Time under Tension and Blood Lactate Response during Four Different

Resistance Training Methods

Paulo Gentil1), Elke Oliveira1) and Martim Bottaro2)
1) College of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brazil
2) College of Physical Education and Exercise Science, University of Brasilia, Brazil

Abstract Mechanical stimuli have often been suggested to

be the major determinant of resistance training adaptations;
however, some studies suggested that metabolic changes also
play an important role in the gains of muscle size and strength.
Several resistance training methods (RTM) have been
employed with the purpose of manipulating mechanical and
metabolic stimuli; however, information about their
physiological effects are scarce. The objective of this study
was to compare the time under tension (TUT) and blood
lactate responses among four different RTM reported in the
literature. The four RTM were performed in a knee extension
machine at 10 repetition maximum (RM) load by 12
recreationally trained young men. The RTM tested were:
10RM, super-slow (SLsubjects performed one 60-second
repetition with 30 seconds for eccentric and 30 seconds for
concentric phase), functional isometrics (FIin each
repetition, a five-second maximal isometric contraction was
executed with the knees fully extended) and adapted vascular
occlusion (VOsubjects performed a 20-second maximal
isometric contraction with the knees fully extended and
immediately proceeded to normal isoinertial lifts). According
to the results, all RTM produced significant increases in blood
lactate levels. However, blood lactate responses during FI
(4.48
1.57 mM) and VO (4.23
1.66 mM) methods were
higher than the SL method (3.41
1.14 mM). The TUT for SL
(60 s), FI (56.33
6.46 s), and VO (53.08
4.76 s) methods
were higher than TUT for 10RM (42.08
3.18 s). Additionally,
TUT for the SL method was higher than TUT during the VO
method. Therefore, the SL method may not be recommended if
one wants to provide a high metabolic stimulus. The FI method
appeared to be especially effective in promoting both type of
stimuli. J Physiol Anthropol 25(5): 339344, 2006 http://
www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jpa2
[DOI: 10.2114/jpa2.25.339]
Keywords: muscle
responses, work

strength,

muscle

hypertrophy,

acute

Introduction
Resistance training has a fundamental role in physical
activity programs, and has been recommended by many major
health organizations in order to increase general health and
fitness (American College of Sports Medicine; 1998; Fletcher
et al., 1995; Kraemer et al., 2002; Pollock et al., 2000; U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Two of the
most common goals of resistance training are to obtain
increases in muscle size and strength, for aesthetic, athletic or
health purposes in chronic conditions such as sarcopenia and
AIDS (Fairfield et al., 2001; Kotler et al., 2004; Yarasheski et
al., 2003; Zinna et al., 2003).
Mechanical stimuli have often been suggested to be the
major determinant of the resistance training adaptations
(Folland et al., 2002; Kraemer et al., 2002; McDonagh and
Davies, 1984; Mikesky et al., 1989; Pincivero et al., 1997).
However, some studies suggested that metabolic changes may
play an important role in the gains of muscle size and strength
(Kawada, 2005; Schott et al., 1995; Smith and Rutherford,
1995). With the purpose of manipulating metabolic and
mechanical stimuli, several resistance training methods (RTM)
have been developed; amongst them are super-slow, functional
isometrics and modified vascular occlusion.
The super-slow (SL) method involves performing the
exercise at slow velocities, taking 10 to 60 seconds to complete
a repetition (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004). Hunter et al. (2003)
compared the metabolic responses between SL (8 repetitions
performed at
28% of one repetition maximum - 1RM) and
traditional resistance training (8 repetitions at 65% of 1RM)
and reported higher blood lactate responses for the traditional
training. On the other hand, Keogh et al. (1999) did not report
significant differences in blood lactate response between one
set of the SL method performed at 55% of 1RM and one set of
6 repetition maximum (6RM). With regard to time under
tension (TUT), Keogh et al. (1999) reported that the SL
method elicited greater TUT than 6RM. However, the SL
method was performed at a lower resistance than 6RM, which
limits the comparison between mechanical stimuli.

340

Acute Response of Resistance Training Methods

The Functional Isometrics (FI) method entails performing

dynamic actions with an isometric contraction at the point of
maximal effort in each repetition (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004).
In a previous study, Keogh et al. (1999) did not find significant
differences in the blood lactate response and TUT when
comparing the FI method with 6RM. However, the isometric
actions in the FI method lasted only two seconds while has
often been suggested to perform the isometric actions for five
to seven seconds (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004).
Several studies have found that the utilization of vascular
occlusion has a positive effect on muscle strength and
hypertrophy (Burgomaster et al., 2003; Shinohara et al., 1998;
Takarada et al., 2000). This strategy has been shown to
increase blood lactate concentration (Takarada et al., 2000) and
was proposed to induce a preferential activation of the fast
twitch (FT) fibers and to increase the amplitude of the changes
from hypoxia to hyperoxia during exercise (Kawada, 2005;
Moritani et al., 1992; Takarada et al., 2000). According to this
evidence, some weight trainers have employed a maximal
isometric contraction prior to normal dynamic lifts in order to
simulate vascular occlusion (Gentil, 2005). The rationale for
this practice lies in the finding that isometric actions interrupt
blood flow and leads to metabolites accumulation, as shown by
Koba et al. (2004) and Hietanen et al. (1984). However, it is
not known if this practice would have any benefit in
accumulating metabolites or providing higher mechanical
stimuli than traditional resistance training with maximum
repetitions. Thus, due to the contradictions in the literature
with regard to the SL method, as well as the lack of studies
comparing physiologic stimuli among other RTM, the purpose
of the present study was to compare the blood lactate
responses and TUT among four different RTM.

Methods
Experimental procedures
Twelve subjects were tested in all situations. Blood lactate
concentrations were measured in order to assess metabolic
stress, similar to previous studies (i.e., Kraemer et al., 1990;
Keogh et al., 1999; Hunter et al., 2003). Blood was collected
from the right ear lobule immediately before and three minutes
after each RTM. Therefore, a 42 (RTMtime) within-within
design was employed. Due to the unique characteristics of the
RTM tested (controlled velocity at the SL method and
isometric moments at the FI and VO methods), it would be
difficult to compare total work volume for the RTM. Hence, as
load was kept constant, TUT was used as an estimate of the
mechanical load imposed to the muscle. Additionally, previous
studies have found a strong correlation between TUT and
skeletal muscle adaptations (Mikesky et al., 1989).

Subjects
Twelve recreationally weight-trained men with experience in
all the RTM tested volunteered to participate in this study. The
minimum overall resistance training experience required to

Table 1 Characteristics of the subjects (Mean
SD)

Characteristic

Values

Age (years)
Weight (kg)
Heigth (cm)
10RM load (kg)

24.83
3.27
78.94
8.13
177.83
5.96
109.58
16.58

Table 2 Time under tension and number of repetitions performed during

different resistance training methods (Mean
SD)
RTM
10RM
Super-slow (SL)
Adapted vascular occlusion (VO)
Functional isometrics (FI)

Repetitions
10.33
0.49#,,
1.00
0.00
7.17
1.11,
6.58
1.00

Time under
tension (s)
42.08
3.18
60.00
0.00*,#
53.08
4.76*
56.33
6.46*

# significantly higher than adapted vascular occlusion (p0.05)

significantly higher than super-slow (p0.05)
significantly higher than functional isometrics (p0.05)
* significantly higher than 10RM (p0.05)

enter the study was two years. All subjects were informed of
the risks and benefits of the experiment and signed a consent
form before participating in the study. The experiment was
approved by the University of Braslia Institutional Review
Board. The characteristics of the subjects are presented in
Table 1.

Testing procedures
Tests were conduced using a leg extension machine
(HN1030, Righetto Fitness Equipment, So Paulo-Brazil).
During the week before the experiment, the 10RM load for
each subject was assessed according to the procedures reported
by Simo et al. (2005). Data were analyzed by Pearson product
moment correlations to estimate day-to-day 10RM reliability
(r0.96).
All subjects executed the four RTM in a randomized order
with at least 24 hours between each one. Subjects were
instructed to avoid any type of resistance training involving the
quadriceps muscles 72 hours prior to the beginning of tests.
In all RTM, except the SL method and the specific
isometrics moments during the FI and VO methods, subjects
were instructed to maintain a constant velocity of two seconds
in the concentric phase and two seconds in the eccentric phase,
with no pause between phases. The concentric phase started at
100 of knee flexion and ended with the knees fully extended.
A metronome was used to control contraction velocity.

Resistance training methods (RTM)

All RTM were performed with the same knee extension
machine used during the load tests. The four RTM were
performed with the load equivalent to 10RM. SL was the
exception, here the RTM were performed until concentric
failure, characterized when the subject was not able to

Gentil, P et al.

J Physiol Anthropol, 25: 339344, 2006

341

completely extend the knees during two consecutive

repetitions. The mean number of repetitions performed during
each RTM are presented in Table 2.
The four RTM analyzed in this study were:
1) Ten maximum repetitions method (10RM): Normal
isoinertial lifts were performed until concentric failure at the
load obtained during the 10RM test.
2) Functional isometrics method (FI): In each repetition, a
five-second maximal isometric contraction was executed with
the knees fully extended.
3) Adapted vascular occlusion (VO): subjects performed a 20second maximal isometric contraction with the knees fully
extended and immediately preceded to normal isoinertial lifts.
4) Super-slow method (SL): subjects performed one 60second repetition consisting of 30 seconds for the eccentric
phase and 30 seconds for the concentric phase. To control for
muscle contraction velocity, time was given every five seconds.

measurements of the two investigators (r0.98). The mean of

the two measures was used in the analysis.

Blood lactate measurements

Table 2 shows the values of TUT and repetitions performed

during the different RTM. The total number of repetitions
performed were significantly different among RTM [f
(3,33)441.136, p0.001]. Repetitions performed during the
10RM were higher than those in the SL, FI and VO methods
(p0.01). Repetitions performed during the FI and VO
methods were higher than during the SL method (p0.01).
Repetitions performed during the VO method were higher than
during the FI method (p0.05).
There were significant differences in TUT among RTM [f
(3,33)43.670, p0.01]. TUT for the SL, FI and VO methods
were higher than 10RM (p0.01). TUT for the SL method was
higher than that for the VO method (p0.01).
There was a significant effect of time on blood lactate [f
(1,11)40.048, p0.01]. When all RTM were considered, the
blood lactate concentrations at T3 were significantly higher
than at T0 (p0.01).
There were significant differences in blood lactate responses
among RTM [f (3,33)7.466, p0.01]. Blood lactate

A small sample of blood (25 m l) was taken from the right ear
lobule immediately before (T0) and three minutes (T3) after
the completion of each RTM. Blood from these incisions was
allowed to flow into a Brand NH4 heparinized capillary tube.
From the capillary tube, the blood was added to a labeled
Eppendorf tube filled with buffer (1% sodium fluoride) at a
ratio of 1 : 3 (blood to buffer). These samples were then placed
in refrigeration at approximately 4C to be transported to the
laboratory and then put in a refrigerator. Blood samples were
analyzed using the YSI 1500 Lactate Analyzer (Yellow Springs
Instrument Co., Yellow Springs, OH).

Time under tension

Time under tension (TUT) was defined as the total time in
which the muscles were applying force to the implement.
The same pair of investigators recorded the times of all tests
using a digital chronometer. Data were analyzed by Pearson
product moment to estimate the correlations between the

Statistical analyses
Standard statistical methods were used for the calculation of
means and standard deviations (SD). Before parametric
analyses were done, the normality of distribution of the data
was assessed with Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. Differences in
blood lactate responses during the RTM were assessed using a
two way ANOVA 42 (RTMtime). TUT and repetitions
among the RTM were compared with one-way ANOVA.
Multiple comparisons with adjustment of confidence interval
by the Bonferroni method were used for post-hoc comparisons.
The p0.05 criterion was used for establishing statistical
significance.

Results

Fig. 1 Blood lactate level in different RTM, expressed as means and standard deviation. Analysis were done before (T0) and three minutes after
the end (T3) of each RTM. 10RM, SL (super-slow), FI (functional isometrics), VO (adapted vascular occlusion).
* significantly higher than SL.

342

Acute Response of Resistance Training Methods

concentrations at T0 were not significantly different among

RTM (p0.05). However, blood lactate concentrations at T3
were higher for the VO and FI methods than for the SL method
(p0.05). The results of the lactate concentrations are
presented in Fig. 1.

Discussion
There is a consensus that mechanical load is crucial for
gains in muscle size and strength (Kraemer et al., 2002;
McDonagh and Davies, 1984). Based on this paradigm few
would have been predicted that healthy subjects could obtain
gains in muscle strength and hypertrophy after three weeks of
walking, as was recently reported by Abe et al. (2006). There
are several reports showing that metabolic stress results in
increases in muscle size and strength (Schott et al., 1995;
Kawada and Ishii, 2005). Some authors suggested that the
recommendation of high load to induce hypertrophy may be
derived from an association between load and metabolic stress
(Meyer, 2006).
It has been recognized that intracellular metabolic changes
may be an important signal for muscle hypertrophy, but the
mechanisms by which acute changes in lactate or other
metabolites are linked to the hypertrophic signaling cascade is
unknown. In the present study lactate was not used based on a
cause-effect relationship. However, although lactate may not be
a direct promoter of muscle adaptations it may be used as a
marker of metabolic stress. This assumption was based on
previous findings that reported elevated responses of lactate
and other metabolites in interventions that promoted increases
in muscle size and/or strength (Kawada and Ishii, 2005; Schott
et al., 1995; Takarada et al., 2000; Tanimoto and Ishii, 2005).
Previous studies have reported positive effects of tourniquet
vascular occlusion in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Abe et
al., 2006; Burgomaster et al., 2003; Shinohara et al., 1998;
Takarada et al., 2000). However, direct vascular occlusion is a
very specialized procedure that should be used with careful
monitoring of occlusive pressure and blood flow, therefore,
other strategies should be used as alternatives. According to
Tanimoto and Ishii (2005), exercises with sustained force
generation would be one of these alternatives.
With regard to the SL method, the present findings showed
that blood lactate response to this RTM was similar to 10RM,
and lower than the VO and FI methods. Previous studies
comparing blood lactate response between traditional
resistance training and the SL method have yielded conflicting
results. Keogh et al. (1999) compared the stress profile of one
set of six different RTM with traditional resistance training
(6RM) during the bench press exercise in 12 resistance-trained
men and reported no significant differences in blood lactate
response between the SL method and 6RM.
However, Hunter et al. (2003) found opposite results when
comparing the metabolic effects of a resistance training session
involving the SL method or traditional resistance training in
seven resistance-trained men. The SL session involved one set

of eight repetitions at
28% of 1RM, performed in a slow

cadence (10 seconds for concentric and 5 seconds for eccentric
muscle actions). The traditional resistance training session
consisted of two sets of eight repetitions at 65% of 1RM,
taking approximately 30 seconds to complete each set.
Contrary to the present studys findings, the authors reported a

50% higher blood lactate response during the traditional
resistance training session.
The discrepancy between the present results and those of
Hunter et al. (2003) could be due to methodological
differences. The load used during the SL method in the
experiment of Hunter et al. (2003) was less than half the load
used during traditional resistance training (28% vs. 65% of
1RM), while the present study equated the loads in both
conditions. Moreover, Hunter et al. (2003) compared
resistance-training sessions with multiple sets, and traditional
resistance training involved twice the number of sets than the
SL session of the present study which compared the effects of
a single set of each method.
According to our results, blood lactate responses were
higher for the VO and FI methods than the SL method, but no
significant differences were found between the VO and FI
methods and 10RM. In a previous study, Keogh et al. (1999)
did not report significant differences in blood lactate responses
between the FI method and maximum repetitions (6RM),
which does not conflict with the present results. With regard to
the VO method, it is difficult to compare our results with
previous findings because similar studies could not be found in
the literature. During the FI and VO methods, isometric
contractions were performed as an attempt to induce ischemia.
However, it is not known if these RTM would obtain chronic
results comparable with those obtained by means of constant
vascular occlusion as reported by Takarada et al. (2000),
Burgomaster et al. (2003) and Shinohara et al. (1998).
The differences in blood lactate responses among the RTM
may not be explained solely by mechanical factors (TUT,
repetitions or work). If it is assumed that repetitions or total
work was the sole determinant of blood lactate responses, it
would be expected that 10RM would produce the highest blood
lactate response among the RTM tested, however, this was not
observed. On the other hand, if TUT exerted a major influence
on blood lactate, SL would be related to the higher blood
lactate responses rather than VO and 10RM. Therefore, it is
suggested that the differences observed in the present study
were probably caused by the unique characteristics of the RTM
tested, specifically, the isometric moments at the FI and VO
methods.
In a study of Moritani et al. (1992), the subjects performed
repeated contractions at 20% of MVC (maximal voluntary
contraction) for 2 seconds followed by 2 seconds of rest for 4
minutes. Vascular occlusion was induced between the first and
second minute by a pressure cuff inflated to 200 mmHg.
According to their findings, blood lactate concentrations
showed a large increase shortly after the release of arterial
occlusion and it remained significantly elevated during the

Gentil, P et al.

J Physiol Anthropol, 25: 339344, 2006

following contractions. Therefore, it is possible that the

isometric contractions at VO and FI may have caused a
temporary vascular occlusion that resulted in a higher lactate
concentration when blood flow was reestablished.
According to the stimulus-tension theory, the intensity
(%RM) and duration of the muscular tension are responsible
for neural and morphological adaptations (Crewther et al.,
2005). As load was kept constant across RTM, TUT was used
to provide an insight into this parameter. Additionally, some
authors consider TUT an important factor for strength and
hypertrophic adaptation, especially when associated with high
loads (Crewther et al., 2005; Mikesky et al., 1989). In the
present study, the SL, FI and VO methods provided higher
TUT than 10RM, despite using the same load. Therefore, it is
feasible to suggest that the VO, FI and SL method could be
used with the purpose of increasing muscle adaptations.
However, one should be cautious when prescribing SL to
promote increases in muscle power due to the velocity
specificity (Kanehisa et al., 1983; Neils et al., 2005).
Previous studies have reported that the FI method was
superior to traditional strength training programs for increasing
muscle strength (Jackson et al., 1995, OShea and OShea,
1989), especially in stronger subjects (Giorgi et al., 1998). In
addition to strength gains in specific joint angles (Fleck and
Kraemer, 2004) and a higher level of concentric force (Keogh
et al., 1999), this could be caused by the higher TUT achieved
with this RTM when compared with traditional approaches
(10RM), as observed in the present study.
The findings that some RTM are more effective in
promoting metabolic stimuli is of particular interest, because
metabolic stress may be associated with increases in muscle
strength and size (Schott et al., 1995; Smith and Rutherford,
1995). In this regard, the FI and VO methods have shown to be
superior to the SL method. Another point of interest is the
exposure of muscle to mechanical overload. Since resistance
was kept constant across RTM, a greater TUT would mean that
muscle was more mechanically stimulated. According to the
present findings, the SL, FI and VO methods provided greater
mechanical stress than 10RM; and the SL method provided
greater TUT than the VO method.
In conclusion, our results showed that the FI and VO
resistance training methods may provide more metabolic stress
than the SL method. Moreover, the SL, FI and VO methods
grant higher mechanical stimuli than the 10RM method, and
the SL method appeared to be superior to the VO method.
Future studies should use other methods to measure both
physiologic (i.e., muscle protein synthesis and specific RNAm
of proteins of interest) and mechanic characteristics of the
RTM. Additionally, long-term studies are needed to evaluate
the chronic adaptations of different RTM to test if the acute
differences in selected physiological parameters reflect an
increase in muscle size and/or strength.

343

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Received: April 26, 2006
Accepted: July 28, 2006
Correspondence to: Paulo Gentil, SQS 203 bl.J apt.606,
Braslia, DF 70.233-100, Brazil
Phone: 556181184732
Fax: 556133227972
e-mail: paulogentil@hotmail.com