80
37.86
39.63
39.92
10 MHz
real
imaginary
34.80
37.29
40.35
38.81
29.81
29.25
33.60
32.82
26.20
24.07
29.83
25.40
26.46
22.82
28.90
24.20
20 MHz
real
imaginary
24.91
26.44
29.91
29.24
21.71
17.68
24.66
20.36
21.11
15.82
23.81
16.71
21.42
15.14
23.15
15.80
Specimen
Void
name and age thickness, mm
D - 1 day
7.5
F - 1 day
15
D - 7 days
7.5
F - 7 days
15
D - 28 days
7.5
F - 28 days
15
D - 42 days
7.5
F - 42 days
15
5 MHz
real
imaginary
50.16
47.20
47.91
63.86
41.13
33.94
40.87
47.30
34.53
28.72
36.25
39.99
34.21
28.71
35.80
37.86
91
10 MHz
real
imaginary
32.70
32.13
34.80
37.29
26.73
22.64
29.81
29.25
25.59
17.85
26.20
24.07
25.71
19.37
26.46
22.82
20 MHz
real
imaginary
24.43
23.63
24.91
26.44
21.52
15.20
21.71
17.68
20.82
12.17
21.11
15.82
19.54
13.80
21.42
15.14
Specimen
Void
name and age thickness, mm
E - 1 day
7.5
G - 1 day
15
E - 7 days
7.5
G - 7 days
15
E - 28 days
7.5
G - 28 days
15
E - 42 days
7.5
G - 42 days
15
5 MHz
real
imaginary
66.29
73.06
58.07
63.48
56.95
62.25
46.21
52.47
43.16
42.12
41.70
42.02
40.26
39.30
39.63
39.92
10 MHz
real
imaginary
41.45
46.61
40.35
38.81
35.32
38.80
33.60
32.82
31.57
25.22
29.83
25.40
29.86
25.66
28.90
24.20
20 MHz
real
imaginary
29.57
33.14
29.91
29.24
28.33
25.28
24.66
20.36
25.49
16.96
23.81
16.71
22.35
17.19
23.15
15.80
In an effort to control the depth of penetration of the EM waves in the PCC slab
specimens, six different capacitor probes were constructed (see Table 4.1). These
probes are identical except for the size of the conducting plates and the spacing
between them.
Each measurement was performed on the same specimen on the
same day. Therefore, any changes in the dielectric properties are not due to changes
in specimen properties or differences in curing time.
Changes in the dielectric constant, due to different probe geometry, of
specimens with and without air voids can be seen in Tables 6.16 and 6.17,
respectively. As shown in Table 6.17, the dielectric constant of a specimen containing
a void changes in response to differences in plate spacing while the plate size remains
constant (comparing probes a, b, c, and f).
In addition, it can be seen that with
increasing plate separation both the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant
generally decrease. This can be attributed to an increased depth of penetration by the
EM waves emanating from the capacitor probe. Since the void placed in the specimen
is Styrofoam (having a lower dielectric constant than the surrounding PCC), the
dielectric constant would be lower for a measurement in which more EM waves
penetrate to the depth of the void.
It can also be seen from Table 6.17 that the dielectric constant of a specimen
containing an air void changes slightly in response to differences in plate size when the
plate separation distance is held constant. When comparing probes a and d, it can be
seen that the dielectric constant measured with the larger plates (probe a) is lower than
92
Table 6.16 Change in dielectric constant of type A specimens (6% air, 0.45 w/c) due to
different capacitor probes.
Capacitor Plate Size,
Plate
Probe
mm
Spacing, mm
a
75 x 75
50
b
75 x 75
75
c
75 x 75
100
d
50 x 50
50
e
50 x 125
50
f
75 x 75
150
5 MHz
real imaginary
22.63
14.71
22.25
14.41
23.21
15.25
22.21
13.38
23.98
15.73
20.05
12.90
10 MHz
real imaginary
18.59
8.87
18.59
9.55
18.79
9.68
18.95
8.81
19.29
9.81
16.48
8.28
20 MHz
real imaginary
12.56
6.36
14.10
7.37
14.26
6.73
14.79
6.11
14.64
6.25
12.03
6.53
Table 6.17 Change in dielectric constant of type G specimens (6% air, 0.45 w/c, 15 mm
thick void at 50 mm depth) due to different capacitor probes.
Capacitor Plate Size,
Plate
Probe
mm
Spacing, mm
a
75 x 75
50
b
75 x 75
75
c
75 x 75
100
d
50 x 50
50
e
50 x 125
50
f
75 x 75
150
5 MHz
real imaginary
19.23
11.16
18.16
10.62
18.75
11.28
19.13
10.42
20.00
11.85
17.23
9.90
10 MHz
real imaginary
16.09
6.85
15.44
7.12
15.56
7.28
16.47
6.97
16.30
7.38
14.34
6.51
20 MHz
real imaginary
10.70
4.94
11.72
5.38
11.93
5.02
12.56
4.85
12.45
4.98
10.34
5.40
with the smaller plates (at 10 and 20 MHz). This is most likely due to the longer overall
length of the larger plates (having the same separation), which allows the EM waves to
penetrate more deeply. When comparing probes d and e, it can be seen that the real
part of the dielectric constant is slightly lower (at 10 and 20 MHz) for the probe e
(having a larger plate area with the same plate separation distance as probe d).
However, the imaginary part of the dielectric constant is higher for probe e than probe
d.
6.2 Parallel-Plate Capacitor vs. Capacitor Probe

Although the trends are similar, differences were noted in the measured
dielectric constant for type A, C, D, and F specimens when using the parallel-plate
capacitor compared to the capacitor probe over different curing periods and frequency
93
range. The real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant are generally lower when
obtained by the parallel-plate capacitor.
This can be attributed to several factors
including development of air gaps between the specimen and plates (in the parallelplate capacitor), specimen size and shape, and system calibration.
6.3 Final Remarks

The capacitor probe represents an initial step in what could be an important
assessment tool for civil constructed facilities. This study has shown that the capacitor
probe can detect dielectric changes in PCC due to its hydration process and the
presence of internal voids. While these are important, the most useful feature of the
capacitor probe may be forthcoming. There are currently no nondestructive methods to
measure the chloride content of in-situ civil engineering structures.
Since sodium
chloride is ionic in structure, it is postulated that the capacitor probe will be useful in
detecting its presence and quantifying its amount due to the manifestation of ionic
polarization at low radio frequency.
94
CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study was conducted to design and fabricate a capacitor probe to measure
the in-situ dielectric properties of PCC.
Once a suitable measurement device was
completed, it was tested to ensure the validity of its results by measuring specimens
with known dielectric properties (Teflon).
The system was used to examine its
effectiveness to detect changes in PCC dielectric properties due to different mix

variables.
The results of this study show that significant changes in the complex
dielectric constant were measured over the initial curing time of PCC specimens.
Changes in the complex dielectric constant, attributable to a change in air content, air
void presence, and void depth were also measured. However, no appreciable change
could be detected with regards to varying void thickness. In addition, plate separation
distance and plate size were found to have an influence over the type of deterioration
that can be detected.
7.1 Findings
The following findings were noted during this study:
The complex dielectric constant of PCC specimens decreased as frequency

increased. The rate of change of the complex dielectric constant decreased as the
frequency increased.
The complex dielectric constant of PCC specimens, in general, decreased slightly

as the air content increased.
The complex dielectric constant of PCC specimens significantly decreased as

curing time progressed.
The complex dielectric constant of PCC specimens containing an induced void

(Styrofoam) was lower than specimens of the same mix with no induced void. The
95
complex dielectric constant increased as the void depth from the surface increased
(void thickness remaining constant), however, the effect generally decreased as the
frequency increased.
The effect of an induced void (Styrofoam) on the complex dielectric constant of

PCC specimens was indeterminable with regard to the void thickness.
Increasing the capacitor probe plate separation distance would result in deeper
penetration of the electromagnetic energy into the specimen.
7.2 Conclusions
A capacitor probe was developed to allow in-situ dielectric measurements of PCC
structural members and to detect internal flaws.
The developed system has the capability to detect changes in PCC's basic
properties (e.g., air content, hydration process, and internal voids) based on the
measured complex dielectric constant at low radio frequency.
The plate size and plate separation distance can change the depth of penetration of
electromagnetic energy from the capacitor probe.
96
CHAPTER 8 RECOMMENDATIONS
A nondestructive method for detecting the in-situ chloride content in PCC structures
is needed. The developed capacitor probe should be employed in future research
to study the effects of chloride intrusion in PCC specimens.
Further testing involving PCC specimens made using more than one type of
aggregate and more than one w/c ratio is needed.
Further testing involving PCC specimens of different sizes is needed to determine

the depth of penetration of the electromagnetic waves. Additionally, when using
capacitor probes with larger plate separation distances, the distance to the edge of
the PCC specimen decreases. Larger specimens should be cast so that a constant
distance from capacitor probe to edge of specimen can be maintained during
testing involving capacitor probes of different sizes.
The geometric configuration of the capacitor probe conducting plates could be a

source of error when considering the coaxial nature of the cable used for
measurement. The distance between the inside edges of the conducting plates as
compared to the distance between the outside edges of the conducting plates is
significantly different.
A capacitor probe consisting of two thin strips or two
concentric circles could possibly alleviate this problem and is currently under
evaluation.
97
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106
APPENDIX A
This appendix includes illustrations of the different capacitor probes used in this
study.
107
250 mm
125 mm
Figure A.1 Capacitor probe a 75 x 75 mm plates with 50 mm separation.
250 mm
125 mm
Figure A.2 Capacitor probe b 75 x 75 mm plates with 75 mm separation.
275 mm
125 mm
Figure A.3 Capacitor probe c 75 x 75 mm plates with 100 mm separation.

108
250 mm
125 mm
Figure A.4 Capacitor probe e 50 x 125 mm plates with 50 mm separation.
250 mm
125 mm
Figure A.5 Capacitor probe d 50 x 50 mm plates with 50 mm separation.
325 mm
125 mm
Figure A.6 Capacitor probe f 75 x 75 mm plates with 150 mm separation.

109
APPENDIX B
This appendix includes the following:
Physical and chemical properties of limestone aggregate (coarse and fine); Tables
B.1 and B.2.
Chemical properties of Type I Portland cement; Table B.3.
Proportions for different PCC mixes; Table B.4.
Quality control measurements for PCC mixes; Table B.5.
110
Table B.1 Physical properties of limestone aggregate
Physical Property
Fine
Coarse
2.53
2.80
2.76
2.86
Absorption (%)
3.31
0.68
Fineness Modulus
3.22
Bulk Specific Gravity

(dry)
Apparent Specific
Gravity
Unit Weight (kg/m3)
1490.01
Table B.2 Chemical properties of limestone aggregate.
Aggregate
Compound (% by weight)
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
CaCO3
MgO
MgCO3
SO3
3.05
0.54
0.40
29.93
53.42
20.34
42.53
0.04
Coarse
and Fine
111
Table B.3 Chemical properties of Type I Portland cement.
Cement
Type I
Compound (% by wt)
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
L. I.
21.01
4.77
2.45
63.97
3.15
2.81
0.75
0.70
Table B.4 Proportions for different PCC mixes.
Mix
Water (kg)
Cement (kg)
CA* (kg)
FA** (kg)
13.76
30.58
69.25
54.91
13.76
30.58
69.25
47.69
13.76
30.58
69.25
47.69
13.76
30.58
69.25
47.69
13.76
30.58
69.25
47.69
13.76
30.58
69.25
47.69
*CA: Coarse Aggregate

**FA: Fine Aggregate
112
Table B.5 Results of quality control testing.
Compressive Strength
Mix
Unit Weight
Slump
Air Content
(kg/m3)
(mm)
(%)
3 days
7 days
28 days
(MPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
2950.60
64
1.6
31.41
35.80
45.13
2841.88
83
5.8
20.30
24.97
32.24
2809.91
102
7.2
19.75
21.95
30.59
2804.79
95
7.0
19.62
21.40
28.94
2797.12
108
7.4
19.89
20.58
31.14
2817.58
95
6.4
18.93
23.73
32.51
113
APPENDIX C
This appendix includes the dielectric properties versus frequency for PCC slab
specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
114
200
5 hours - real
12 hours - real
21 hours - real
1 day - real
3 days - real
150
100
50
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure C.1 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type A specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
115
20
400
5 hours - imag
12 hours - imag
21 hours - imag
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
116
20
120
1 day - real
3 days - real
7 days - real
14 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
117
20
120
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
118
20
120
7 days - real
14 days - real
28 days - real
42 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
119
20
120
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
28 days - imag
42 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
120
20
200
10 hours - real
19 hours - real
1 day - real
3 days - real
150
100
50
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure C.7 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type C specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
121
20
400
10 hours - imag
19 hours - imag
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
122
20
120
1 day - real
3 days - real
7 days - real
14 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
123
20
120
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
124
20
120
7 days - real
14 days - real
28 days - real
42 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
125
20
120
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
28 days - imag
42 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
126
20
120
1 day - real
3 days - real
7 days - real
14 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure C.13 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type D specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
127
20
120
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
128
20
120
7 days - real
14 days - real
28 days - real
42 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
129
20
120
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
28 days - imag
42 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
130
20
120
1 day - real
3 days - real
7 days - real
14 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure C.17 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type E specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
131
20
120
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
132
20
120
7 days - real
14 days - real
28 days - real
42 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
133
20
120
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
28 days - imag
42 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
134
20
120
5 hours - real
1 day - real
3 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure C.21 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type F specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
135
20
400
5 hours - imag
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
136
20
120
1 day - real
3 days - real
7 days - real
14 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
137
20
120
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
138
20
120
7 days - real
14 days - real
28 days - real
42 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
139
20
120
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
28 days - imag
42 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
140
20
120
1 day - real
3 days - real
7 days - real
14 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure C.27 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type G specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
141
20
120
1 day - imag
3 days - imag
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
142
20
120
7 days - real
14 days - real
28 days - real
42 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
143
20
120
7 days - imag
14 days - imag
28 days - imag
42 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
144
20
APPENDIX D
This appendix includes the dielectric properties versus frequency for PCC prism
specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
145
120
1 day - real
28 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure D.1 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type A specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
146
20
120
1 day - imag
28 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure D.2 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type A specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
147
20
120
1 day - real
28 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure D.3 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type C specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
148
20
120
1 day - imag
28 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure D.4 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type C specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
149
20
120
1 day - real
28 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure D.5 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type D specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
150
20
120
1 day - imag
28 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure D.6 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type D specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
151
20
120
1 day - real
28 days - real
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure D.7 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type F specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
152
20
120
1 day - imag
28 days - imag
90
60
30
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Frequency, MHz
Figure D.8 Dielectric properties vs. frequency for type F specimens measured using the parallel-plate capacitor.
153
20
APPENDIX E
This appendix includes the dielectric properties of PCC slab specimens (measured
using the capacitor probe) versus curing time for three frequencies (5, 10, and 20
MHz).
154
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.1 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type A specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
155
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.2 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type A specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
156
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.3 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type C specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
157
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.4 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type C specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
158
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.5 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type D specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
159
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.6 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type D specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
160
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.7 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type E specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
161
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.8 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type E specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
162
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.9 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type F specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
163
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.10 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type F specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
164
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.11 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type G specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
165
45
120
5 MHz
10 MHz
20 MHz
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Curing Time, Days

Figure E.12 Dielectric properties vs. curing time for type G specimens measured using the capacitor probe.
166
45
VITA
The author was born on April 10, 1973 in Washington, D. C. He completed his high
school education at North Hagerstown High School, Hagerstown, Maryland in 1991. He
received his Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering from Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University in May 1996. He joined the Masters Program at Virginia
Tech in May 1996.
During his study, he was a research assistant in the Civil
Engineering Materials Program where he conducted research in nondestructive

evaluation of civil infrastructure.
167

Diss 1998 Dielectric of Cement

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Development and Testing of a

Capacitor Probe to Detect

Development and Testing of a Capacitor Probe to

Early detection of deterioration in PCC (e.g., alkali-silica

reaction, freeze/thaw damage or chloride presence) can lead to significant reductions in

Two specimens were cast for each

The capacitor probe showed a decrease in dielectric constant with

His help in the author's overall understanding and assistance in

specimen preparation were instrumental to the completion of this work.

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND ___________________________________________ 6

CHAPTER 3 PARALLEL-PLATE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM _________________ 31

3.4 Parallel-Plate Calibration Standards _________________________________ 38

CHAPTER 4 CAPACITOR PROBE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ________________ 55

CHAPTER 5 TESTING PROGRAM ______________________________________ 78

CHAPTER 6 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS_______________________ 83

CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS_____________________________ 95

CHAPTER 8 RECOMMENDATIONS _____________________________________ 97

APPENDIX A ______________________________________________________ 107

APPENDIX B ______________________________________________________ 110

APPENDIX C ______________________________________________________ 114

APPENDIX D ______________________________________________________ 145

APPENDIX E ______________________________________________________ 154

Parallel-plate capacitor in the presence of (a) a vacuum and (b) dielectric

Representation of dielectric polarization: (a) ionic (b) electronic, (c) dipole,

A model representation the molecular interaction effect (after Debye,

Schematic setup for the parallel-plate capacitor___________________ 32

Electric field distribution between the two plates of the parallel-plate

Parallel-plate capacitor with and without specimen under test ________ 35

Parallel-plate load calibration standard__________________________ 39

Large height calibration standard base _________________________ 39

Small height calibration standard base__________________________ 40

Short calibration standard____________________________________ 40

Schematic of parallel-plate measurement system and model. ________ 41

(a) General parallel-plate system model and (b) general S-parameter

The capacitor probe ________________________________________ 55

Schematic of EM field distribution at (a) high frequency and (b) low

Capacitor probe load calibration standard _______________________ 60

Capacitor probe short calibration standard_______________________ 61

Schematic of Styrofoam placement in PCC slabs _________________ 80

Dielectric properties of PCC measured with capacitor probe comparing

Dielectric properties of Teflon measured with parallel-plate capacitor __ 82

Average dielectric properties (real part) for type A specimens at 42 days

Average dielectric properties (imaginary part) for type A specimens at 42

Reflection coefficients from the measured calibration standards ______ 49

Plate size and spacing of the different capacitor probes ____________ 59

Reflection coefficients from the measured calibration standards ______ 69

Mix design and specimen characteristics ________________________ 79

Alkali-silica reaction occurs when an aggressive reaction takes place

As chemical and physical changes occur within PCC due to

The parallel-plate capacitor has shown that detection of different types of

deterioration in PCC is feasible, but it is frequency dependent. Chloride contamination,

1.2 Problem Statement

Techniques that would allow civil

engineers to detect subsurface deterioration during routine inspections would aid in

However, by the time such

1.3 Objectives of Research

1.4 Scope of Research

Chapter 5 yields the

experimental program involved in this research experiment. Chapter 6 presents and

Current NDE methods typically use EM waves as a vehicle to gather information

One of the earliest adaptations of EM

Wilson and Whittington (1990) have presented the relationships between

conductivity of PCC and frequency during early stages of curing.