Brief History of Ma 00 Fink

A BRIEF
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
AN AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION OF
DR.
KARL FINK'S GESCHICHTE DER

ELEMENTAR-MATHEMATIK
BT
WOOSTER WOODRUFF BEMAN

PROFESSOR OF UATHEMATICS
IN
THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
AND
DAVID EUGENE SMITH

PRINCIPAL OF THE STATS NORMAL SCHOOL AT BROCKPORT, M.
Y.
CHICAGO
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
LONDON AGENTS
Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner &
1900
Co., Ltd.
>-Y^
TRANSLATION COPYRIGHTED
BY
The Open Court Publishing
Co.
1900.
:>
V^
TRANSLATORS' PREFACE.
npHE
-*
translators feel that
sonable
matics.
efiEort
The
no apology
is
necessary for any rea-
encourage the study of the history of mathe-
to
clearer view of the science thus afforded the teacher,
the inspiration to improve his methods of presenting
it,
the in-
creased interest in the class-work, the tendency of the subject to
combat stagnation of
curricula,
these are a few of the reasons for
approving the present renaissance of the study.
This phase of
such repute
by
it
his exactness
scientific history
which Montucla brought
must be confessed rather by
and which writers
like
into
his literary style than
De Morgan
in
England,
Chasles in France, Quetelet in Belgium, Hankel and Baltzer in
Germany, and Boncompagni

wore
is
in Italy
encouraged as the century
on, is seeing a great revival in our day.
This new movement
headed by such scholars as Giinther, Enestrom, Loria, Paul
Tannery, and Zeuthen, but especially by Moritz Cantor, whose
Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Mathematik must long remain

the world's standard.
In any movement of this kind compendia are always necessary

for those
who
lack either the time or the linguistic
in various languages.
But the most systematic attempt
the work here translated.
is
books of
this
to
read
Several such works have recently appeared
the leading treatises.
direction
power
The
in this
writers of most hand-
kind feel called upon to collect a store of anecdotes,
to incorporate tales of
no
history of the science.
historic value,
and
to
minimize the real
Fink, on the other hand, omits biography
entirely, referring the reader to a brief table in the
the encyclopedias.
He
appendix or to
systematically considers the growth of
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS.
IV
arithmetic, algebra, geometry,
and trigonometry, carrying the
his-
development, as should be done, somewhat beyond the limits
toric
of the ordinary course.
At the
task.
It is
For the
best, the
work
of the translator is a rather thankless
a target for critics of style and for critics of matter.
style of the
German work
held responsible.
It is
scientific side to
make
less scientific,
it
the translators will hardly be
not a fluent one, leaning too
Were
always easy reading.
it
would lend
itself
more readily
much
to
to the
the
work
a better English
form, but the translators have preferred to err on the side of a

rather strict adherence to the original.
As
to the matter,
able changes.
has seemed unwise to
it
The attempt has been made
make any
to correct a
consider-
number
of
unquestionable errors, occasional references have been added, and

the biographical notes have been rewritten.
advisable, however, to insert a large
Readers who are interested
notes.
It
number
has not seemed
of bibliographical
in the subject will naturally
De Morgan, Allman, Gow,

may be,
The leading German authorities are
place upon their shelves the works of
Heath, and other English writers, and, as far as
Ball,
works
in other languages.
mentioned in the footnotes, and the French language

at present
The
beyond the works of Chasles and Paul Tannery.
translators desire to express their obligations to Professor
Markley for valuable assistance
Inasmuch
as the original
Element ar-Mathematik,
ers,
it
the
offers little
is
in the translation.
title
of the work,
misleading, at least to English read-
work going considerably beyond the
has been thought best
to
Geschichte der
limits of the elements,
use as the English
title,
Br-ief
tory of Mathematics.
W. W. Beman, Ann
Arbor, Mich
D. E. Smith, Brockport, N. Y.
March, 1900,
His
PREFACE.
TF
the history of a science possesses value for every one
calling or inclination brings into closer relations to
knowledge of
tîs history is
in the further
development of
of
imperative for
all
it,
who have
whom
if
influence
scientific principles or the
methods
employing them to advantage, then acquaintance with the
and growth of a branch of science
man who
is
the
rise
especially important to the
wishes to teach the elements of this science or to pene-
trate as a student into its higher realms.
The
to give
following history of elementary mathematics
mentary parts of
and
this science
ments opportunity, with
little
expenditure of time, to review con-
in his teaching in suitable
upon
fluence of historical remarks
never been disputed.

of
this
way
to utilise
enlivening in-
elementary instruction has
Indeed there are text-books for the elements
which devote considerable space
in the
him and
The
comments.
mathematics (among the more recent those
bert)
intended
to furnish the teacher of the ele-
nectedly points for the most part long familiar to
them
is
students of mathematics an historical survey of the ele-
of special notes.
of Baltzer
and Schu-
to the history of the science
It is certainly desirable that instead
of scattered historical references there should
be offered a con-
nected presentation of the history of elementary mathematics, not
one intended for the use of scholars, not as an equivalent for the
great works
upon the history
picture, with
of mathematics, but only as a
first
fundamental tones clearly sustained, of the principal
results of the investigation of
mathematical history.
In this book the attempt has been

histories of the separate
made
to differentiate the
branches of mathematical science.
There
Vi
are considered in order number-systems and number-symbols,

arithmetic, algebra, geometry
and trigonometry, allowing, as
far
as possible, within the narrow confines of a single branch of the
Against such a procedure
elements, a rapid and sure orientation.

the objection
may be
raised that in this
way
the general survey of
the culture history of a certain epoch will suffer.
On
the other
hand, in a history of elementary mathematics, especially one confined within such
modest bounds, an exhaustive description
whole periods with
all their
correlations of past
of
and future cannot
well be presented.
It is
historical
not the purpose of this work to set forth the interesting
Although
development of mechanics and astronomy.
it
cannot be denied that by this separation of related branches there

is
wanting a certain definitiveness
be expressed that
mentary parts
of
this lack will not
be
work, yet the hope
felt too
keenly.
The
may
ele-
mathematics have only few points of contact with
these branches, and our endeavor
only that which
to the
is
most
is
to present in brief
compass
essential.
Further, in the interest of a presentation as condensed as pos

sible,
to a
the biographical notices which often lend great attraction
more extended treatment
of a subject
appendix and there treated but
The work had
its
must be relegated
to the
briefly.
inception in certain suggestions which the
author received at the semi-monthly meetings of a mathematical

club in Tubingen, founded and conducted by Prof. Dr. A.
for
which suitable thanks ought here
edgment
is
especially
due
to
be expressed.
to the president of
the club
Brill,
Acknowl-
whose
in-
terpretations have been decisive for certain parts of the present
work.
These meetings furnished the author the desired oppor-
tunity,
through
the lectures connected with the
most diverse
branches of the science and through the discussions which often

followed, with references to recent literature, to penetrate into
those circles of thought which to-day dominate the higher branches

of mathematics.
The
writer was thus led to complete his studies
Vn
PREFACE.
by going into the recent history
The
of the science.
results of
such investigations are here presented with perhaps greater

ness than seems necessary for the
justified
by
its title.
ment may lay claim
But
main purpose
in default of
to a friendly
such
judgment, in spite of the con-
attempt be thought inappropriate, inasmuch as
tary
book or
a digest, a first experi-
tinually increasing subdivisions of the science
possible to
of the
full-
nor will such an

does not seem
it
draw a sharp line of demarcation between the elemen-
and higher mathematics.
For on the one hand certain prob-
lems of elementary mathematics have from time to time furnished

the occasion for the development of higher branches,
other from the acquisitions of these

fallen
upon the elementary
ing to
many
is
parts.
new branches a
Accordingly
it
and on the
clear light has
may be
gratify-
a student and teacher to find here at least that which
fundamental.
The
exceedingly rich literature, especially in German, at the
disposal of the author

free use of
is
referred to in the footnotes.
the excellent
Jahrbuch
He
has
made
iiher die Fortschritte
der
Mathematik, which with clear and systematic arrangement enumerates and discusses the most recent mathematical literature.
K. Fink.
Tubingen. June, iSg*.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Translators' Preface
iii
Author's Preface
General Survey
I.
NUMBER-SYSTEMS AND NUMBER-SYMBOLS.

ARITHMETIC.
II.
A.
General Survey
i8
The Arithmetic
Time of the Arabs.
B. First Period.
the
C.
The Arithmetic
The Arithmetic
3.
Applied Arithmetic
of
24
of Fractions
From
Second Period.
of the Oldest Nations to
Whole Numbers
2.
1.
31
34
the Eighth to the Fourteenth Cen-
tury.
Whole Numbers
2.
The Arithmetic
The Arithmetic
3.
Applied Arithmetic
1.
of
From
D. Third Period.
36
of Fractions
40
41
the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Cen-
tury.
2.
The Arithmetic
The Arithmetic
3.
Applied Arithmetic
1.
of
Whole Numbers
41
of Fractions
49
51
III.
ALGEBRA.
A. General Survey
B. First Period.
I.
From
61
the Earliest
Times
to the Arabs.
General Arithmetic
Egyptian Symbolism
65;
63
63.
Theory of Numbers
Greek Arithmetic
64;
Symbolism
66; .'series 67; the Irrational 68;
Neg-
70; Archimedes's Notation for Large Numbers
Arithmetic 71. Hindu Arithmetic 71 Symbolism
72; Negative Numbers 72; Involution and Evolution 73; Permutations and Combinations 74; Series 74. Chinese Arithmetic 74. Arab Arithmetic 74; "Algorism " 75; Radical Signs
ative
2.
Numbers
71.
Roman
76;
Theory
of
Numbers
76; Series 76.
Algebra
77
The Egyptians
The Greeks; Form
77.
Equations of the First Degree
Degree (Application
of Areas) 79
78
;
of the Equation 77;

Equations of the Second
Equations of the Third De-
Indeterminate Equations (Cattle Problem of Archimedes; Methods of Solution of Diophantus) 83. Hindu Algebra 84. Chinese Algebra 87. Arab Algebra 88.
gree 81
To
C. Second Period.
the Middle of the Seventeenth Cen-
tury.
1.
General Arithmetic
95
Symbolism of the Italians and the German Cossists 95; Irrational and Negative Numbers 99; Imaginary Quantities loi
Powers 102 Series 103 Stifel's Duplication of the Cube 104
Magic Squares 105.
;
2.
Algebra
107
Representation of Equations 107; Equations of the First and

Second Degrees 108; Complete Solution of Equations of the
Third and Fourth Degrees by the Italians in Work of the
German Cossists 113 Beginnings of a General Theory of Algebraic Equations 115.
;
D. Third Period.
From
tury to the Present Time.
Symbolism
117; Pascal's Arithmetic Triangle 118; Irrational
Complex Numbers 123; Grassmann's Ausdehnungslehre xzj Quaternions 129; Calculus of Logic 131;
Continued Fractions 131 Theory of Numbers 133; Tables of
Primes 141; Symmetric Functions 142; Elimination 143; Theory of Invariants and Covariants 145 Theory of Probabilities
148; Method of Least Squares 149; Theory of Combinations
150; Infinite Series (Convergence and Divergence) 151; Solution of Algebraic Equations 155 the Cyclotomic Equation
160; Investigations of Abel and Galois 163; Theory of Substitutions 164; the Equation of the Fifth Degree 165; Approximation of Real Roots 166 Determinants 167; Differential and
Integral Calculus 168; Diiferential Equations 174; Calculus
of Variations 178 Elliptic Functions 180; Abelian Functions
186; More Rigorous Tendency of Analysis 189.
Numbers
119;
CONTENTS.
XI
GEOMETRY.
IV.
PAGE
A. General
Survey
Egyptians and Babylonians
B. First Period.
C.
190
192
The Greeks
Second Period.
193
The Geometry
of Thales and Pythagoras 194; Application of

the Quadratrix to the Quadrature of the Circle and the Trisection of
an Angle 196
the Elements of Euclid 198
Archimedes
the Theory of Conic Sections 202;

the Duplication of the Cube, the Trisection of an Angle and
and
his Successors 199
the Quadrature of the Circle 209; Plane, Solid, and Linear

Loci 209; Surfaces of the Second Order 212; the Stereo-
graphic Projection of Hipparchus
D. Third Period.
213.
Romans, Hindus, Chinese, Arabs
From Gerbert
E. Fourth Period.
to
214
218
Descartes
Gerbert and Leonardo 218 Widmann and Stifel22o; Vieta

and Kepler 222 Solution of Problems with but One Opening
;
of the
F.
Compasses
225;
From
Fifth Period.
Methods of Projection
226.
....
Descartes to the Present
228
Descartes's Analytic Geometry 230; Cavalieri's Method of Indivisibles 234 Pascal's Geometric Works 237; Newton's Investigations 239; Cramer's Paradox 240; Pascal's Limafon
;
and other Curves 241 Analytic Geometry of Three Dimensions 242; Minor Investigations 243; Introduction of Projective Geometry 246 Mobius' s Barycentrischer Calcul 250 Bellavitis's EquipoUences 250; Pliicker's Investigations 251;
;
Steiner's
Developments
256;
Malfatti's
Problem
256;
Von
Staudt's Geometrie der Lage 258 Descriptive Geometry 259

Form-theory and Deficiency of an Algebraic Curve 261
;
Enumerative Geometry 264 Conformal

Geometry (Theory of Curvature of Surfaces) 267; Non-Euclidean Geometry 270 PseudoSpheres 273 Geometry of n Dimensions 275 Geomeiria and
Analysis Sittis 275 Contact-transformations 276 Geometric
Theory of Probability 276; Geometric Models 277; the Mathematics of To-day 279.
Gauche Curves
263
Representation 266
Differential
V.
A. General
TRIGONOMETRY.
281
Survey
B. First Period.
From
The Egyptians
Arabs
285.
the
282.
Most Ancient Times
The Greeks
282.
to the Arabs
The Hindus
284
The
282
XU
PAGE
C Second
From
Period.
the Middle Ages to the Middle of
the Seventeenth Century
287
Vieta and Regiomontanus 287; Trigonometric Tables 289;
Logarithms
D. Third Period.
290.
From
tury to the Present
294
Biographical Notes
297
Index
323
GENERAL SURVEY.
'T^HE
^
of
beginnings of the development of mathemat-
ical truths date
which any
literary
back
to the jearHest civiHzations
remains have come down to
On
namely the Egyptian and the Babylonian.
us,
the
one hand, brought about by the demands of practical

life,
on the other springing from the real
spirit
of
separate groups of men, especially of the
priestly caste, arithmetic
into
scientific
being.
Rarely,
and geometric notions came
however, was
this
knowledge
transmitted through writing, so that of the Babylonian civilization
we possess only
the ancient Eg3^ptian, however,
From
few traces.
we have
manual, that of Ahmes, which in
all
at least
one
probability ap-
peared nearly two thousand years before Christ.
The
real
development
of
mathematical knowledge,
obviously stimulated by Egyptian and Babylonian

fluences, begins in Greece.
itself
enters
predominantly
upon
its
first
in
in-
This development shows
the realm of geometry, and
classic period,
a period of no
great duration, during the era of Euclid, Archimedes,
Eratosthenes, and Apollonius.

clines
Subsequently
more toward the arithmetic
side
but
it
it
in-
soon
becomes so completely engulfed by the heavy waves
of
after long centuries
and
Greek works which had
es-
stormy periods that only
in a foreign soil, out of
a seed,
new and
naturally expect to find the
Romans
caped the general destruction, could

full of
promise, take root.
One would
upon the
entering with eagerness
came
inheritance which
rich
intellectual
them from the conquered
to
Greeks, and to find their sons,
who
so willingly re-
sorted to Hellenic masters, showing an enthusiasm

for
Of
Greek mathematics.
scarcely any evidence.
this,
however, we have
The Romans understood very
well the practical value to the statesman of Greek
geometry and surveying

also in the later
matical advance
an idea
of
handed
it
thing which shows
to be
is
but
no
itself
real
mathe-
found anywhere in
Roman
Greek schools
Indeed, the
history.
Romans
often
had so mistaken
Greek learning that not infrequently they
down
to later generations in a
form entirely
distorted.
More important
mathematics are the relations

to the investigations of the
The Hindus
of
Hindus and the Arabs.
distinguished themselves by a pronounced
them
Western
of
Greek teachings
of the
talent for numerical calculation.
tinguishes
development
for the further
is
What
especially dis-
their susceptibility to the influence
science, the Babylonian
and especially
the Greek, so that they incorporated into their
own
system what they received from outside sources and

then worked out independent results.
GENERAL SURVEY.
The
Arabs, however, in general do not
same independence
of
show
this
apprehension and of judgment.
Their chief merit, none the less a real one however,

lies
in the
untiring industry which they
translating into their
own language
Mohammedan
in
the literary treas-
ures of the Hindus, Persians and Greeks.

of the
showed
The
courts
princes from the ninth to the
thirteenth centuries were the seats of a remarkable

scientific activity,
we owe
ness
it
and
to this
circumstance alone do
that after a period of long and dense dark-
Western Europe was
in
a comparatively short
time opened up to the mathematical sciences.
The
of
learning of the cloisters in the earlier part
the Middle
Ages was not
b}^
nature adapted to
enter seriously into matters mathematical or to search
trustworthy sources of such knowledge.
for
the Italian merchants
adaptability
first
whose
practical turn
It
was
and easy
found, in their commercial relations
Mohammedan West Africa and Southern Spain,

abundant use for the common calculations of arithwith
metic.
Nor was
among them
it
long after that there developed
a real spirit of discovery,
and the
great triumph of the newly revived science
solution of the cubic equation by Tartaglia.
first
was the
It
should
be said, however, that the later cloister cult labored

zealously to extend the Western Arab learning by
means
of translations into the Latin.
In the fifteenth century, in the persons of Peur-
bach and Regiomontanus, Germany
first
took position
1
advancement
in the great rivalry for the
From
ics.
that time until the middle of the seven-
century the
teenth
German mathematicians were
chiefly calculators, that
is
and the
were
there
heights.
man
soil
striving
Among them
him
Certain
Biirgi.
fact is deserving of
intellects
nent, but with
teachers in the reckoning
Others, however, were alge-
schools (^Rechenschuleti).
braists,
mathemat-
of
to
reach
still
loftier
Kepler stands forth pre-emi-
and
are associated Stifel, Rudolff,
is it
that at this time and on Ger-
elementary arithmetic and
vitally influenced
emphasis that
common
algebra,
by the Italian school, attained a
standing very conducive to subsequent progress.
The modern period
in the history of
mathematics
begins about the middle of the seventeenth century.
Descartes projects the foundation theory of the analytic
geometry.
Newton appear as the

calculus.
The time has
Leibnitz and
discoverers of the differential
now come when geometry,
and
a science only rarely,
even then but imperfectly, appreciated after
its
ban-
ishment from Greece, enters along with analysis upon

a period of prosperous advance, and takes
tage of this latter sister science in attaining
Thus there were periods

through
its
in
full
advan-
its results.
which geometry was able
brilliant discoveries to cast analysis,
tem-
porarily at least, into the shade.
The unprecedented activity of the great Gauss

divides the modern period into two parts
before
:
Gauss
the
establishment of the methods of the
dif-
GENERAL SURVEY.
and integral calculus and
ferential
etry as well as
advance
more
5
of analytic
restricted preparations for later
with Gauss and after him
development
of
the magnificent
modern mathematics with
regions of grandeur and depth previously

of.
geom-
The mathenjaticians
its
special
undreamed
of the nineteenth century
are devoting themselves to the theory of numbers,
modern algebra, the theory

tive
and projec-
geometry, and in obedience to the impulse of
human knowledge
into
of functions
are endeavoring to carry their light
remote realms which
darkness.
till
now have remained
in
I.
NUMBER-SYSTEMS AND NUMBERSYMBOLS.
AN
-
inexhaustible profusion of external influences
upon the human mind has found
its
legitimate
expression in the formation of speech and writing

in
numbers and number-symbols.
that a
It is true
found among peoples
counting of a certain kind
is
a low grade of civilization
and even among the lower
animals.
''Even ducks can count their young."* But
where the nature and the condition

have been
number
The
of
of
no consequence
itself,
there
in the
of
formation of the
human counting has
oldest counting
was even
the objects
first
begun.
in its origin a pro-
cess of reckoning, an adjoining, possibly also in special
elementary cases a multiplication, performed upon

the objects counted or upon other objects easily employed, such as pebbles, shells, fingers.
number-names. The most common
Hence
of these
arose
undoubt-
edly belong to the primitive domain of language
with
the advancing development of language their aggre-
gate
was gradually enlarged, the legitimate combina-
*Hankel, Zwr Geschichte der Mathetnatik im Altertum und Mittelalter,

Hereafter referred to as Hankel. Tylor's Pritnitive Culture also
7.
has a valuable chapter upon counting.
1874, p.
NUMBER-SYSTEMS AND NUMBER-SVxMBOLS.
and favoring the crea-
tion of single terms permitting
tion of
Hence
new numbers.
The explanation
arose number-systems.
of the fact that 10 is
where found as the base of the system
common
seen in the
calculations.
In
all
of counting
is
ancient civilizations finger-reckon-
remarkable extent among

tain
almost every-
use of the fingers in elementary
was known and even to-day
ing
is
it
many savage
carried on to a
peoples.
Cer-
South African races use three persons for num-
bers which run above 100, the
counting the units
first
on his fingers, the second the tens, and the third the
They always begin with
hundreds.
the left
The
hand and count
first
the
little
finger of
to the little finger of the right.
counts continuously, the others raising a
finger every time a ten or a
Some languages
hundred
is
reached.*
contain words belonging funda-
mentally to the scale of 5 or 20 without these systems
having been completely elaborated
only in certain
places do they burst the bounds of the decimal sys-
tem.
In other cases, answering to special needs, 12
and 60 appear as bases.

a scale of 11, their
first
few powers of
sented as 11 and
The New Zealanders have
language possessing words

11,
1,
and consequently 12
13 as 11 and
2,
is
for the
repre-
22 as two
ll's,
and so on.f
der Mathematik. Vol. I, 1880;
Hereafter referred to as Cantor. Conant, L. L., The Number Concept^ N. Y. 1896. Gow, J., History of Greek Geometry, Cambridge, 1884,
Chap. I.
* Cantor, M., Vorlesungen uber Geschichte
2nd
ed., 1894, P-
t Cantor,
I.,
6.
p. 10.
In the verbal formation of a number-system addition
and multiplication stand out prominently as
itive
operations for the composition of numbers
come
rarely does subtraction
For example, 18
rarely division.
10
-|-
in
French 10 8
in
Latin also 20
3-6
15
8 {decern et octo), in
is
German
Welsh 2-9
3 {caxtulli-om-ey), while 50
very
more
still
oKrto-Kat-SeKa)
8 10 (âchi-zehn),
{^duo-de-viginti), in
in
and
called in Latin
Greek 8-f-lO
{dix-huif), in
{tri-077icUi)^
-j-
into use
defin-
Lower Breton
{dew-naw')f in Aztec
is
called in the
Basque
half-hundred, in Danish two-and-a-half times twenty.*
In spite of the greatest diversity of forms, the written

representation of numbers,
mere rudiments, shows
when not confined
a general law according to
which the higher order precedes the lower

rection of the writing, f
to the
Thus
in
the di-
in a four-figure
number
the thousands are written by the Phoenicians at the

right,
by the Chinese above, the former writing from
right to
left,
the latter from
striking exception
tractive
etc.,
principle
to
this
the
of
above downward.
law
is
Romans
where the smaller number
is
seen
in
the sub
IV, IX,
in
A
XL,
written before the
larger.
Among
from right
the Egyptians
we have numbers running
to left in the hieratic writing,
direction in the hieroglyphics.
with varying
In the latter the
num-
bers were either written out in words or represented
by symbols
for
each
*Hankel,
unit,
p. 22.
repeated as often as necestHankel,
p. 32,
In one of the tombs near the pyramids of Gizeb
sary.
have been found hieroglyphic numerals

represented by a vertical
line,
which
in
1 is
10 by a kind of horse-
shoe, 100 by a short spiral, 10 000 by a pointing finger,
100 000 by a frog,

of
000 000 by a
man
in the attitude
In the hieratic symbols the figure
astonishment.
for the unit of
higher order stands to the right of the
one of lower order
in
accordance with' the law of
quence already mentioned.

bols for a unit of
The
repetition of sym-
any particular order does not obtain,
because there are special characters for

all
the tens,
We
all
se-
the hundreds, and
all
all
nine units,
the thousands.*
give below a few characteristic specimens of the
symbols
hieratic
LI
12
111
"1
'A
5L
10
20
80
40
The Babylonian cuneiform

from
left to right,
inscriptionsf proceed
which must be looked upon as ex-
ceptional in a Semitic language.
In accordance with
the law of sequence the units of higher order stand on
The symbols used

horizontal wedge >-, the ver-
the left of those of lower order.

in writing are chiefly the
tical
wedge
and the combination
The symbols were
angle ^.
or, for
y,
of the
two
at
an
written beside one another,
ease. of reading and to save space, over one
The symbols
another.
for 1, 4, 10, 100, 14, 400, re-
spectively, are as follows

*
Cantor,
I.,
pp. 43, 44.
Cantor,
I.,
pp. ^^,
78.
lO
YV<Y>-<
10
vvv vyv
400
14
100
For numbers exceeding 100 there was
mere juxtaposition,
the
multiplicative principle
the symbol representing the
placed at the
e.
of
hundreds was
The Babylonians probably

The sexagesimal system
case of 400 already shown.
(i.
number
the symbol for hundreds as in the
left of
had no symbol
also, besides
for zero.*
with the base 60), which played such a part in
the writings of the Babylonian scholars (astronomers
and mathematicians),
The
Phoenicians,
will
be mentioned
whose twenty-two
later.
were
letters
derived from the hieratic characters of the Egyptians,

either wrote the
numbers out
numerical symbols
for
the tens horizontal, f
in
words or used special
the units vertical marks, for
Somewhat
later the Syrians
used
the twenty-two letters of their alphabet to represent
the
numbers
500 was 400
1, 2,
-J-
9,
10, 20,
90,
100, ... 400
The thousands were
100, etc.
repre
sented by the symbols for units -îth a subscript
comma
the
at the right. J
same
The
The Hebrew
plan.
oldest
Greek numerals (aside from the written
words) were, in general, the

mental numbers.
{SiKo),
notation follows
initial letters of
the funda-
for 1, 11 for 5 (tto/tc),
for 10
and these were repeated as often as necessary.
Cantor,
I.,
p. 84.
Cantor,
I.,
p. 113.
Cantor,
I.,
no.
p.
Cantor.
I.,
pp. 113-114.
II
These numerals are described by the Byzantine grammarian Herodianus (A. D. 200) and hence are spoken
Herodianic numbers.
of as
Shortly after 500 B. C.
One used
two new systems appeared.
alphabet in their natural order for the
of the Ionic
numbers from
The other arranged

random but actually in an
24.
to
apparently at
letters
fixed arbitrarily; thus,

20,
a=l,
= 100, = 200,
the 24 letters
o-
13
2,
....
these
order
= 10, =
k
Here too there
etc.
is
no special symbol for the zero.
"^"^he Roman numerals* were probably inherited
The noteworthy
from the Etruscans.
peculiarities
are the lack of the zero, the subtractive principle
whereby the value

placing before
it
symbol was diminished by
one of lower order (IV:=4,
XL = 40, XC = 90),
itself
of a
even
in cases
1X^0,
where the language
did not signify such a subtraction
and
finally
the multiplicative effect of a bar over the numerals
(XXX
= 30 000, " = 100 000).
Also for certain frac-
tions there were special symbols
ing to
Mommsen
the
and names. Accord-
Roman number-symbols
I,
V,
represent the finger, the hand, and the double
hand.
that
Zangemeister proceeds from the standpoint

decern
related
is
to
decussare
which means a
perpendicular or oblique crossing, and argues that
every straight or curved line drawn across the symbol

of a
number
number by
*
Cantor,
I.,
in the
ten.
p. 486.
decimal system multiplies that
In fact, there are on
monuments
12
representations of
1,
10,
and 1000, as well as
and
of 5
500, to prove his assertion.*
Of especial
interest in elementary arithmetic
number-system
of
the Hindus, because
is
the
to these
it is
Aryans that we undoubtedly owe the valuable positionsystem now
Their oldest symbols for
in use.
1 to 9
were merely abridged number-words, and the use

letters as figures is said to
the second century A.
introduction
its
is
The
400 A. D.
One
plan,
is
of later origin
not proven with certainty
chiefly according to the
ways.
have been prevalent from
D.f The zero
writing of
of
after
till
numbers was carried
on,
position-system, in various
which Aryabhatta records, repre-
sented the numbers from
1 to
25 by the twenty-five
consonants of the Sanskrit alphabet, and the succeeding tens (30, 40 ...
sibilants.
series of
100) by the semi-vowels and
vowels and diphthongs formed
multipliers consisting of powers of ten, ga

3,
gi 300, gu 30 000, gau 3-1016. J
application of
meaning
In this there
the position-system, although
is
it
no
ap-
pears in two other methods of writing numbers in
among
use
Both
the
arithmeticians
of
Southern
of these plans are distinguished
by the
India.
fact that
*Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akadeviie votn lo. November iS8j. Wordsworth, in his Fragments and Spechnens of Early Latin, 1874, derives C for
centum,
for mille, and L for qiiinquaginta from three letters of the Chal-
cidian alphabet, corresponding to 0, <^, and x- He says: "The origin of this

notation is, I believe, quite uncertain, or rather purely arbitrary, though, of
course, we observe that the initials of mille and centum determined the final
shape taken by the signs, which

t
at first were very different in form."

See Encyclopedia Britannica, under " Numerals "
Cantor,
I.,
p. 566.
same number can be made up
the
ways.
in various
Rules of calculation were clothed in simple verse easy
mind and
to hold in
maticians this was
For the Hindu mathe-
to recall.
all
the
more important
sought to avoid written calculation as
One method
since they
far as possible.
of representation consisted in allowing
the alphabet, in groups of 9 symbols, to denote the
numbers from
1 to 9
repeatedly, while certain vowels

the English alphabet ac-
represented the zeros.
If in
cording to this method
we were
bers from 1 to 9 by the consonants

after
two countings one
finally
denote the num-
to
has
b,
c,
2,
so that
and were
to
denote zero by every vowel or combination of vowels,

the
number 60502 might be indicated by siren
or heron,
and might be introduced by some other words
text.
second method employed type-words and
combined them according
Thus abdhi (one

with
its
12
to
the
of the 4 seas)
houses)^ 12, acvin
The combination
number 2124.*
sun)=2.
the
in the
law of position.
=4,
surya (the sun
(the two sons of the
abdhisurya^vinas denoted
Peculiar to the Sanskrit number-language are special
words
bers.
for the multiplication of very large
Arbuda
signifies
100 millions,
millions; from these are derived

millions,
ma/mpadma
= 100 000
padma 10 000
maharbuda=.l^^^
millions.
Specially-
formed words for large numbers run up to

even further.
Cantor,
I.,
p. 567.
num-
This extraordinary extension
10^^
and
of
the
14
decimal system in Sanskrit resembles a number-game,

a
mania
to
grasp the infinitely great. Of this endeavor
to bring the infinite into the
realm of number-percep-
and representation, traces are found also among
tion
This appearance
the Babylonians and Greeks.
may
find its explanation in mystic-religious conceptions or
philosophic speculations.
The
to a
ancient Chinese number-symbols are confined
comparatively few fundamental elements arranged
developed decimal system.
in a perfectly
combination
takes
sometimes by multiplica-
place
Thus san 3, che=.\^\

che 30* Later, as a result
sometimes by addition.
tion,
che san denotes 13, but sa7i
of foreign influence, there arose
tation
whose
merchants' figures
is
left to
ordinal and cardinal
never printed but
is
the
found only
Ordinarily the
numbers are arranged
in
two
one above another, with zeros when necessary,

form
11=2,
of small circles.
X-^. J =
and hence J)
Cantor,
I.,
6,
In this notation
^=
10,
5 = 10000,
ii
right beginning
The one kind comprising
in writings of a business character.
in the
to the
Numbers formed from

from above downward but
Hindu fashion from
with the highest order.
lines
of no-
symbols.
them were not written

after the
two new kinds
show some resemblance
figures
ancient Chinese
Here the
O O +jl. =20 046.
p. 630.
0=-^.
'j

Among
the Arabs, those
skilful
15
transmitters of
Oriental and Greek arithmetic to the nations of the
West, the custom

tinued
Yet
till
the
number-words con-
of writing out
beginning of the eleventh century.
comparatively early period they had already
at a
formed abbreviations of the number-words, the Divani

In the eighth century the Arabs
figures.
quainted with the
became
Hindu number-system and
From these
Western Arabs, who in
ac-
its fig-
ures, including zero.
figures there arose
among
their
the
whole
litera-
ture presented a decided contrast to their Eastern relatives,
ants.
the
Gubar numerals (dust-numerals)
These Gubar numerals, almost
as vari-
entirely forgotten
among the Arabs themselves, are the ancestors

our modern numerals,* which are immediately de-
to-day
of
rived from the apices of the early Middle Ages.
primitive
Western forms used
in
These
the abacus-calcula-
West European MSS. of the

eleventh and twelfth centuries and owe much of their
prominence to Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II.
tions are
found
in the
(consecrated 999 A. D.).
The arithmetic
to a
of the
Western
nations, cultivated
considerable extent in the cloister-schools from
the ninth century on,
Roman
employed besides the abacus the
numerals, and consequently
made no
use of a
Germany up to the year 1500 the

Roman symbols were called German numerals in dis-
symbol
for zero.
tinction from the

*Hankel,
p. 255.
In
symbols
then seldom employed
of
Arab-Hindu
as-st/r,
origin,
which included a zero (Arabic
Sanskrit sunya^ the void).
called ciphers {Ziffern).
From
The
were
latter
the fifteenth century on
these Arab-Hindu numerals appear
more frequently
in
Germany on monuments and in churches, but at that

time they had not become common property.* The
oldest monument with Arabic figures (in Katharein
near Troppau) is said to date from 1007. Monuments
of this
(1388).
kind are found in Pforzheim (1371), and in
Ulm
frequent and free use of the zero in the
thirteenth century
is
tion of the tides at
moonlight, f
shown
in tables for the calcula-
London and
of the duration of
In the year 1471 there appeared in Co-
logne a work of Petrarch with page-numbers in Hindu

figures at the top.
In 1482 the
first
German
arith-
metic with similar page-numbering was published in
Bamberg.
Besides the ordinary forms of numerals
everywhere used to-day, which appeared exclusively

in
an arithmetic of 1489, the following forms for
were used
between the
in
Germany
at the
Roman and Hindu
4, 5,
time of the struggle

notations
R-c;The
derivation of the
modern numerals
by the examples below which are taken
is
illustrated
in succession
from the Sanskrit, the apices, the Eastern Arab^ the

*
Unger, Die Methodik der praktischen Arithmetik,
1888, p. 70.
Hereafter
referred to as Unger.
tGiinther, Geschichte des mathematischen Unterrichts im deutschen Mittelzum Jahr 1 525, 1887, p. 175. Hereafter referred to as Giinther.
alter bis
Western Arab Gubar numerals, the numerals
of the
eleventh, thirteenth, and sixteenth centuries.*
UQ^
CV ? 3
^c^V
7 A
(x
X5
In the sixteenth century the
metic and
its
notation
tion
among
this
means was
Hindu
position-arith-
found complete introduc-
first
the civilized peoples of the West.
all
ditions for the
fulfilled
one
By
of the indispensable con-
development of
common
arithmetic in
the schools and in the service of trade and commerce.

''Cantor, table
appended
to Vol.
I.
and Hankel,
p. 3as
ARITHMETIC.
II.
GENERAL SURVEY.
A.
npHE simplest number-words and elementary count

-^
ing have always been the
the people.
different
Quite otherwise
methods
common
of
however, with the
is it,
of calculation
property
which are derived
from simple counting, and with their application to

complicated problems.
As the centuries passed,
that
part of ordinary arithmetic which to-day every child
knows, descended from the closed
circle of particular
castes or smaller communities to the
common
people,
so as to form an important part of general culture.
Among
the ancients the education of the youth had to
do almost wholly with bodily exercises.
Only a
riper
age sought a higher cultivation through intercourse

with priests and philosophers, and this consisted
part in
the
common knowledge
of
to-day:
in
people
learned to read, to write, to cipher.
At the beginning
development
tians.
of
of the first period in the historic
common
To them
arithmetic stand the Egyp-
the Greek writers ascribe the inven-
To
tion of surveying, of astronomy,
and
their literature belongs also the
most ancient book on
of arithmetic.
ARITHMETIC.
arithmetic, that of
IQ
Ahmes, which teaches operations
with whole numbers and fractions.
employed a sexagesimal system

metic, which latter
must
also
The Babylonians
in their position-arith-
have served the pur-
The common
poses of a religious number-sj^mbolism.
arithmetic of the Greeks, particularly in most ancient

times,
was moderate
in extent until
the scholars of philosophy there
mathematical
science
In spite of
character.
not esteemed lightly.
Plato
of
demands
was developed
of
a real
predominantly geometric
this, skill
Of
by the activity
this
in calculation
was
we have evidence when
for his ideal state that the
youth should
be instructed in reading, writing, and arithmetic.
The
arithmetic of the
turn
tical
to
it
Romans had
a purely prac-
belonged a mass of quite complicated
problems arising from controversies regarding ques-
and
tions of inheritance, of private property
bursement
The Romans used duodecimal
Concerning the most ancient arithmetic
fractions.
the
of interest.
of reim-
Hindus only conjectures can be made
trary, the
Hindu elementary
of
on the con-
arithmetic after the in-
known with
toler-
able accuracy from the works of native authors.
The
troduction of the position-system
Hindu mathematicians
laid the
is
foundations for the
ordinary arithmetic processes of to-day.
ence of their learning
is
The
influ-
perceptible in the Chinese
arithmetic which likewise depends on the decimal sys-
tem
in
still
greater measure, however,
among
the
2d
Arabs who besides the Hindu numeral-reckoning also
employed a calculation by columns.
The time from
the eighth to the beginning of the
fifteenth century forms the
second period.
This
is
noteworthy period of transition, an epoch of the transplanting of old methods into
new and
fruitful soil,
but also one of combat between the well-tried Hindu
methods and the clumsy and detailed arithmetic ope-
handed down from the Middle Ages.
rations
first
At
only in cloisters and cloister-schools could any
arithmetic knowledge be found, and that derived from
Roman
tions
sources.
But
finally there
came new sugges-
from the Arabs, so that from the eleventh to the
thirteenth centuries there
was opposed
abacists, with their singular
to the
group
of
complementary methods,
a school of algorists as partisans of the
Hindu
arith-
metic.
Not
until the fifteenth century, the period of in-
vestigation
of
the original
Greek writings,
of
the
rapid development of astronomy, of the rise of the

arts
and
riod in
of
the
commercial
relations,
does the third pe-
history of arithmetic begin.
As
early
as the thirteenth century besides the cathedral and

cloister-schools
which provided
for their
own
religious
and ecclesiastical wants, there were, properly speaking, schools for arithmetic.
Their foundation
ascribed to the needs of the brisk trade of
is
to be
German
towns with Italian merchants who were likewise skilled

computers.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
ARITHMETIC.
21
human-
school affairs were essentially advanced by the

istic
tendency and by the reformation.
writing schools,
and even
German
for girls,
schools (in
Latin schools,
Germany) for boys
were established.
In the Latin
schools only the upper classes received instruction in

arithmetic, in a weekly exercise
fundamental
they studied the four

at
most
not seem so very
little
rules, the theory of fractions,
may
the rule of three, which
when we consider
and
that frequently in the universities
of that time arithmetic
was not carried much
German
In the writing schools and
further.
boys' schools the
pupils learned something of calculation, numeration,
and notation, especially the difference between the
German numerals (in Roman writing) and the ciphers

(after the Hindu fashion). In the girls' schools, which
were intended only for the higher classes of people, no
arithmetic was taught.
Considerable attainments in
computation could be secured only

arithmetic.
was located
The most
at
in the schools for
celebrated of these institutions
Nuremberg.
In the commercial towns
there were accountants' guilds
which provided
But
extension of arithmetic knowledge.
real
for the
mathe-
maticians and astronomers also labored together in de-
veloping the methods of arithmetic.

assistance from
men
o^ prominence,
In spite of this
no theory
of arith-
metic instruction had been established even as late as

in the sixteenth century.
fore
had
to
be copied.
What had been done
be-
In the books on arithmetic
22
were found only rules and examples, almost never

proofs or deductions.
The seventeenth century brought no

change
essential
Schools existed as before
in these conditions.
where they had not been swallowed up by the horrors

of the Thirty-Years'
their
arithmeticians wrote
books on arithmetic, perhaps contrived calculat-
make
ing machines to
or
The
War.
the
work
easier for their pupils,
composed arithmetic conversations and poems.
specimen
of this is given
in
the following extracts
from Tobias Beutel's Arithmetical the seventh edition

of
which appeared
in 1693.*
" Numerieren lehrt im Rechen
Zahlen schreiben und aussprechen."
"In Summen bringen
heisst addieren
Dies muss das Wordein
"Wie
eine
Kann
"We
Hand an uns
Und
vollfuhren."
die andre waschet rein
eine Species der andern Probe seyn."
are taught in numeration
Number
writing and expression,"

etc.,
etc.
Commercial arithmetic was improved by the

tion of the study of
exchange and discount, and the
abbreviated method of multiplication.

instruction remained the same,
oned according
i.
to rules without
e.
Unger,
p. 124.
The form
of
the pupil reck-
any attempt being
made to explain their nature.

The eighteenth century brought
*
cultiva
as its
first
and
ARITHMETIC.
23
most important innovation the statutory regulation
of
school matters by special school laws, and the estab-
lishment of normal schools (the

tin in
first in
1732 at Stet-
connection with the orphan asylum).
As
reor-
ganizers of the higher schools appeared the pietists
The former
and philanthropinists.
established Real-
schulen (the oldest founded 1738 in Halle)
Biirgerschulen; the latter in
\.\i^\x
and higher
Schulen der Aufkldrung
sought by an improvement of methods to educate
men
cultured
The
of the world.
arithmetic exercise-
books of
this period contain a simplification of divi-
sion (the
downwards
as a
more
fruitful application of the
decimal fractions.
of
or under-itself division) as well
By
their side also
method whose number
nineteenth century.
appear manuals
rapidly increasing in the
is
In these, elementary teaching
According to Pestalozzi
receives especial attention.
(1803) the foundation of calculation

tion,
chain rule and
is
sense percep-
according to Grube (1842), the comprehensive
treatment of each number before taking up the next,

according to Tanck and Knilling (1884), counting.
In Pestalozzi's
method
*'the decimal structure of our
number-system, which includes so many advantages

in the
way
of calculation, is not
addition, subtraction,
touched upon
at
all,
and division do not appear as
separate processes, the accompanying explanations
smother the principal matter

is
the arithmetic truth."*

*
Unger,
p. 179.
in the propositions, that
Grube has simply drawn
24
from Pestalozzi's principles the most extreme conclu
His sequence
sions.
many respects faulty; his

The historical development
**is in
processes unsuitable."*
of arithmetic speaks in favor of the counting-prin-
ciple
the
first
reckoning in every age has been an
observing and counting.
B.
FIRST PERIOD.
THE ARITHMETIC OF THE OLDEST NATIONS TO THE TIME

OF THE ARABS.
/.
If
we
The Arithmetic of Whole Numbers,
leave out of account finger-reckoning, which
cannot be shown with absolute certainty, then according to a statement of Herodotus the ancient Egyptian
computation consisted of an operating with pebbles on

a reckoning-board
the computer.
similar device.
as
among
but by
its
whose
lines
were
Possibly the Babylonians also used a
In the ordinary arithmetic of the
latter,
the Egyptians, the decimal system prevails,

side
we
also find, especially in dealing with
This arose without
fractions, a sexagesimal system.
doubt
at right angles to
in the
tions of the
working out
Babylonian
of the astronomical observapriests."!"
The
length of the
year of 360 days furnished the occasion for the division of the circle into 360 equal parts, one of which
was
to represent the apparent daily path of the
upon the
celestial sphere.
Unger,
pp. 192, 193.
If in
sun
addition the construct Cantor,
I.,
p. 80.
ARITHMETIC.
tion of the regular
2$
hexagon was known, then
it
was
natural to take every 60 of these parts again as units.
The number 60 was
called
soss.
Numbers
of the
sexagesimal system were again multiplied in accordance with the rules of the decimal system
= 3Q00.
= 600,
a sar
lished
by the Babylonian
The sexagesimal system
their religious speculations,
was designated by one
ities
thus a ner
estab-
priests also entered into
where each of
of the
60 corresponding to his rank.
their divin-
numbers from
1 to
Perhaps the Babyloni-
ans also divided their days into 60 equal parts as has
been shown for the Veda calendars of the ancient

Hindus.
The Greek elementary mathematics,
at
any rate
as early as the time of Aristophanes (420 B. C.),* used
finger-reckoning and reckoning-boards for ordinary
computation.
is
An
explanation of the finger-reckoning
Rhabdaf of Smyrna (in the fourMoving from the little finger of the
given by Nicholas
teenth century).
left
hand
to the little finger of the right, three fingers
were used to represent
units, the next two, tens, the
next two, hundreds, and the last three, thousands.
On
the reckoning board, the adax (aâ^, dust board),
whose columns were
at right angles to the user, the
operations were carried on with pebbles which had a

different place-value in different lines.
Multiplication
was performed by beginning with the highest order
in
each factor and forming the sum of the partial pro* Cantor,
I.,
pp. 120, 479.
Gow, History of Greek Mathematics,
p. 24.
26
Thus the
ducts.
calculation
was
effected (in
modern
form) as follows
126 237
= (100 + 20 + 6) (200
= 20 000+ 3000
=
According
+
+
000+
1200+
-|-
30 -|- 7)
600
+700
+140
180
42
29 862
to
Pliny, the finger-reckoning of the
Romans goes back to King Numa;* the latter had

made a statue of Janus whose fingers represented the
number of the days of a year (355). Consistently with
this
Boethius
numbers,
10,
19, 21, 22,
20, 30,
29,
Ixl
numbers from
calls the
to 9 finger-
joint-numbers, 11, 12,
composite numbers.
In ele
ra
i t
i t t
(i>
c<i!)
e I
t
t
4^
4-
cti
a^
^6
^4
^8
mentary
teat:hing
the
^J
Romans used
^1
^1
the abacus,
board usually covered with dust on which one could

Cantor,
I.,
p. 491.
ARITHMETIC.
draw columns, and work with pebbles.
trace figures,
Or
it
the abacus
if
was made
27
was
be used for computing only,
to
and provided with grooves (the
of metal
schematic drawing on the pre-
vertical lines in the
ceding page) in which arbitrary marks (the crosslines)
could be shifted.
The columns
from
ai
to 1 000 000
upon
marks, upon a column

four
aj,
units
five
of
column a are found four
upon
c^
-^^,
the
number 782 192
upon
of the
order under consideration.
the
c%
^t^,
c^=^-,^^ (relative to
The abacus
vision of the a's).
Each
but the upper single
unit,
Further a mark upon ci=z^^, upon
= A-'
form a system
d-j
only one mark.
marks represents a
mark
di
upon
the di-
of the figure represents
+ ^1^ + ^1^ = 782 192 ii.
^3^
c^
This
abacus served for the reckoning of results of simple
Along with
problems.
was also employed.

were special tables.
this the multiplication- table
For
Such a one
torius (about 450 A. D.).*
the abacus
marks
larger multiplications there
apices,
is
mentioned by Vic-
From Boethius, who calls

we learn something about
multiplication and division.
Of these operations the
former probably, the latter certainly, was performed
by the use of complements.

differentia is
to the
In Boethius the term
applied to the complement of the divisor
Thus
next complete ten or hundred.
divisors 7, 84, 213 the differentiae are 3,

tively.
The
*
6,
for the
87 f respec-
essential characteristics of this comple-
Cantor,
I.,
p. 495.
Cantor,
p. 544.
28
mentary division are seen from the following example

put in modern form
257
257
^,0^^+57^^^^
117
20 6
47
117
^30 + 17
20
20
6
20 6
6
47
=2+41+^=2+'^''
20 6
20 6
20 6
1^ = 1+
^ A
14
14
14
20
20
'
'
'
'
'
257"14-
18+
^^+
The swanpan
the abacus of the
'
U-
of the Chinese
Romans.
somewhat resembles
This calculating machine
consists of a frame ordinarily with ten wires inserted.
cross wire separates each of the ten wires into two
unequal parts
on each smaller part two and on each
larger five balls are strung.
The Chinese
arithmetics
give no rules for addition and subtraction, but do for

multiplication,
which, as with the Greeks, begins
with the highest order, and fordivision, which appears

in the
form of a repeated subtraction.
The
calculation of the Hindus, after the introduc-
tion of the arithmetic of position, possessed a series

of suitable rules for
rations.
performing the fundamental ope-
In the case of a smaller figure in the minu-
end subtraction
is
performed by borrowing and by
addition (as in the so-called Austrian subtraction).*

* The Austrian subtraction corresponds
"making change."
in part to the usual
method
of
ARITHMETIC.
In
multiplication,
available, the
for
product
29
which several processes are

is
obtained in
some cases
by separating the multipliers into factors and subsequently adding the partial products.
a schematic process is introduced
are
shown
in the
example 315 'ST
In other cases
whose
peculiarities
= 11 655.
30
product to which other units from a later par-
of the
product are added (in sand or dust), rubbed out
tial
and corrected, so that
at the
end
of the
computation
the result stands above the multiplicand.

sion,
which
is
In divi-
never performed in the complementary
fashion, the divisor stands below the dividend and
advances toward the right as the calculation goes on.

Quotient and remainder appear above the divisor
= 28i|,
\6g^-
somewhat
in
as follows:*
13
14
28
461
16
16
Al Nasawif also computes after the same fashion as

Al Khowarazmi.
Their methods characterise the
mentary arithmetic
of the
ele-
Eastern Arabs.
In essentially the same manner, but with more or

less deviation in the actual
computed.
Ibn
al
Hindu figure-computation
Besides the
Banna teaches a
sort of reckoning
Proceeding from right to

bined in groups of three
karrur\ the
record a
number
number
is
work, the Western Arabs
left,
;
is
Cantor,
2,
I.,
the columns are com-
such a group
of all the
Thus
number
the mukarrar z=1.
p. 674.
t Cantor,
I.,
is
called ta-
columns necessary
the mukarrar.
ber 3 849 922 the takarrur or
groups
by columns. J
p. 716.
for the
of
to
num-
complete
Al Kalsadi wrote a
t Cantor,
I.,
p. 757.
ARITHMETIC.
work Raising of the Veil of the Science of Gubar. * The

original meaning of Gubar (dust) has here passed
over into that of the written calculation with figures.
Especially characteristic
traction {=.tarh, taraha
is
it
= to
that in addition, sub-
throw away) and multi-
plication the results are written
above the numbers
operated upon, as in the following examples
193
is
+ 45 = 238
and 238
written,
193 = 45
is
written,
238
193'
238*
45
193
45
Several rules for multiplication are found in Al Kalsadi,
among them one with an advancing
In division the result stands below.

FIRST EXAMPLE.
multiplier,
32
fractions with numerator
e.,
i.
a special symbol
therefore,
For
1.
is
this numerator,
found, in the hiero-
glyphic writing o, in the hieratic a point, so that in

the latter a unit fraction
is
represented by
nator with a point placed above
its
Besides these
it.
there are found for J and f the hieroglyphs

jf
and
;* in the hieratic writing there are likewise special
symbols corresponding
The
first
to the fractions ^, f,
problem which Ahmes solves
= i + TV
ih
w^-^^-\-zh'
really an indeterminate problem,
Ahmes in general
The fractions
g.,
and
J.
to sep-
he finds
separation,
not solved by
form, but only for special cases.

of the
Babylonians being entirely
in the sexagesimal system,
mon
This
is
-J-,
is this,
E.
arate a fraction into unit fractions.
denomi-
had
at the outset a
com-
denominator, and could be dealt with like whole

In the written form only the numerator
numbers.
The Greeks
numerator came first with
was given with a special sign attached.

wrote a fraction so that the
a single stroke at the right and above, followed in the
same
line
by the denominator with two strokes,
ten twice, thus t^'Ka'Ka"
= ^^.
writ-
In unit fractions the
numerator was omitted and the denominator written

only once:
8"î.
The
unit fractions to be
follow immediately one after another, f
= T + + TT^ + î4=AirV
extensive use was
made
Cantor,
I.,
p. 118,
kyj" pifi" o-kS"
In arithmetic proper,
of unit-fractions, later also of
For carefully drawn symbols see Cantor,

t
^"
added
I.
p. 45.
ARITHMETIC
33
sexagesimal fractions (in the computation of angles).
Of the use of a bar between the terms

there
nowhere any mention.
is
use appears to occur,
of a fraction
Indeed, where such

result of an
marks only the
it
addition, but not a division.*
The
Romans
fractional calculations of the
furnish
an example of the use of the duodecimal system.
The
fractions {minuticR) Jj, -^,
names and symbols.
The
^4 had special
exclusive use of these duo-
decimal fractions t was due to the fact that the

a
mass
of copper weighing one pound,
into twelve uncia.
twenty- four
quadrans,
jrr/^z//;.
was divided
The uncia had four

\âs, \:^ semis \
^
as,
sicilici
triens,
and
i
Besides the twelfths special names
etc.
were given to the fractions
^, ^,
-if^,
Ît? yt?-
'^^^
addition and subtraction of such fractions was comparatively simple, but their multiplication very de-
The
tailed.
greatest disadvantage of this system con-
which did not
fit
duodecimal system could be represented
bj'
sisted in the fact that all divisions
into this
minutiae either with extreme
diflficulty
or only approxi-
mately.
In the computations of the Hindus both unit fractions
The
and derived fractions likewise appear.
nominator stands under the numerator but

arated from
it
by a
bar.
is
not sep-
The Hindu astronomers
preferred to calculate with sexagesimal fractions.
Ae
de-
In
computations of the Arabs Al Khowarazmi gives

Tannery
in Bibl.
Math.
i8S6
tHankel,
p. 57-
34
words
special
for
half, third,
ninth (expressible
fractions).* All fractions with denominators non-divisible
by
2, 3,
are called
9,
mute
fractions
were expressed by a circumlocution,
one under another,
number, below
this the
at the
as 2
top the whole
numerator, below this the de-
For astronomical calculations
nominator.
of the
g., y^^
they
Al Nasawi writes mixed numbers
parts of 17 parts.
in three lines,
e.
fractions
sexagesimal system were used exclusively.
Applied Arithmetic.
J.
The
practical arithmetic of the ancients included
besides the
common
cases of daily
and geometrical problems.
The
life,
astronomical
latter will
be passed
over here because they are mentioned elsewhere.
Ahmes problems
also the
sums
mined.
Theon
in
partnership are developed and
some
of
In
of the simplest series deter-
how to obtain
number of angle
Alexandria showed
of
approximately the square root of a
degrees by the use of sexagesimal fractions and the
The Romans were concerned
principally
with problems of interest and inheritance.
The Hin-
gnomon.
dus had already developed the method

tion {^Regula falsi')
and the rule
of false posi-
of three,
and made
a study of problems of alligation, cistern-filling, and

series,
which were
still
further developed by the Arabs.
Along with the practical arithmetic appear frequent

Cantor,
I.,
p. 675.
ARITHMETIC.
35
The
number by
traces of observations on the theory of numbers.
Egyptians knew the
test of divisibility of a
The Pythagoreans distinguished numbers
2.
as
odd
and even, amicable, perfect, redundant and defective.*
Of two amicable numbers each was equal to the sum

of the aliquot parts of the other (220 gives 1
-|-
-|-
+ 20 + 22 + 44 + 55 -f 110 = 284 and

284 gives l-f-2-f4 + 71-|-142 = 220). A perfect num_^ 5
_j_
10 -^ 11
ber was equal to the

2-|- 3).
less
If
sum
sum of
number
=1
-j-
the aliquot parts was greater or
the
than the
of its aliquot parts (6
itself,
then the latter was called
redundant or defective respectively (8
>1
^1^2 + 3 + 4-1-6).
Euclid starting
Besides
this,
-|-
-}-
12
from his geometric standpoint commenced some fun-
damental investigations on
common measure and

The Hindus were
knowledge went over
may be
fractions,
common
multiple.
and from them
to the Arabs.
However
this
insig-
beginnings in their ancient
these
form, they contain the

in the
the least
the greatest
familiar with casting out the nines
and with continued
nificant
divisibility,
germ
of that vast
development
theory of numbers which the nineteenth cen-
tury has brought about.

* Cantor,
I.,
p. 156.
36
S"^,COND PERIOD.
C.
FROM THE EIGHTH TO THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

The Arithmetic of Whole Numbers'.
I.
In the cloister schools, the episcopal schools, and

the private schools of the Merovingian and Carlovingian period
it
was the monks almost exclusively who
gave instruction.
The
cloister schools proper
were
of
only slight importance in the advancement of mathe-
matical knowledge
on the contrary, the episcopal
and private schools, the

ods,
seem
The
first to
ical
knowledge
to
based on Italian meth-
latter
have brought very beneficial
foreshadow something
of the
monks
is
of the
results.
mathemat-
Isidorus of Seville.
This cloister scholar confined himself to making conjectures regarding the derivation of the
merals, and says nothing at
all
likewise published only
tions
on finger-reckoning.
sent
from
numbers by the
left
to right,
nu-
about the method
computation of his contemporaries.
Bede
Roman
of
The Venerable
some extended observaHe shows how to repre-
aid of the fingers, proceeding
and thereby assumes a certain
ac-
quaintance with finger-reckoning, mentioning as his

predecessors Macrobius and Isidorus.*
digitalis,
* Cantor,
appearing
I.,
p. 778.
in
This calculus
both the East and the
West
in
ARITHMETIC.
exactly the
same
fashion, played an important part in
fixing the dates of
church feasts by the priests of that
computus
time
ticus
were frequently used
at least
With regard
digitalis
and computus
in the
ecclesias-
same sense.*
fundamental operations proper
to the
Bede does not express

of
37
himself.
number-mysticism and reckons
Alcuin makes
in a very
much
cumbrous
manner with the Roman numerals, f Gerbert was the

first
in
to give in his Regula de abaco computi actual rules,
which he depended upon the arithmetic part
What he
Boethius's work.
teaches
is
of
a pure abacus-
reckoning, which was widely spread by reason of his

Gerbert's abacus, of which
reputation.
we have an
accurate description by his pupil Bernelinus, was a

table
which
for the
drawing of geometric figures was
sprinkled with blue sand, but for calculation was di-
vided into thirty columns of which three were reserved

for fractional
computations.
The remaining twenty-
seven columns were separated from right to
left into
groups of three. At the head of each group stood

wise from right to
tuvi).
left
{singuiaris')
The number-symbols
{decern),
like{cen-
used, the so-called apices,
to 9, but without zero.
In calcu-
are symbols for
lating with this
abacus the intermediate operations
could be rubbed out, so that finally only the result re-
mained
or the operation
was made with counters.
The fundamental operations were performed
princi-
pally by the use of complements, and in this respect

* Giinther.
t Giinther.
38
division
is
especially characteristic.
of the quotient
mentary
if^
= 33^
division.
[I
The formation
will explain this
comple-
ARITHMETIC.
39
In the tenth and eleventh centuries there appeared

a large
number
authors belonging chiefly to the
of
who wrote on abacus-reckoning with
clergy
apices
but without the zero and without the Hindu-Arab

In the latter the apices were connected with
methods.
num-
the abacus itself or with the representation of
bers of one figure, while in the running text the
numeral symbols stood
The
is
numbers
for
of several figures.
contrast between the apices-plan and the
so striking that Oddo, for example, writes

or 7 times
takes 5 times
7,
and 7 written
in apices).*
5,
Roman
Roman
"If one
XXXV"
he gets
(the 5
At the time of the abacus-reckoning there arose the peculiar

custom of representing by special signs certain numbers which do
not appear in the
Roman
system of symbols, and this use contin-
ued far into the Middle Ages.

books of Greifswald 250
The
continually represented by
abacists with their remarkable
vision completely
to the
is
Thus, for example, in the town-
of di-
beginning of the twelfth century.
But then a
The
abacus, the
heir of the computus,
i.
effected.
e.,
the old
calculation and number-writing,
its
methods
'
dominated Western reckoning up
complete revolution was
way
CO0^
Roman method
was destined
of
to give
to the algorism with its sensible use of zero
and
simpler processes of reckoning, but not without a
further struggle. J
tern Arabs.
*
Cantor,
I.,
People became pupils of the Wes-
Among
p. 846.
the
t
names
of those
Giinther, p. 175.
who extended
Giinther, p. 107.
40
Arab methods
of calculation stands forth
especially
pre-eminent that of Gerhard of Cremona, because he

translated into Latin a series of writings of Greek
and Arab authors.*
who
algorists
Then was formed
in contrast to the abacists
the school of
possessed no
complementary division but did possess the Hindu
The most lasting material

Hindu methods was furnished by
place-system with zero.

for the extension of
Fibonacci in his Liber
This book **has been
abaci.
the mine from which arithmeticians and algebraists
have drawn
come
their
wisdom
on
this
account
it
has be-
foundation of modern science, "f

other things it contains the four rules for
in general the
Among
whole numbers and fractions

worthy
in detailed form.
It is
of especial notice that besides ordinary sub-
traction with borrowing he teaches subtraction
by
in-
creasing the next figure of the subtrahend by one,
and that therefore Fibonacci
is
to
be regarded as the
creator of this elegant method.
2.
Here,
Arithmetic of Fractions.
also, after
Roman duodecimal
fractions
had
been exclusively cultivated by the abacists Beda, Gerbert
and Bernelinus, Fibonacci
laid a
new foundation
in his exercises preliminary to division.
how
He showed
to separate a fraction into unit fractions.
cially
advantageous
*Hankel,
p. 336.
in
Espe-
dealing with small numbers

tHankel,
p. 343.
ARITHMETIC.
is
method
his
of
determining the
tor: the greatest
denominator
is
4I
common denominamultiplied by each
following denominator and the greatest

ure of each pair of factors rejected.
least
common
multiple of 24, 18, 15,
common meas(Example
9, 8,
is
the
24- 3-
= 360.)
J, Applied Arithmetic.
The
arithmetic of the abacists had for
its
purpose the determination of the date of Easter.

sides this are found, apparently written
Problems for Quickening the
man
Mind which
main
Be-
by Alcuin,
suggest Ro-
models. In this department also Leonardo Fibo-
nacci furnishes the most prominent rule (the regula

falsify
but his problems belong more to the domain of
algebra than to that of lower arithmetic.

Investigations
in
the
theory of
numbers could
hardly be expected from the school of abacists.

the other hand, the algorist
On
Leonardo was familiar
with casting out the nines, for which he furnished an
independent proof.
D>
THIRD PERIOD.
FROM THE FIFTEENTH TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

/.
The Arithmetic of Whole Nu7nbers.
While on the whole the fourteenth ceatury had

only reproductions to show, a
new period
of brisk ac-
42
begins with the fifteenth century, marked by
tivity
Peurbach and Regiomontanus
Luca
As
Pacioli in Italy.
Germany, and by
in
far as the individual pro-
cesses are concerned, in addition the
sum sometimes
stands above the addends, sometimes below; subtraction
''carrying"
recognizes
and "borrowing";
in division
no
The algorism
of
multiplication various methods prevail

settled
method
yet developed.
is
in
Peurbach names the following arithmetic operations
JVumeraito, additio, subtraciio, mediatio, duplatio, multiplication
divisio, progressio
(arithmetic and geometric
series), besides the extraction of roots
which before the
invention of decimal fractions was performed by the
His upwards-division
aid of sexagesimal fractions.

still
it
used the arrangement
was performed
in the
advancing divisor
of the
manner following (on the
left
the explanation of the process, on the right Peurbach's

division,
where figures
to
be erased in the course of
the reckoning are indicated by a period to the right
and below): The oral statement would be somewhat

like this: 36 in
above 8; 2-6
out
2, etc.
84 twice, 2-3
= 12,
24
The proof
12 = 12,
of the
6,
=
6
2,
written
write above, strike
accuracy of the result
is
obtained as in the other operations by casting out the

nines.
This method of upwards-division which
difficult in
oral presentation
is
still
found
is
not
in arith-
metics which appeared shortly before the beginning

of the nineteenth century.
ARITHMETIC,
43
|36
8479:235
6
24
12
1.1
1.3.4.
2.2.9.9
8 4 7 9
3 6 6 6
12
_9
~37
18
~19"
235
I
15
""49
30
"~T9
In the sixteenth century work in arithmetic had
entered the Latin schools to a considerable extent
mass
to the great
common
but
people
men nor statesmen gave any thought

The first regulation of any value in this
neither school
before 1525.
line is the
of children of the
Bavarian Schuelordnungk de anno IS4S which
introduced arithmetic as a required study into the
vil-
Aside from an occasional use of finger-
lage schools.
reckoning, this computation was either a computation
upon
lines with counters or a figure-computation.
In
both cases the work began with practice in numeration
To perform an
in figures.
operation with counters a
series of horizontal parallels
1,
10, 100,
5,
50, 500,
suit-
Reckoned from below upward each counter
able base.
upon the
was drawn upon a
1st, 2d, 3d,

.
.,
line represented the value
but between the lines they represented
The
following figure shows the rep-
44
In subtraction the minuend,
resentation of 41 096^.
in multiplication the multiplicand

lines.
was put upon the
Division was treated as repeated subtractions.
This line-reckoning was completely
lost in the seven-
-X-
o o o o
-x-e-
oSo
ô
o o
o
teenth century
when
it
gave place to real written
arithmetic or figure-reckoning by which
accompanied
it
in the better schools almost
had been
from the
first.
In the ordinary business and trade of the Middle
Ages use was

reckoning.
made
of the
widely-extended score-
At the beginning
of the fifteenth century
also
this
method was
and
in
England
quite usual in Frankfort on the Main,

it
held
its
own even
into the nine-
Whenever goods were bought of a

merchant on credit the amount was represented by
teenth century.
notches cut upon a stick which was split in two lengthwise so that of the two parts which matched, the debtor
kept one and the creditor one so that both were se
cured against fraud.*

In the cipher-reckoning the computers of the sixteenth century generally distinguished more than 4
operations;
* Cantor,
M.
some counted
Mathem.
Beitr.
zum
9,
i.
e.,
the 8
Kulturleben der
V'dlker.
named by
Halle, 1863.
ARITHMETIC.
45
Peiirbach and besides, as a ninth operation, evolution,

the extraction of the square root
= a^
-\-
2ab
-\-
b^ ,
and the extraction
by the formula {a
+ bf = a^
nitions appeared, but these

locutions.
by the formula (a-\-by
-\-
{a
of the
b) Sab
-\-
cube root
Defi-
b^.
were only repeated circum-
Thus Grammateus says
**
Multiplication
shows how to multiply one number by the other.

Subtraction explains
how
number
subtract one
to
from the other so that the remainder shall be seen."*

Addition was performed just as
is
done to-day. In
subtraction for the case of a larger figure in the subtrahend,
it
was the custom
this figure to 10, to
uend
add
figure, but at the
in
this
sive books,
to
complement
same time
of next higher order in the
nacci's counting-on
Germany
complete
to the
to increase the figure
subtrahend by
method).
min-
(Fibo-
In more comprehen-
borrowing for this case was also taught.
Multiplication, which presupposed practice in the multiplication table,
was performed
Most frequently
it
cent in steps by
was
in a variety of ways.
effected as to-day with a des-
movement toward
the
left.
Luca
Pacioli describes eight different kinds of multiplication,
old
among them those above mentioned, with two

Hindu methods, one represented on p. 29, the
other cross-multiplication or the lightning method.
In the latter
method there were grouped
ducts involving units,
all
those involving hundreds.

*
Unger,
p. 72.
all
the pro-
those involving tens,
The
multiplication
all
46
243-139
= 9 -3 + 10(9 -4 + 3-3)+ 100(9 -2 4- 3 -4 + 1-3)

-f 1000(2 -3
was represented
+ 1 -4)+ 10 000 2-1
as follows
18
German books
In
worthy methods
are found, besides these, two note-
of multiplication, of
which one be-
gins on the left (as with the Greeks), the partial pro-
ducts being written in succession in the proper place,
shown by the following example 243-839:
as
839
243
839-243
166867
= 2-8-104 + 2-3-103 + 2-9-102

_^ 4. 8 -103
3129
232
-I-
+ 3-8-102 +
4-3 -102 -1-4-9 -10

3-3-10 +3-9.
14
2
203877
In division the upwards-division prevailed
it
was
used extensively, although Luca Pacioli in 1494 taught

the downwards-division in
modern form.
After the completion of the computation, in con-
formity to historical tradition, a proof was demanded.
was secured by casting out the
At
first
On
account of the untrustworthiness of this method,
this
which Pacioli perfectly
realised, the
nines.
performance of
ARITHMETIC.
the inverse operation
of
47
was recommended.
In course
time the use of a proof was entirely given up.
Signs of operation properly so called were not

yet in use
the eighteenth century they passed
in
from algebra into elementary arithmetic.
Widmann,
however, in his arithmetic has the signs
-j-
which had probably been
in
sign
-7-
for minus.
word ''million"
At a
Ariihmetica, 1494).
among the
in a Vienna MS. of
time Wolf has the
later
In numeration the
in print is
use some time
merchants, since they appear also

the fifteenth century.*
and
due
Among the
first
to Pacioli
use of the
{Summa
word
Italians the
de
''mil-
said originally to have represented a concrete
lion"
is
mass,
viz.,
ten tons of gold.
words "byllion,
Strangely enough, the
tryllion, quadrillion, quyllion, sixlion,
septyllion, ottyllion, nonyllion," as well as "million,''
are found as early as 1484 in Chuquet, while the
"miliars" (equal to 1000 millions)
is
to
word
be traced
back to Jean Trenchant of Lyons (1588).

The seventeenth century was especially inventive
in
instrumental appliances for the mechanical per-
formance
of the
fundamental processes
Napier's rods sought to
make
tiplication-table superfluous.
of arithmetic.
the learning of the mul-
These rods were quad-
rangular prisms whi^h bore on each side the small

multiplication-table for one of the
numbers
*Gerhardt, Geschichte der Mathematik in Deutsckland,
1, 2,
1877.
...
9.
Hereafter
referred to as Gerhardt,
t Miiller. Historisch-etymologische Studien iiber ntathematische
logie.
Hereafter referred to as Miiller.
>ti
Termino-
48
For extracting square and cube roots rods were used

with the squares and cubes of one-figure numbers inscribed
Real calculating machines which
upon them.
gave results by the simple turning of a handle, but on

that account
must have proved elaborate and expen-
were devised by Pascal, Leibnitz, and MatthSus
sive,
Hahn
(1778).
was
simplification of another kind
These were
calculating-tables.
tables
effected
for
by
solving
problems, accompanied also by very extended multiplication-tables, such as those of
Herwart von Hohen-
numbers
burg, from which the product of any two
from
1 to
999 could be read immediately.
For the methods
of
computation
of the eighteenth
century the arithmetic writings of the two Sturms,
and
of
Wolf and Kastner,
interest of
made
In the
commercial arithmetic the endeavor was
to abbreviate
various
are of importance.
Nothing
expedients.
gained, however,
and division by
multiplication
unless
it
essentially
new was
be the so-called mental
arithmetic or oral reckoning which in the later decades

of this period appears as
an independent branch.
The nineteenth century has brought
as a novelty
in elementary arithmetic only the introduction of the
and
so-called Austrian subtraction (by counting on)

division,
way.
methods
The
by saying,
is
which Fibonacci had paved the
for
difference
7
and
6,
arranged as in the
323
and
187:= 136
3,
first of
2 and
is
computed
and 43083 185

:
the following examples
ARITHMETIC.
1185
43083 232
49
50
by a fraction by the use
division
in the
works
The way
of its reciprocal,
and
of other writers.
for the introduction of
was prepared by the systems
decimal fractions
sexagesimal and duo-
of
decimal fractions, since by their employment operations with fractions can readily be performed
by the
corresponding operations with whole numbers.
A no-
tation such as has
become usual
was already known
to Rudolff,*
of integers
number
edge
of
by powers
of places with a
of
decimal fractions
in
who,
cuts
10,
in the division
off
the requisite
comma. The complete knowl-
decimal fractions originated with Simon Stevin
who extended
the position-system below unity to any
extent desired.
Tenths, hundredths, thousandths,
were called pritnes^
sekondes, terzes
ten
Joost Biirgi, in his tables of sines,
4(0) 6(1) 2(2) 8(3).
4.
628
is
perhaps independently of Stevin, used decimal

tions in the form 0.32
the
comma
Kepler. I
and 3.2.
The
writ-
frac-
introduction of
as a decimal point is to be assigned to
In practical arithmetic, aside from logarith-
mic computations, decimal fractions were used only

in
computing
interest
and
in reduction-tables.
were brought into ordinary arithmetic
They
at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century in connection with the

introduction of systems of decimal standards.
*Gerhardt.
tThe
first
use of the decimal point

Cantor, II., p. 555.
of Pitiscus, i6i2.
is
found in the trigonometric tables
ARITHMETIC.
J.
Applied Arithmetic.
During the transition period

applied arithmetic had absorbed
treatises in a superficial
Middle Ages
of the
much from
the Latin
and incomplete manner
the
and sixteenth centuries show evidences
fifteenth
Even
progress in this direction also.
the
of
Bamberger
Arithmetic of 1483 bears an exclusively practical stamp
and aims only
That method
affairs.
tile
computation
at facility of
of solution
in
mercan-
which
in the
books on arithmetic everywhere occupied the

place was the
three),
''regeldetri " {regula
known
also
The statement
''golden rule."*
was purely mechanical
so
tri,
rule
of
''merchant's rule/' or
the
as
de
first
little
of the rule of three
thought was bestowed
upon the accompanying proportion
that even master
accountants were content to write 4
fl
stead of 4
fl
20
fl
r= 12
lb
a:
12
lb
20
fl?
in-
There can indeed
Ib.t
be found examples of the rule of three with indirect

ratios,
but with no explanations of any kind whatever.
Problems involving the compound rule

de quinque, etc.
of three {regula
were solved merely by successive ap-
plications of the simple rule of three.
and
Widmann we
find equation of
according to the method

wise,
still
Widmann's Arithmetic
scurity
and lack
* Cantor,
II., p.
205
Unger,
p. 86.
payments treated
in use to-day.
of 1489
of scope in rules
so that not infrequently the
In Tartaglia
Other-
shows great ob-
and nomenclature,
same matter appears unt
Cantor,
II.,
p. 368;
Unger,
p. 87.
52
He
der different names.
introduces ''Regula Residui,
Reciprocationis, Excessus, Divisionis, Quadrata, Inventionis, Fiisti, Transversa, Ligar, Equalitatis, Legis,
Augmenti, Augmenti
et
Decrementi, Sententiarum,
Suppositionis, Collectionis, Cubica, Lucri, Pagamenti,

Alligationis, Falsi," so that in later years Stifel did not
hesitate to declare these things simply laughable.*
Problems of proportional parts and

solved by the use of as
sponded
to the
number
many
of
alligation
were
proportions as corre-
groups to be separated.
compound interest Tartaglia

methods, among them computation by steps
For the computation

gave four
of
from year to year, or computation with the aid

the formula b
= aq'%
most simple form.

were
of
It is
exchange was taught
in its
said that bills of exchange
used by the Jews who migrated into Lom-
first
bardy
although he does not give this
Computing
formula.
of
after
being driven from France in the seventh
The
century.
Ghibellines
who
fled
from Lombardy
introduced exchange into Amsterdam, and from this

city its use spread, f
In 1445 letters of exchange were
brought to Nuremberg.
The chain
method which
rule (^Kettensatz), essentially an Indian

is
described by Brahmagupta, was de-
veloped during the sixteenth century, but did not
come
into
methods
common
of notation differed.
Treutletn, Die deutsche
tUnger,
use until two centuries later.
p. 90.
Coss,
Pacioli
Schlomilch's
The
and Tartaglia
Zeiisc/irz/it,
Bd.
24,
HI. A.
ARITHMETIC.
wrote
numbers
all
53
in a horizontal line
and multiplied
terms of even and of odd order into separate products.

Stifel
proceeded
in the
same manner, only he placed
terms vertically beneath
all
work
who
of Rudolff,
cellation,
we
find the
also
this
modern method
to
to
(i.
of representing
at the
Germany by
end.*
the merchants,
occupy an important place
teenth century, and
This Welsh
comes
of can-
time a new method of reckoning was
introduced from Italy into
which came
In the
saw the advantage
the chain rule, but the answer
About
one another.
still
more
so in the seventeenth.
foreign) practice, as
e.,
be called, found
its
in the six-
it
soon came
application in the development
of the
product of two terms of a proportion, especially
when
these were unlike quantities.
The
together with the fraction belonging to

rated into
its
it,
multiplier,
was sepa-
addends, to be derived successively one
from another in the simplest possible manner.
How
well Stifel understood the real significance and appli-
Welsh practice, the following statement

shows:! *' The Welsh practice is nothing more than
cability of the
a clever
and entertaining discovery
But
him who
let
practice rely
is
not acquainted with the
upon the simple
will arrive at the
same
result
through the Welsh practice."

find tables
of
prices
their introduction
*Unger,
in the rule of three.
rule of three,
Welsh
and he
which another obtains

At
and tables
this time, too,
we
of interest in use,
being also ascribable to the Italians.
p. 92.
Unger,
p. 94-

54
In the sixteenth century

for the regula virginum
we
come upon examples
also
and the regula falsi
in writings
intended for elementary instruction in arithmetic,

writings into which, ordinarily,
author.
learning of the
rules,
however, does not
tary arithmetic, but
same way,
in
The
them
significance
in the
lie
that
of
these
In the
magic squares, and most
also contained, as a side-issue, certain arith-
metic puzzles and humorous questions (Rudolff
them
the
realm Of elemen-
equations.
of
all
a few arithmetic writings contained direc-
tions for the construction of

of
was introduced
Schi?npfrechnung).
The
latter are often
calls
mere
disguises of algebraic equations (the problem of the
hound and the
hares, of the
keg with three taps,
number which has been changed by
obtaining a
of
cer-
tain operations, etc.).
The seventeenth century brought

tions only in the province of
commercial computation.
While the sixteenth century was

rect
the
methods
amount
in
all
at the
in possession of cor-
computations of interest when
end
of a given time
was sought,
when
the principal
there were usually grave blunders
was
to be obtained, that
on a given sum.
somewhat
in
this
essential innova-
is,
in
computing the discount
The discount in 100 was computed

manner:* 100 dollars gives after
two years 10 dollars
in interest
if
one
is
to
100 dollars immediately, deduct 10 dollars."

a
man
pay the
No
less
than Leibnitz pointed out that the discount
*Unger,
p. 132.
ARITHMETIC.
Among
must be reckoned upon 100.

arithmeticians his
standing that
the discount for two years

until
the majority of
method met with the misunder-
the discount at
if
55
5%
for
must be
the eighteenth century,
after
one year
-^j.
It
is
-^j-,
was not
long and sharp
controversy, that mathematicians and jurists united
upon the correct formula.

In the computation of exchange the Dutch were
advance
essentially in
of other peoples.
They
pos-
sessed special treatises in this line of commercial arith-
metic and through them they were well acquainted

with the fundamental principles of the arbitration of
exchange.
In the
way
of
commercial arithmetic many
expedients were discovered in the eighteenth century

to aid in the
tions
of
and
performance
of the
in solving concrete
fundamental opera-
problems.
Calculation
exchange and arbitration of exchange were firmly
established and thoroughly discussed by Clausberg.
Especial consideration was given to what was called

the Reesic rule, which
was looked upon
from the well-known chain-rule.
was written
1737,
in
this
fractions
in
language into German in 1739.
In the construction of his series

;
Rees's book, which
Dutch, was translated into French
and from
required term
as differing
in the
Rees began with the
computation the elimination of
and cancellation came
first,
and then
fol-
lowed the remaining operations, multiplication and

division.
Computation
of capital
and interest was extended.
56
through the establishment of insurance associations,
which calcula-
to a so-called political arithmetic, in
tion of contingencies
and annuities held an important
place.
The
first
traces of conditions for the evolution of
Roman
a political arithmetic* date back to the
Ulpian,
who about
the opening of the third century
A. D. projected a mortality table for
But there are no
traces
among
surance institutions proper.
the
It is
Roman subjects.
Romans of life in-
not until the Middle
a few traces appear in the legal regulations
Ages that
endowments and guild
of
prefect
From
finances.
the four-
teenth century there existed travel and accident
in-
surance companies which bound themselves, in consideration of the
payment
the insured from captivity
Among
of a certain
among
sum,
the Turks or Moors.
the guilds of the Middle Ages the idea of
association for mutual assistance in
fires, loss
and similar losses had already assumed
To
more marked degree was
still
ransom
to
of cattle
definite shape.
this the case
among
the guilds of artisans which arose after the Reformation
guilds which established regular sick and burial
funds.
We
must consider tontines
annuity insurance.
as the forerunner of
In the middle of the seventeenth
century an Italian physician, Lorenzo Tonti, induced

a
number
Karup,
t
Cantor,
of
persons in Paris to contribute sums of
Theoretisches
I.,
p. 522.
Handbuch der Lebensversicherung,
1871.
ARITHMETIC.
57
money the interest of which should be divided annually among the surviving members. The French government regarded this procedure as an easy method
of obtaining money and established from 1689 to 1759
ten state tontines which, however, were all given
in 1770, as
it
had been proved that
this
up
kind of state
loan was not lucrative.

In the
meantime two steps had been taken which,
by using the results
of
mathematical science, provided
foundation for the business of insurance.
a secure
Pascal and Fermat had outlined the calculation of

contingencies, and the
made use
of their
Dutch statesman De Witt had
methods
to lay
down
in a separate
treatise the principles of annuity insurance
the birth
On
and death
lists of
based upon
several cities of Holland.
the other hand. Sir William Petty, in 1662, in a
work on
political arithmetic* contributed the first val-
uable investigations concerning general mortality
work which induced John Graunt

tality tables.
to construct
mor-
Mortality tables were also published by
Kaspar Neumann, a Breslau clergyman,
in 1692,
and
these attracted such attention that the Royal Society
London commissioned
verify these tables.
With
of
terial
the astronomer Halley to

the aid of
Halley constructed the
mortality for the various ages.
first
Neumann's ma-
complete tables
of
Although these tables
did not obtain the recognition they merited until half

a century later, they furnished the foundation for all
*
Recently republished in inexpensive form in Cassell's National Library.
58
later
works
and hence Halley
of this kind,
is justly
called the inventor of mortality tables.
The
modern
first
life-insurance institutions
were
products of English enterprise. In the years 1698 and

1699 there arose two unimportant companies whose
field
operations remained limited.
of
1705, however, there appeared in
able " which continued
The
1866.
^'
its
In the year
London
the *'Amic-
corporate existence until
Royal Exchange" and
'^
London Assur-
ance Corporation," two older associations for
marine insurance, included

ness in 1721, and are
felt
among
still
life
fire
and
insurance in their busi-
in existence.
There was soon
the managers of such institutions the im-
perative need for reliable mortality tables, a fact which
work being rescued from oblivion
resulted in Halley's
by Thomas Simpson, and

ing the
first
table of
James Dodson's
premiums, on a rising
The
Halley's method.
in
oldest
was the " Society
Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorships,"
founded
in 1765.
While
eight
on
scale, after
company which used
as a basis these scientific innovations

for
project-
life
at the
beginning of the nineteenth century
insurance companies were already carrying
their beneficent
same time not
work
in
England, there was at the
a single institution of this kind
upon
the Continent, in spite of the progress which had been
made
in the science of insurance
noullis,
1819
by Leibnitz, the Ber-
Euler and others. In France there appeared
"La compagnie
d'
assurances g^n^rales sur
in
la

ARITHMETIC.
vie." In
Bremen
5g
the founding of a
insurance com-
life
pany was frustrated by the disturbances

1806.
It
was not
until
man companies were
of the
war
in
1828 that the two oldest Ger-
formed, the one in Liibeck, the
management
other in Gotha under the
helm Arnoldi, the ''Father
of
German
The nineteenth century has
of
Ernst Wil-
Insurance."
substantially enriched
the literature of mortality tables, in such tables as
Morgan
those compiled by the Englishmen Arthur

(in the eighteenth century)
and Farr, by the Belgian
Quetelet, and by the Germans, Brune,
Wittstein, and Scheffler.

field is
Heym,
Fischer,
recent acquisition in this
the table of deaths compiled in accordance
with the vote of the international statistical congress

at
Budapest
in 1876,
population of the
1871-1881.
German Empire
of the
for the ten years
Further development and advancement
of the science
''
which gives the mortality
of insurance is
Institute of Actuaries "
provided for by the
founded
in
London
an academic school with examinations in

of the subject.
There has also been
all
in 1849
branches
in Berlin since
1868 a ''College of the Science of Insurance," but

it
offers
no opportunity
for
study and no examina-
tions.
The
following compilations furnish a survey of the
conditions of insurance in the year 1890 and of
development
in
Germany.*
There were
in
* Karup, Theoretisches Handbuck der Lebensversicherung,

Universal Cyclopcedia, under " Life-insurance."
its
Germany:
1871.
Johnson,
6o
NUMBER OF
AT THE BEGINNING
OF THE YEAR
FOR THE SUM
NUMBER OF
ROUND NUMBERS
go's.
PERSONS
INSURED
1852
12
46,980
170
1858
20
90,128
300
1866
32
305,433
1890
49
There were
LIFE
in
1890
INS.
IN
(million MARKS)
900
4250
NUMBER OF LIFE
IN
INSURANCE
AMOUNT OF INSURANCE
FORCE
IN
CO'S.
Germany
49
Great Britain and Ireland

France
75
4250 million marks

"
pounds
900
17
3250
Rest of Europe
58
3200
'
United States of America
48
4000
"
"
'
francs
francs
dollars
All that the eighteenth century developed or dis-
covered has been further advanced in the nineteenth.
The
center of gravity of practical calculation lies in
commercial arithmetic.
This
is
also finding expres-
sion in an exceedingly rich literature which has been
extended
in
an exhaustive manner in
but which contains nothing essentially
methods
all
its details,
new except
the
of calculating interest in accounts current.
ALGEBRA.
III.
GENERAL SURVEY.
A.
npHE
are the
-*-
of
beginnings of general mathematical science

first
important outcome of special studies
number and magnitude
to the earliest times,

ally
and
they can be traced back
their circle has only gradu-
been expanded and completed.
The
first
period
reaches up to and includes the learning of the Arabs

contributions culminate in the complete solution
its
of the quadratic equation of
and
in the trial
one unknown quantity,
method, chiefly by means of geometry,
of solving equations of the third
The second period

development
of the
peoples of the
and fourth degrees.
includes the beginning of the
mathematical sciences among the
West from
the eighth century to the
middle of the seventeenth. The time of Gerbert forms

the beginning
period.
and the time
of
Kepler the end of this
Calculations with abstract quantities receive
a material simplification in form through the use of
abbreviated expressions for the development of

mulae
for-
the most important achievement lies in the
purely algebraic solution of equations of the third and

fourth degrees by
means
of radicals.
62
The
third period begins with Leibnitz
and extends from the middle
of this
period a
new
of the seventeenth cen-
In the
tury to the present time.
light
and Newton
was
first
and larger part
diffused over fields
which up to that time had been only partially explored,
by the discovery
At the end
analysis.
of the
of this first
certain mathematicians
of higher
epoch there appeared
who devoted themselves
the study of combinations

lofty points of
methods
to
but failed to reach the
view of a Leibnitz.
Euler and La-
grange, thereupon, assumed the leadership in the field

of
pure analysis.
Euler led the way with more than
seven hundred dissertations treating
branches of
The name of the great Gauss, who

works of Newton and Euler the first
mathematics.
drew from the

nourishment
all
for his creative genius,
adorns the be-
ginning of the second epoch of the third period.
Through the publication

memoirs and
number
of
more than
fifty
large
of smaller ones, not alone
on
mathematical subjects but also on physics and astron-
omy, he
set in
most varied
new
directions.
fields in
Dirichlet,
a series of
motion a multitude
At
which men
of
impulses in the
this time, too, there
like Abel, Jacobi,
opened
Cauchy,
Riemann, Weierstrass and others have made
most beautiful discoveries.
ALGEBRA.
63
FIRST PERIOD.
B.
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ARABS.

I.
General Arithmetic.
However meagre the information which

the evolution of mathematical
earliest peoples, still
we
describes
knowledge among the
find isolated attempts
among
the Egyptians to express the fundamental processes
by means of signs.
In the earliest mathematical pa-
pyrus* we find as the sign of addition a pair of walking legs travelling in the direction toward
birds pictured are looking.
The
which the
sign for subtraction
The
consists of three parallel horizontal arrows.

for equality is (^.
Computations are also
to
sign
be found
which show that the Egyptians were able to solve simple
problems
progressions.
Babyloiiians.
of the fifteen
in the field of arithmetic
and geometric
The last remark is true also of the

They assumed that during the first five
days between new moon and full moon,
the gain in the lighted portion of
its
disc (which
was
divided into 240 parts) could be represented by a geo

metric progression, during the ten following days by
an arithmetic progression.
were visible on the
day
*
Cantor,
I.,
p. 37.
first,
Of the 240 parts there

second, third
fifteenth
64
10
40 1.20
20
1.36 1.52 2.08 2.24 2.40

2.56 3.12 3.28 3.44
4.
The system
of notation is sexagesimal, so that
to take 3.28
= 3x60 + 28 = 208. *
we
are
Besides this there
have been found on ancient Babylonian monuments

the
sixty squares
first
in the
and the
first
thirty-two cubes
sexagesimal system of notation.
The spoils of Greek treasures are far richer. Even

the name of the entire science
fiaOrj/xaTLKy comes from
ij
In the time of Plato the word
the Greek language.
included
fxaOi^fiaTa
all
scientific instruction.
Peripatetics,
when
that
It
was considered worthy
was not
of
until the time of the
the art of computation {logistic^
and arithmetic, plane and solid geometry, astronomy
and music were enumerated

ical sciences, that the
word received
Especially with
cance.
mathemat-
in the list of
Heron
of
its
special signifi-
Alexandria logistic
appears as elementary arithmetic, while arithmetic so

called
is
a science involving the theory of numbers.
Greek arithmetic and algebra appeared almost

always under the guise of geometry, although the
purely arithmetic and algebraic method of thinking
was not altogether lacking, especially

Aristotlef
tities
by
is
in later times.
familiar with the representation of quan-
letters
of
the alphabet,
even when those
quantities do not represent line-segments
Cantor,
I.,
p. 8i.
+ Cantor,
I.,
he says
p. 240.
in
ALGEBRA.
one place
**
If
is
moving
the
moved, T the distance, and
65
force,
the time,
which
that
By
etc.'*
is
the
time of Pappus there had already been developed a

kind of reckoning with capital
able to distinguish as
were such
a,
many
general quantities as there
(The small
letters in the alphabet.
stood for the numbers
^, y,
he was
letters, since
1, 2, 3,
letters
Aristotle
.)
has a special word for '^continuous" and a definition
Diophantus went farther
continuous quantities.
for
With him
than any of the other Greek writers.
there
known and unknown

the square of a number
already appear expressions for
Hippocrates
quantities.
BwafiL^
calls
(power), a word which was transferred to the
Latin as potentia and obtained later

matical
names
sixth,
Diophantus
significance.
powers
to all
its
unknown
of
and introduces them
The
fiP.
abridged
xji)
known numbers
t,
called et8os
an abbreviation for
this
was used
in
gebra.*
The
is
of the sign
as the sign of equality.
word went
forming the
particular
up
>/>
k"",
88",
(an inverted and
to-ot,
equal, appears
term of an expression
into Latin as species
title
arithmetica speciosa
of the
is
and
3.\-
p. 442.
have
to
second dimension. The
ten propositions in the second

I.,
kk^.
formulae are usually given in words and
do only with expressions
Cantor,
8k",
In subtraction
are represented geometrically, as long as they
first
to the
in abbreviated forms, so
S",
Diophantus makes use
gives
quantities
that x^, x^, x^, x^, x^, appear as
sign for
special mathe-
book
of Euclid,
65
for
HISTORY OF MATHEMAllCS.
example, are enunciations in words and geometric
figures,
and correspond among others
sions a{b
-\-
-{-
^ ...)== al' -\-
ac
-\-
to the expres-
ad -\-
Geometry was with the Greeks
also a
vestigations in the theory of numbers.

for instance, in the
bers.
Among
a corner
gnomon.
figure
(<?
means
This
+ ^)^
for in-
is
seen,
remarks concerning gnomon-num-
the Pythagoreans a square out of which
was cut
in the
shape of a square was called
Euclid also used this expression for the
ABCDEF which
is
obtained from the parallelo-
gram ABCB' by cutting out the parallelogram DB'FE.

The gnomon-number of the Pythagoreans is 2-|-^
for
when ABCB'
is
a square, the square
can be made equal to the square

adding the square
= CE = l^n,
BE=\ X
since
we have
uponX>^ =
on^C=^-fl
and the rectangles

n^
-\- 2?i -\- 1
=z {n -\-
;/
by
AE
\y
Expressions like plane and solid numbers used for

the contents of spatial magnitudes of two and three
dimensions also serve to indicate the constant tend-
ALGEBRA.
67
ency to objectify mathematical thought by means
of
geometry.
All that
was known concerning numbers up
C, Euclid comprehended
third century B.
to the
in a general
survey. In his Elements he speaks of magnitudes, with-
however, explaining this concept, and he under-
out,
stands by this term, besides lines, angles, surfaces
and
solids, the natural
The
numbers.*
difference be-
tween even and odd, between prime and composite

numbers, the method
common
for finding the least
common
multiple and the greatest
divisor, the con-
struction of rational right angled triangles according

to Plato
him.
to
and the Pythagoreans
A method
all
these are familiar
"sieve")
(the
for sorting out
prime numbers originated with Eratosthenes.

sists
on,
down
in writing
multiples of
all
Diophantus stated that numbers

-\- b'^
form
of the
3, 5,
form
c^
7
-\-
2>ab
represent a square and also that numbers of the

{a^ -f
b'^) {jp- -f- d'^^
can represent a sum of two
squares in two ways;

{ac
con-
the odd numbers from 3
all
and then striking out
It
for
bdy + {ad-\- bcf =

The knowledge
mentary
series
{a^
of the
{ac
^ bd^'^
b'^) {c^
Greeks
-f
-\-
{ad
bcf =^
d'^).
in the field of ele-
was quite comprehensive. The Pythag-
oreans began with the series of even and odd numbers.
The sum
of
the
triangular number, the

square, the
Treutlein.
sum
of the
natural
sum
numbers gives the
of the
odd numbers the
even numbers gives the hetero-
68
mecic (oblong) number of the form n(n-\-l).
numbers they
also recognised as the
sum
Square
two suc-
of
The Neo-Pythagoreans
cessive triangular numbers.
and the Neo-Platonists made a study not only of polygonal but also of pyramidal numbers. Euclid treated
geometrical progressions in his Elements,
sum of the series 1 4- 2 -}- 4 -f

noticed that when the sum of this series
number, a "perfect number" results from
tained the
ing
it
by the
7x4 = 28;
finite
of
last
term of the series (1
= 1 -f 2 + 4 + 7 + 14;
28
-|-
ratios are
in the
ob-
and
is
prime
multiply2
-|-4^7
35).
cf. p.
convergent series appear frequently
Archimedes
He
in the
In-
works
form of geometric series whose
proper fractions
example,
for
in calculating
the area of the segment of a parabola, where the value

of the series 1
+ J + yV
also performs a
number
the
sum
"i~
^^
found
be
|.
He
of calculations for obtaining
purpose of
of an infinite series for the
esti-
His methods are a sub-
mating areas and volumes.

stitute for the
to
modern methods
of integration,
which
are used in cases of this kind, so that expressions like
xdx=:^\c^,
I
x^
I
dx
and other similar expressions are
1/.3
in their
import and
essence quite familiar to him.*
The
back
V.
introduction of the irrational
to Pythagoras, since
is
to
be traced
he recognised that the hy-
Zeuthen, Die Lehre von den Kegelschnitten im Alter tunt,

Fischer-Benzon. 1886.
Deutsch von
ALGEBRA.
69
potenuse of a right-angled isosceles triangle
commensurable with
Theodorus
of
Cyrene proved the
square roots of
3, 5, 7,
irrational.
among
investigation
work which belongs
much
metic as
in general as rational
Euclid devoted to irrational quantities
a particularly exhaustive
fnents,
irrationality of the
17.*
Archytas classified numbers
and
The Pythagorean
sides.
its
in-
is
his
in
domain
to the
Ele-
of Arith-
Three books
as to that of Geometry.
the thirteen, the seventh, eighth and ninth,
and
are of purely arithmetic contents,
in the tenth
book there appears a carefully wrought-out theory

''Incommensurable Quantities," that
quantities,
of irrational
as well as a consideration of
At the end
ratios.
is,
geometric
book Euclid shows
of this
of
in a
very ingenious manner that the side of a square and

its
diagonal are incommensurable
the demonstration
culminates in the assertion that in the case of a rational
relationship between
number must have
at the
these two quantities a
same time the properties
an even and an odd number, f

of the circle
In his measurement
Archimedes calculated quite a number
approximate values for square roots

1351
/^
of
for
of
example,
265
T8T>^'>T53Nothing
Cantor,
definite,
I.,
however,
is
known concerning
'
the
p. 170.
Montucla, I., p. 208. Montucla says that he knew an architect who lived
in the firm conviction that the square root of 2 could be represented as a
ratio of finite integers, and who assured him that by this method he had
already reached the looth decimal.
t
70
Heron
method he used.
was acquainted with
also
such approximate values (J instead of 1^2, |-J instead

of t/3);* and although he did not shrink from the
labor of obtaining
approximate values for square

he contented himself
roots, in the majority of cases
with the well-known approximation j/^^

e.
t/82 1=8
i/63
g.,
actness was
a^
necessary,
t35
=b ^-,
Incase greater ex-
-^^.
Heron f used
-{b-=a-\-^-^\-\-~-\-
rfc
formula
the
Incidentally he used
the identity t/^2^__^|/^ and asserted, for example,

that
t/108
= t/62^ = 6i/3 = 6- fe ^ lo
-f-
i -|- î^.
Moreover, we find in Heron's Stereomei7'ica the
example
of the
namely t/SI
yi^,
square root of a negative number,
144,
consideration,
is
first
which, however, without further
put down by the computer as 8 less
which shows that negative quantities were un-
known among
employed
the Greeks.
It is true that
Diophantus
differences, but only those in
minuend was greater than the subtrahend.
Theon we
are
Through
made acquainted with another method
of extracting the square root;
method
which the
in use at present,
it
corresponds with the
with the exception that the
Babylonian sexagesimal fractions are used, as was
customary
until the introduction of
decimal fractions.
Furthermore, we find in Aristotle traces of the

theory of combinations, and in Archimedes an
at-
tempt
in-
at the representation of a quantity
* Cantor,
I.,
p. 368.
Tannery
in
Bordeaux Mim.,
which
IV., 1881.
ALGEBRA.
beyond
creases
all limits, first in
number-system, and then

fjLLTT)^
7I
(Latin arenarius,
medes arranges the
in his
his extension of the
work
entitled
sand-reckoner).
the
ij/afji-
Archi-
eight orders of the decimal
first
system together in an octad
10^ octads constitute a
and then these periods are arranged again
period,
according to the same law.
In the sand-reckoning,
Archimedes solves the problem of estimating the
number
of grains of
sand that can be contained
sphere which includes the whole universe.
sumes that 10,000 grains

a poppy-seed,
of
in a
He
as-
sand take up the space of
and he finds the sum of
all
the grains
be 10 000 000 units of the eighth period of his sys-
to
tem, or 10^3.
It is
possible that Archimedes in these
observations intended to create a counterpart to the
domain
his
of infinitesimal quantities
summations
to the
which appeared
in
of series, a counterpart not accessible
ordinary arithmetic.
In the fragments with which
from the writings of
Roman
we
are acquainted
surveyors {agrimensores)
there are but few arithmetic portions, these having

to
do with polygonal and pyramidal numbers.
Ob-
viously they are of Greek origin, and the faulty style
proves that there was
in parts
among
the
Romans no
adequate comprehension of matters of this kind.
The
writings of the
Hindu mathematicians
ceedingly rich in matters of arithmetic.
are ex-
Their sym-
bolism was quite highly developed at an early date.*

Cantor,
I.,
p. 558.
72
Aryabhatta
calls the
unknown quantity
gulika
(*' little
much
ball"), later yavattavat, or abbreviated jv^ (''as
The known quantity
as").
(''coin*').
it is
If
one quantity
placed after
same method
case a dot
hend so
called
to
be added to another,
rii
The
without any particular sign.
it
followed in subtraction, only in this
is
placed over the coefficient of the subtra-
is
that positive {dhana, assets)
tities {kshaya, liabilities)
powers
is
rupaka or
is
and negative quan-
The
can be distinguished.
of a quantity also receive special designations.
The second power
varga or va, the third ghana or
is
gha, the fourth va va, the fifth va gha ghata, the sixth
va ghuy the seventh va va gha ghata {ghata signifies
or ka.
The
irrational square root is called
karana
In the (Julvasutras, which are classed
among
addition).
the religious books of the Hindus, but which in addition contain certain arithmetic
tions, the
and geometric deduc-
word karana appears
in
conjunction with
numerals; dvikarani=^'\/^, trikarani^^/ ?>, daâkarani
= 1/10.
If
several
tinguished, the
first is
after the colors
(blue)
is
unknown
called
meant the quantity
the others are
named
nilaka or
for example,
;//
by ya kabha
x-y, since bhavita or bha indi-
cates multiplication. There

it is
J^'^;
kalaka or ka (black)
pitaka or // (yellow)
but as a rule
quantities are to be dis-
is
also a
word
for
'
'
equal "
not used, since the mere placing of
number under another denotes their equality.

In the extension of the domain of numbers
to in-
clude negative quantities the Hindus were certainly

ALGEBRA.
successful.
73
They used them
and obtained them as roots
their calculations,
in
of equations,
regarded them as proper solutions.
but never
Bhaskara was
even aware that a square root can be both positive
and negative, and also that l/

the ordinary number-system.
a does not exist for
He
says
of a positive as well as of a negative

tive,
and the square root
double,
"The
number
of a positive
and negative.
positive,
square
is
posi-
number
is
There can be no
square root of a negative number, for this
is
no
square."*
The fundamental operations

which there were
six,
of
the Hindus,
of
included raising to powers and
extracting roots. In the extraction of square and cube

roots Aryabhatta used the formulae for {a -{-by and
{a-\-by, and he
rating the
was aware
number
of the
into periods of
ures each, respectively.
advantage
of sepa-
two and three
fig-
Aryabhatta called the square
root varga mula, and the cube root ghana mula {mula,
root,
used also of plants).
Transformations of ex-
pressions involving square roots were also known.
Bhaskara applied the formulaf
and was also able

in the
nator.
to
denominator
In
reduce fractions with square roots
to
forms having a rational denomi-
some cases the approximation methods
square root closely resemble those of the Greeks.

* Cantor,
I.,
p. 585.
t Cantor,
I.,
p. 586.
for
74
Problems
which only a few
in transpositions, of
among the Greeks, occupy consideramong the Indians. Bhaskara made
traces are found
able attention
use of formulae for permutations and combinations*
with and without repetitions, and he was acquainted
with quite a number of propositions involving the

theory of numbers, which have reference to quadratic
and cubic remainders as well as

angled triangles. But
among
noticeable that
of figurate
numbers, which certain
On
the contrary,
we
find in Aryabhatta,
as of the series 1^
series, as well
2^
-f-
3^
The geometric
the works of Bhaskara.

zero,
show
also
in
binomial coefficients for the
Chu
Arabs.
-|-
3^
arithmetic
-|-
is
more
Here we come
.,
1^
co.
their literature
first
for
to
some
example, the
eight powers are
shi kih in the year 1303 as
There
method."
of
Brah-
series also appears in
traces of arithmetic investigations
given by
2^
-|-
Greek
As regards calculation with
Bhaskara was aware that
The Chinese
of the
likewise want-
is
magupta and Bhaskara summations
-[-
discover
The knowl-
redundant numbers.
schools cultivated with especial zeal,

ing.
we
right-
the Indians nothing concerning perfect, ami-
cable, defective, or
edge
it is
rational
to
an ''old
among the
upon the name of
be found
at the outset
Al Khowarazmi, whose Algebra, which was probably

translated into Latin by ^thelhard of Bath, opens
* Cantor,
I.,
p. 579.
ALGEBRA.
with the words* *'A1
the Latin translation
75
Khowarazmi has spoken." In

this name appears as Algoriimi,
and to-day appears as algorism or algorithm, a word

completely separated from
warazmi, and
much used
all
for
remembrance
any method
of
of
Al Kho-
computa-
commonly employed and proceeding according
tion
to definite rules.
In the beginning of the sixteenth
century there appears in a published mathematical
work
'^
philosophus no?nine Algorithinus,^'' a sufficient
proof that the author
word algorism.
fact
seems
But
knew
it
knowledge
after this, all
to disappear,
century that
the real meaning of the
and
it
was not
of the
until our
own
was rediscovered by Reinaud and Bon-
compagni.f
Al Khowarazmi increased his knowledge by studying the
A known
Greek and Indian models.
quantity
he calls a number, the unknown quantity jidr (root)
and
its
square mal (power). In Al Karkhi
we
find the
expression kab (cube) for the third power, and there

are formed from these expressions w^;/ w/=:jv*,
kab
= x^, kab kab =
x^,
mal mal kab
treats simple expressions
= x^
etc.
Omar Khayyam from which
ferred that the extraction of roots
formed by the help
of the
I.,
-\-
Cantor,
p. 765.
to be in-
by.
Al
the introduc-
p. 671.
Jahrhuch uber die Fortschritte der Mathematik,
is
was always per-
new by
I.,
There
it is
formula for {a
Kalsadi J contributed something

Cantor,
also
with square roots, but with-
out arriving at the results of the Hindus.
passage in
He
mal
1887, p. 23.
75
Instead of placing the word
tion of a radical sign.
number
jidr before the
was the custom, Al Kalsadi makes
to be extracted, as
use only of the

it
which the square root was
of
initial letter
over the number,
of this
word and places
as,
^
2
Among
who
= 1/2;
"T^
i2=.i/2j,
=21/5.
Eastern Arabs the mathematicians
the
investigated
the
theory of numbers occupied
themselves particularly with the attempt to discover
and with the problem
rational right-angled triangles

of finding a
square which,
by a given number,
mous
still
if
increased or diminished
An
gives a square.
writer, for example,
gave a portion
anony-
of the the-
ory of quadratic remainders, and Al Khojandi also
demonstrated the proposition that upon the hypothesis of rational
numbers the sum
be another third power.
edge
tion
of
There was
two cubes cannot
some knowl-
also
of cubic remainders, as is seen in the applica-
by Avicenna
of the proof
the formation of powers.
by excess
of nines in
This mathematician gives
propositions which can be briefly represented in the
form*
= 1 (w^^9), (92)2 = 4(;;/^^9),

(9+l)3 = (9-f4)3=(9-f 7)3 =
(9;? 1)2
l(;/^^^9), etc.
Ibn
al
Banna has deductions
of a similar
kind which
form the basis of a proof by eights and sevens.
"f"
In the domain of series the Arabs were acquainted

* Cantor,
I.,
p. 712.
Cantor,
I.,
p. 759.
ALGEBRA.
77
with arithmetic and geometric progressions
at least
and also with the series
of squares
Greek influence
this field
of
In
unmistakable.
Algebra.
2.
The work
is
and cubes.
Ahmes shows
that the Egyptians
were possessed of equations of the
first
degree, and
used in their solution methods systematically chosen.
The unknown x
called hau (heap);
is
appears in the following form

i, its
whole, gives 37, that
The
is
heap,
an equation*
its |, its ^, its
\x -\- \x -^ ^x -\^ x ^^^1
ancient Greeks were acquainted with the so-
lution of equations only in geometrical form.
where, save in proportions, do
amples of equations
show unmistakably
with one
of the f^rst
find
developed ex-
degree which would
that the root of a linear equation
unknown was ever determined by

two straight
section of
tions of
we
abundance
lines
the inter-
but in the cases of equa-
second and third degrees there
the
of
No-
is
an
In the matter of notation
material.
Diophantus makes the greatest advance.
He
calls
unknown quantity ttA^ô?. If

unknowns to be distinguished, he
the coefficients of the
there are several
makes use
of the ordinal
8evTpo<i, 6 TpLTo<i.
in the
An
numbers
6 Tr/awros dpiO/xo'^, 6
equation f appears in his works
abbreviated form
Matthiessen, Grundzuge der antiken ntid modernen Algebra der

len Gleichungen, 1878, p. 269.
t
Matthiessen,
p. 269.
Hereafter referred
to
as Matthiessen.
litter a-
78
K^/3B\'l<Tr] <s/''l^fJi"'i^,
Diophantus
2x^-i-x^
e.,
i.
equations not according to the
classifies
number
degree, but according to the
For
distinct terms.
how
rules as to
= 4:xl2.
of essentially
purpose he gives
this
equations can be brought to their simthe form in which both
plest form, that
is,
of the equation
have only positive terms.
problems which lead

can be found
definite
some
the latter gives
Practical
to equations of the first
works
in the
members
of
degree
Archimedes and Heron
of the so-called
'^
fountain prob-
lems," which remind one of certain passages in the
work
Ahmes.
of
were mostly
method
Equations
the form
in
second degree
the
of
proportions,
of
and
this
operation in the domain of a geometric
of
known to the Greeks. They undoubtedly understood how to represent by geometric

algebra was well
figures equations of the form
x =
a'
a'
b,
b'
-^x-^^,y-\-
where
all
quantities are linear.
means
in
two equal
really nothing
ratios,
=my
Every calculation
e., in
i.
a proportion,
more than the solution
of
of
was
an equation.
The Pythagorean school was acquainted with the

arithmetic, the geometric and the harmonic means of
two quantities
that
is,
they were able to solve geo-
metrically the equations
X
According
a^b
=
^
to
x^
= ao,
.
2ab
Nicomachus, Philolaus called the cube
ALGEBRA.
with
its
79
and
six surfaces, its eight corners,
edges, the geometric harmony, because
equal measurements in
it is
said, the
presented
this fact,
mean" and
''harmo-
were derived, the relationship being
128
2-6-12
12
"^^ 8
~~ 6' whence
6
^~
The number
of
distinct
e., x=^
6-1-12' " "' "
1.
gained thereby.
proportions, that
2.ab
a^b
proportions was later in-
creased to ten, although nothing essentially
new was
Euclid gives thorough analyses of

is,
of the
tions of the first degree

these,
twelve
from
directions
terms ''harmonic
nic proportion"
all
it
its
geometric solution of equa-
and
of incomplete quadratics
however, are not given as his
own work,
but as
the result of the labors of Eudoxus.
The
solution of the equation of the second degree
by the geometric method
of applying areas, largely
employed by the ancients, especially by Euclid, deserves particular attention.
In order to solve the equation

x^ Ar a'X=.b'^
by Euclid's method, the problem must

the following form
1
first
11
be put in
8o
AB = a
**To the segment
known
of
area
square."
x'^
The
proposition,
shows that
figure
-^2x-^-Y {^y
b'^ -\-
(^^y
areas, in
c"^
In the
CK=^,
Fff=z
whence
EH^=c = ^-\- x,
The
solution obtained
|-.
which case the square root
always regarded as positive,
more than
for
{^y',hnt by the Pythagorean
-^
b'^
from which we have x^=c
by applying
DH
such a way that CZT shall be a
in
^2,
apply the rectangle
is
is
accordingly nothing
a constructive representation of the value
same manner Euclid
the form
x^
and he remarks
=fc
ax
solves
=
<52
all
equations of
0,
passing that where V
in
b'^
(t)^
according to our notation, appears, the condition for

a possible solution
is
nowhere considered
/5>|-.
Negative quantities are
but there
is
ground
for inferring
that in the case of two positive solutions the Greeks
regarded both and that they also applied their method

of solution to quadratic equations
efficients.*
tion,
By
with numerical co-
applying their knowledge of propor-
they were able to solve not only equations of the
form x'^-âx:^b
^,
but also of the more general
form
ax^ zb
for a as the ratio of
^jr
=h
^2
__
0^
two line-segments.
Apollonius
Zeuthen, Die Lehre von den Kegelschnitten im Altertum. Deutsch von

V.
Fischer-Benzon.
1886.
ALGEBRA.
accomplished
this with the aid of a conic,
having the
equation
The Greeks were accordingly
able to solve every gen-
second degree having two essen-
eral equation of the
which might
tially different coefficients,
also contain
numerical quantities, and to represent their positive

roots geometrically.
The
three principal forms of equations of the sec-
ond degree
be freed from geometric statement
first to
and completely solved, are

x^
The
^ px^q,
=:px -\-
q,
px=^x^ -\-
q.
solution consisted in applying an area, the prob-
lem being to apply

a
x'^
manner that
it
to a given line a rectangle in
would
such
either contain a given area or
be greater or less than this given area by a constant.
For these three conditions there arose the technical

expressions
TrapajSoXy,
Archimedes came
virep/SoXr],
which
eAXeti/^ts,
after
to refer to conies.*
In later times, with
Heron and Diophantus, the
solution of equations of the second degree
was partly
freed from the geometric representation,
and passed
into the
form
of
an arithmetic computation proper
(while disregarding the second sign
in
the square
root).
The equation
of the
third degree,
owing
to its
dependence on geometric problems, played an im*
Tannery
in
Bordeaux Mim., IV.
82
among
portant part
The problem
the Greeks.
of the
duplication (and also the multiplication) of the cube
This problem demands
attained especial celebrity.
nothing more than the solution of the continued proportion a: x

x^
= 2a^
(in
= x :y=y:2a, that
of the equation
general x^ = â^).
This problem
very
is,
is
old and was considered an especially important one
by the leading Greek mathematicians.

have evidence
Of
is
be rebuilt*:
to
The enclosure
''
Glauis
too
cubical form."
=2a^
of
tomb double it, but fail not in the

The numerous solutions of the equa-
small for a royal
tion x^
we
passage of Euripides in which he
in a
makes King Minos say concerning the tomb

cus which
this
obtained by Hippocrates, Plato, Me-
naechmus, Archytas and others, followed the geometric
form, and in time the horizon was so considerably
extended
in
this
direction
that
Archimedes
in
the
study of sections of a sphere solved equations of the
form
x^
by the intersection
and
in
ax^
two
of
-[-
d^c
lines of the
second degree,
doing so also investigated the conditions to be
fulfilled in
order that there should be no root or two
or three roots between

of reduction
by means
the equation x^
ax^
considerable ease to
and
of
-}-
all
a.
Since the method
which Archimedes obtains
If'^cÔ can be applied with
forms of equations of the third
degree, the merit of having set forth these equations

* Cantor,
I.,
p. 199.
ALGEBRA.
in a
83
comprehensive manner and
of their principal
of
having solved one
groups by geometric methods be-
longs without question to the Greeks.*
We
find the first trace of Indeterminate equations
problem (yProblema bovinuni)
in the cattle
of Archi-
medes.
This problem, which was published in the year 1773 by Lessing,
from a codex
in the library at Wolfenbiittel, as the first of
four unprinted fragments of Greek anthology,
two
distichs.
In
all
medes who desired
probability
to
is
given in twenty-
originated directly with Archi-
it
show by means
of this
example how, pro-
ceeding from simple numerical quantities, one could easily arrive

at
The
very large numbers by the interweaving of conditions.
problem runs something as follows
The sun had
a herd of bulls and cows of different colors,
Of Bulls the white {W) were
in
number
(^
(i)
-f J) of the black {X)
and the yellow (F); the black {X) were (^-fg) of the dappled {Z)
and the yellow (F); the dappled (Z) were {\-\-\) of the white
(
IV)
and the yellow
F).
Of Cows which had the same colors
(2)
= {\-\-\){Z ^z), z={\-\-l)

zv = {\-^\){X^x),
=
(i-{-i)(jr-|-zi/).
W-\-X\s to be a square; Y-^Z
^
{u;,x,y,z),
{Y-\.y\
oc
a triangular number.
The problem
presents nine equations with ten unknowns
^=(i + i)Z + F
IV={\-^\)X^Y
Z
= {\-\-\)W^Y
J =(i
'w
= {\^\){XJ^x)
W^X^ri^
+ i)(^-j-zt/)
Y-\-Z=^--.
^
2
V.
*Zeuthen, Die Lehre von den Kegelschnitten

Fischer-Benzon
1886.
t
ini Altertutn.
Deutsch von
Krumbiegel und Amthor, Das Problema bovinum des Archiviedes.
niilch's Zeitschrift,
Bd.
25,
HI. A.;
Gow,
p. 99.
Schlo-
84
According
if2
to
Amthor
the solution
2-3-7-11-29-353 z^2_i_
is
obtained by Pell's equation
assuming the condition w
{mod.
2*4657), in which process there arises a continued fraction with a
period of ninety-one convergents.
we
tions,
number
get as the total
number which
is
If
nevertheless
much
we omit
the last two condi-
of cattle 5 916 837 175 686, a
smaller than that involved in
the sand-reckoning of Archimedes.
But the name
of
Diophantus
is
most closely con-
He
nected with systems of equations of this kind.
to satisfy his indeterminate equations not
endeavors
by means
whole numbers, but merely by means
of
numbers (always excluding negative quanti-
rational
ties) of
of
the form
tegers.
It
where p
...in-
and q must be positive
appears that Diophantus did not proceed
methods, but rather
in this field according to general
by ingeniously following out special
cases.
At
least
those of his solutions of indeterminate equations of

the
first
and second degrees with which we are
quainted permit of no other inference.
seems
to
have been not a
little
Diophantus
influenced by earlier
works, such as those of Heron and Hypsicles.

therefore be
era
there
ac-
It
may
assumed that even before the Christian
existed
an
indeterminate
analysis
upon
which Diophantus could build.*
The Hindu
of
algebra reminds us in
Diophantus and Heron.
As
many
respects
in the case of Dio-
phantus, the negative roots of an equation are not
admitted as solutions, but they are consciously set

* p.
Tannery, in
Mhno ires
de Bordeaux, 1880.
This view of Tannery's
controverted by Heath, T. L., Diophantos of Alexandria^
1885, p. 135.
is
ALGEBRA.
aside,
85
which marks an advance upon Diophantus.
The transformation
combination
of
terms containing the same powers of the unknown,
is
also
performed as
following
is
of equations, the
in the
works
the representation of an equation accord-
ing to Bhaskara
:*
va va 2
va
ru 30
e.
1.
va va ^
2^2_:r-|-30
Equations
0:r2
the
of
va ^
first
is
or 2jc2_.t-1-30
8.
The Hindu
unknowns.
of treating equations
of the
In the
first
second degree
place, ax^
-|-
bx
considered the only typef instead of the three
Greek forms
From
degree appear not only with
shows material advance.

:=^
ru
+ 0.'v:-h8,
one, but also with several
method
The
Diophantus.
of
ax'^
A^ bx=iC, bx
-\-
= ax^,
ax"^ -\- c
this is easily derived 4:a^x^ -\-4:abx
then (2ax
-\-
by
whence
it
_ ^ + l/4^^ +
^2
4:ac
-\- b'^,
""
Bhaskara goes
still
4:ac,
and
follows that
2^
further.
He
considers both signs
and also knows when
of the square root
= bx.
it
cannot be
The two values of the root are, however,

admitted by him as solutions only when both are posiextracted.
tive,
evidently
because his quadratic equations ap-
pear exclusively in connection with practical problems

of
geometric form.
of the third
Bhaskara also solves equations
and fourth degrees in cases where these
*Matthiessen,
p. 269.
t Cantor,
I.,
p. 585.
86
equations can be reduced to equations of the second
degree by means of advantageous transformations and

the introduction of auxiliary quantities.
The indeterminate
cially
analysis of the
Here
prominent.
in
Hindus
espe-
is
contrast to Diophantus
only solutions in positive integers are admitted.
determinate equations of the
first
In-
degree with two or
more unknowns had already been solved by Aryabhatta,
and
after
him by Bhaskara, by
which the Euclidean algorism
common
divisor
is
used
method
in
for finding the greatest
so that the
method
of solu-
tion corresponds at least in its fundamentals with the
method
of
Indeterminate equa-
continued fractions.
example those
tions of the second degree, for
form xy
= ax
-\-
dy
-\- c,
of the
are solved by arbitrarily as-
signing a value to y and then obtaining x, or geometrically by the application of areas, or by a cyclic
This cyclic method does not necessarily
method.*
may
lead to the desired end, but

selection of
skilful
ral values.
It
auxiliary quantities, give integ-
consists in solving in the
instead of the equation ax^
ax^
-\-
cally
=y
nevertheless, by a
This
is
-\-
l^
the
cy^ ,
done by the aid
first
place,
equation
of the empiri-
assumed equation aA^ -\-B=C^, from which
other equations of the
same form,
aAl,-\-
B= CI,
can
be deduced by the solution of indeterminate equations

of the first degree.
Cantor,
I.,
p. 591.
By means
of skilful
combinations
ALGEBRA.
the
ax^
B=Cl
equations aAl-\-\-
87
furnish a
solution
of
=y^. *
The
algebra of the Chinese, at least in the earliest
period, has this in
common
with the Greek, that equa-
tions of the second degree are solved geometrically.
In later times there appears to have been developed

a
method
of
approximation for determining the roots
of higher algebraic equations.
determinate equations of the
For the
first
degree the Chinese
developed an independent method.

of the ''great
to
Sun
tse,
expansion" and
who
It
bears the
discovery
is
name
ascribed
lived in the third century A. D.
method can best be

lowing example
its
solution of in-
by the
briefly characterised
This
fol-
Required a number x which when
divided by 7, 11, 15 gives respectively the remainders
Let
2, 5, 7.
ki, k2, ^3,
ll-15-î
7
we
=^1
be found so that
15-7-^2
=^2-hi^,
+h
,
have, for example,
/î
13
2,
/^2
2,
y^8
8,
and ob-
tain the further results
ll-15-2=330,
330-2=
660,
= 210, 210-5 = 1050,

7-11-8 = 616,
616-7 = 4312,
2
660 + 1050 + 4312 = 6022;
_-^^ =5+ .^-|l^;
15-
7-2
60"^
;i;=:247 is
* Cantor,
I.,
94r7
then a solution of the given equation, f

p. 593.
t L.
Matthiessen in Schldmilch'sZeitschrift, XXVI.
88
In the writing of their equations the Chinese

as
use as the Hindus of a sign of equality.
little
make
The
positive coefficients were written in red, the negative

in black.
As
a rule tde
is
placed beside the absolute
term of the equation and yuen beside the

the
first
ample
power
\AiX^
the rest can be inferred from the ex-
27jc
= r7,*
color of the coefficient
,14
coefficient of
or
where r and
b indicate the
ALGEBRA.
was
ancients,
89
called al-jahr, and this
tended to the science which deals
name was
ex-
general with
in
equations.
The
Arabs wrote out their equations
earlier
words, as for example, Al
Khowarazmi*
(in the
in
Latin
translation)
Census
et
^2
_f
and
qumque
radices equantur vigmti quatuor
5a:
24;
Omar Khayyam,
Cubus, latera
x^
-\-
et
bx
numerus aequales sunt quadratis
-\-
In later times there arose
ax'^.
among
the Arabs quite an
This notation made the most
extended symbolism.
marked progress among the Western Arabs.
unknown x was
initials
of
tions
:r
rectly
is
one
called jidr,
its
square mal ; from the
these words they obtained the abbrevia(yli,
after
jt^-
Quantities which follow
" Equals
final letter of adala (equality),
of a final lam.
^x'^ -\-
x^î\
di-
another are added, but a special sign
used to denote subtraction.
by the
The
In Al Kalsadif
" is
denoted
namely, by means
S:^:^
__12^
-|-
63 and
are represented by
and the proportion 7 12

:
^.
*Matthiessen,
= 84
is
given the form
-.84. -.12. -.7.
p. 269.
Cantor,
I.,
p. 767.
go
Diophantus had already
classified equations, not
according to their degree, but according to the num-
This principle of classification we
ber of their terms.
among
completely developed
find
Ac-
the Arabs.
cording to this principle Al Khowarazmi* forms the

following six groups for equations of the
second degrees
x^=âx
x^^=a
ax
(*'a square
x"^
and
(''a square
^,
first
equal to roots"),
is
is
equal to a constant
ax=^b,
-^
x^
-\-
= bx,
ax
''),
-\-
x^,
(''roots and a constant are equal to a square").
The Arabs knew how
to solve equations of the first
degree by four different methods, only one of which

has particular interest, and that because in modern
algebra
has been developed as a method of approx-
it
This method
imation for equations of higher degree.

of solution,
Hindu
found
in its origin, is
Banna and Al Kalsadi and
in
Ibn
the
method of the
al
scales.
It
let z\
and
place az\
z^
-j-
there called
went over into the Latin
and regula falsi. To
translations as the regula falsorum

illustrate, let the
is
in particular
equation ax-\-b^=^ be givenf and
be any numerical quantities

b =jjî, azi
-f-
then
if
we
=y2,
= Ziyi ziy2
as can readily be seen.
yiy2
Ibn
al
'
Banna makes use
of
the following graphic plan for the calculation of the
value of X
* Matthiessen, p. 270.
Matthiessen,
p. 277.
ALGEBRA.
91
Yz
Z;
The geometric
representation, which with
ative quantity
somewhat resembles
would be as follows,
From
letting
jj;
as a neg-
a pair of scales,
OBi=zZi, OB-2^=z^^
Bid
this there results directly
_
XZ2 ~ y2*
x
that
is,
zy
yx_^
that the errors in the substitutions bear to
each other the same ratio as the errors in the results,

the
method apparently being discovered through geo-
metric considerations.
In the case of equations of the second degree Al
Khowarazmi gives
ical solution
in the first place a
(negative roots being recognised but not
admitted), and then a proof by

figure.
number
x^
He
also undertakes
of solutions.
-{-
purely mechan-
= dx,
means
of a geometric
an investigation of the
In the case of
from which
:x:
=: | dz
l/(|-)2
c,
Al Khowarazmi obtains two solutions, one or none
according as
92
(iy>^,
He
(i?=^^
(i)'<^.
gives the geometric proof for the correctness of
the solution of an equation like x^ -\-2x
he takes x
3, in
first
case, for
where
two forms, either by means
perfectly symmetric figure, or by the
the
= l^,
A^ = x, BC=^,
^Z>
.A
gnomon.
1,
of a
In
we have
ALGEBRA.
x^px^=zqx,
r^=x^,
=
px^ =
qx
x^ -\- qx ^px'^, x^
x^,
x^qx^=r,
x^,
The following
employs
cube
when
the
is
g'x,
px'^=
y,
method
of
is
x^zpx^:h ^x=r,
x^ zh px^ -\- r^:=qx,
expression which he
cube and square are equal
to
roots;"
equal to roots, squares and one number,"
the equations
x^
-\- px'^
= qx,
are to be expressed.
simple equations
he
x^-\-r=px'^, x^zpx'^=qx-\-?'.
in these cases
*'A
''a
x^-\- r
93
calls
x^
=px^ -\- qx -\- r
Omar
calls all
trinomial and quadrinomial forms
composite equations.
the latter, even
binomial forms
He was
unable to solve
by geometric methods,
in case they
reached the fourth degree.
The indeterminate
analysis of the Arabs
traced back to Diophantus.
terminate equations of the
must be
In the solution of indefirst
and second degree
Al Karkhi gives integral and fractional numbers, like
Diophantus, and excludes only irrational quantities.
number
The Arabs were
familiar with a
tions in regard to
Pythagorean triangles without hav-
of proposi-
ing investigated this field in a thoroughly systematic
manner.
C.
THE SECOND PERIOD.
TO THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
As long
the
as the cultivation of the sciences
Western peoples was almost
among
entirely confined to
94
from the
the monasteries, during a period lasting
eighth century to the twelfth, no evidence appeared

of
any progress
As
in the
fifth
arts,
learned
century, so
the
dialectics,
the general theory of numbers.
in
Roman world after the end

now men recognised seven
trivuwi,
liberal
embracing grammar, rhetoric and
and the quadrivium, embracing arithmetic,
geometry, music and astronomy.*

operating
influence,
in
part
But through Arab
in Italy
France and Germany a golden age
ical activity
whose influence
literature of that time.
and
directly
through writings, there followed

in
of the
and
Thus Dante,
part
later also
mathemat-
of
prominent
is
in
in all the
in the fourth
canto of the Divina Commedia mentions
among
the
personages
"... who slow
their eyes
Majestically moved, and in

Bore eminent authority,"
around
their port
a Euclid, a Ptolemy, a Hippocrates and an Avicenna.
There also arose, as a further development

tain
famous
and
in rare instances,
universities,
bridge,
cloister, cathedral
at
which
Paris,
of cer-
and chapter schools,
independent
of
them, the
first
Oxford, Bologna, and Cam-
in the course of the
twelfth century
associated the separate faculties, and from the begin-
ning of the thirteenth century became famous as Studia generalia.'\
Before long universities were also
es-
* Miiller, Historisch-etymologische Studien iider 7)iatheniatische Tertnino-
hgie, 1887.
t Suter,
Die Mathematik avfden Universitliten des Mittelalters,
1887.
ALGEBRA.
Germany
tablished in
Heidelberg, 1386
95
(Prague, 1348; Vienna, 1365;
Cologne, 1388
Erfurt, 1392
Leip-
1409; Rostock, 1419; Greifswalde, 1456; Basel,
zig,
1459; Ingolstadt, 1472; Tubingen and Mainz, 1477),

in
which
for a long while
constituted merely an
We
search.
the
appendage
to philosophical re-
must look upon Johann von Gmunden
professor in a
first
mathematical instruction
German
as
university to devote
himself exclusively to the department of mathematics.
From
the year 1420 he lectured in Vienna
upon
matical branches only, and no longer
ments
of philosophy, a practice
upon matheall
depart-
which was then uni-
versal.
7.
General Arithmetic.
Even Fibonacci made use

mathematical
rules, or
line-segments.
Pacioli,
On
who was
words
of
to
express
represented them by means of
the other hand,

far inferior to
we
find that
Luca
his predecessor in
arithmetic inventiveness, used the abbreviations

.;;/.,
R. for plus,
7ninus,
and radix
1484, ten years before Pacioli, Nicolas
written a work, in
all
As
(root).
probability based
./.,
early as
Chuquet had
upon the
re-
searches of Oresme, in which there appear not only

the signs
/ and m
(for plus
and minus), but
also ex-
pressions like
I^MO, :^M7
He
also
for
Vl^,
l/l7.
used the Cartesian exponent-notation, and
96
the expressions equipolence, equipolent, for equivalence
and equivalent.*
Distinctively symbolic arithmetic was developed
upon German
and algebra,
soil.
in the
German
In
general arithmetic
Deutsche Coss, the symbols
and
-\-
and minus are characteristic. f They were
for plus
common use while the Italian school was still writing p and m. The earliest known appearance of these
in
signs
is
in
manuscript {Regula Cose vel
Algebre") of
the Vienna library, dating from the middle of the
teenth century.
fif-
In the beginning of the seventeenth
century Reymers and Faulhaber used the sign h-,|
and Peter Roth the sign
Among
as
-h-
minus
signs.
the Italians of the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries, in imitation of the Arabs, the course

of
an arithmetic operation was expressed entirely in
words. Nevertheless, abbreviations were gradually
in-
troduced and Luca Pacioli was acquainted with such

abbreviations to express the
of the
unknown
term and
x,
x'^,
In his treatise the absolute
quantity.
x^, x^, x^, x^,
tively represented
twenty-nine powers
first
by nurnero or n%
are alwaj^s respeccosa or co, censo or
cubo or cu, censo de censo or ce .ce, primo relato or
ce^
p.^r", censo
de cuba or ce.cu
The Germans made use
of
symbols
*A. Marre in Boncoyiipagni's Bulletino, XIII.

schritte der Math., 1881, p.
of their
Jahrbuch
ilber die Fort-
8.
tTreutlein, "Die deutsche Coss," Schlomilch's Zeitsckri/t, Bd.

Hereafter referred to as Treutlein.
I
The
sign
Ziirich, 1659.
-=-
is first
own
24,
HI. A.
used as a sign of division in Rahn's Tent sche Algebra
ALGEBRA.
Rudolff and Riese represented the abso-
invention.
lute
97
term and the powers of the unknown quantity
manner
the following
ing, <^; 7'adix (or coss,
Dragma, abbreviated
i.
zensus
by
cubus by
top in the shape of an

will
the following pages this
be represented merely by
dezens) by
c)\
zensus de zensu (zens-
sursoHdum by ^ or g
55,
bissursolidum b}^ bt or
zensdezens) by
555
3;
zensikubus by 5^
zensus zensui de zensu (zens-
cubus de cube by
little flour-
with a long flourish on
/ (in
in writ-
root of the equation) is
e.,
expressed by a sign resembling an r with a

ish
cc.
There are two opinions concerning the origin

the
of
mathematicians. According to the one,
originally an r {radix') written with a flourish
gradually
came
to
resemble an
x,
it
it
was read by
all
tomary
in
Spain
upon the
to represent
fact that
an Arabic
X where whole words and sentences are

for instance the
quantity Vlx^ in Arabic
sented by 12 xai^ more correctly by 12

ing to this view, the
of the
was
while the original

after
The
mathematicians as ^.*
other explanation depends
of
which
meaning was forgotten, so that half a century

Stifel
in
i"
it is
cus-
by a Latin
in question
O^
12
sai.
is
repre-
Accord-
mathematicians would
be an abbreviation of the Arabic sai=^xai, an expression for the
By
unknown
quantity.
the older cossistsf these abbreviations are in-
troduced without any explanation

=^Treutlein.
tTreutlein.
G.
Wertheim
Stifel,
however,
in Schlotuilch's Zeitsc/ir/fi, Bd. 44; HI. A.
gS
considers
necessary to give his readers suitable ex-
it
The word **root," used for the first power

an unknown quantity he explains by means of
planations.
of
''because
the geometric progression,
members
of the series
a root"
he puts for
Ix, I5, Ic, I55,
and
develop from the
x^,
x^, x^, x^,
x'^,
German
the signs
1,
numbers,"
to infinity, while to
assigned a definite order-number, that

In the
as from
first
calls these ''cossic
which can be continued
nent.
successive
all
each
is
an expo-
is,
edition of Rudolff' s Coss, Stifel
at first writes the ''cossic series" to the seventeenth
power
in the
as follov/s
1
He
also
manner already
ik
makes use
m:duu.
of the letters
The
and
etc.
( in
writing
nearest approach to our present
found
to be
is
iîm
i2tH.
this expression.
notation
indicated, but also later
in Biirgi
and Re3'mers, where
with the aid of ''exponents" or "characteristics" the
polynomial
8jc6_{_
i2^5_9^4_^ 10^^:3
represented in the following manner

VI
ter.,
III
7^_4
_j_
jg
+ 12 9-1-10 + 3 + 7 4
we
In Scheubel
sec,
IV
3^2
_|_
find for x,
guar., qum.,
abbreviations for
II
and
in
x'^,
x^,
x'^,
Ramus
lattis,
quadratus,
Zx-\-1~) (5^
/,
x^
pri.^
q, c, bq, s
cubits,
as
biquadratus,
solidus.
The product
+ \^x 6
mateus,
is
{Ix'^
represented in
Stifel,
and Ramus
its
3) ^
?>^x^
36a:2
development by Gram-
in the following
manner
ALGEBRA.
GRAM.MATEUS
7.T.
by
35
/^r.
3/;-/.
^pri.
STIFEL
-\-2N
^N
l'^x.-\-l^pri.
ss/^^^.se^c.
mx.
99
+ io//-/. 6i\^
3jv:
5jc
35
<r
-f 2
155-f-lO^
35^365 + 19^6
100
Rudolff gives a few rules for operations with radbut without demonstrations.
quantities,
ical
Like
Fibonacci he calls an irrational number a nunierus
Such expressions
surdus.
duced
as the follo'Cving are intro-
Va^c 4-
Vb'^c
= V{a
bf
c,
X {Va-^ V~b)
VaVb
upon the subject
Stifel enters
-\-
of irrational
numbers
with especial zeal and even refers to the speculations

of
Euclid, but preserves in
well-grounded independence.
developments
Stifel distinguishes
numbers
classes of irrational
his
all
two
principal and subordi-
nate {Haupt- und Nebenarteii).
In the
first
class are
included (1) simple irrational numbers of the form

v'^, (2) binomial irrationals with the positive sign, as
1/33^0
+ i/p,
+ V/36,
v'3l2
+ v/a2,
(3) square roots of such binomial irrationals as
+ 1/58 -^ 1^6 + 1^ 8;
+ 1/5,
1/5 -5 + 1/55 =
1/5-1/56
"''^5
(4)
binomial irrationals with the negative sign, as
1/55IO
1/556,
and
(5)
square roots of such binomial
irrationals, as
t/3 1/56
The subordinate
- 1/38 = 1^71-71
class of irrational quantities, accord-
ing to Stifel, includes expressions like
ALGEBRA.
+ 1/53 + 1/55,
35 1/ 36 + 2
1/52
lOI
+ 1/354 + ,/.3,
1/52
.
JA8-H/35I2
i/$<r
= t/7f+2 - e/f/^ + j/12

Fibonacci evidently obtained his knowledge of
negative quantities from the Arabs, and like them he
does not admit negative quantities as the roots of an
minus gives always

for the
(r
s).
minus times
Pacioli enunciates the rule,
equation.
plus, but
he makes use of
expansion of expressions of the form (/
Cardan proceeds
aestimationes falsae ox fictae,*
independent significance.
numeri absurdi.
and attaches
Stifel calls
Harriot
q)
same way; he recog-
in the
nises negative roots of an equation, but he calls
tities
only
it
is
the
to
them
them no
negative quan-
first to
consider
negative quantities in themselves, allowing them to
form one side of an equation.
Calculations involving
negative quantities consequently do not begin until

the seventeenth century.
nal numbers
It is
the
same with
Stifel is the first to include
irratio-
them among
numbers proper.
Imaginary quantities are scarcely mentioned. Car-
dan incidentally proves that

(5_|_-|/^ri5)
(5
1/3:15) =40.
Although not
Bombelli goes considerably farther.
entering into the nature of imaginary quantities, of
which he
calls
-\-V
piu di
meno di meno, he gives rules

*Arsfnagna,
1545.
Cap.
I., 6.
ineno,
for the
and
]/
treatment of ex-
I02
a-\-bV
pressions of the form
as they occur in
1,
the solution of the cubic equation.
The
vancement
considerable ad-
in calculations involving
Oresme* had long
powers.
Nicole
since instituted calculations with
fractional exponents.
it
made
school early
Italian
In his notation
appears that he was familiar with the formulae
o-
yo-
O'
fi
{a p
,a./5= \-^
In the transformation of roots Cardan
made
the
first
important advance by writing
V a V~b=p Vq
b = Bomva^ b =p^ ^ =
i^-^ -\/~b=p + V^,

and therefore
^j
upon
bellif enlarged
this observation
^ a-\-V^-l^=p + l/^,
from which follows va^
-\-
-f^ a
c^.
o?"
and wrote
Vb =p V^,
b :=/2
_|_ q^
With
reference
x^=^Vqx-\-^ he discovered that
to the equation
= 2 + t/^^ + 2 t/ZTi = 4
For
in this case
/+^=
5,
(/ +
t/^)' = 2 + t/ =121,
(/ l/ ^)' = 2 / 121,
become through addition p^

5
p'^y
and q
4/3
1 5/
2,
'^pq=z'2,,
and consequently (by
trial)
l.
*
Hankel,
p. 350.
Cantor,
=
/=2
and with ^
II.,
p, 572.
ALGEBRA.
The
103
extraction of square and cube roots accord-
ing to the Arab, or rather the Indian, method,
by Grammateus.
forth
was
In the process of extracting
the square root, for the purpose of dividing the
ber into periods, points are placed over the

fifth, etc., figures,
set
counting from right to
first,
left.
numthird,
Stifel*
developed the extracting of roots to a considerable

extent
it
undoubtedly for
is
worked out a table
this
purpose that he
of binomial coefficients as far as
{a-\-bY^j in which, for example, the line for
{a-^by
reads
15$
The theory
of series in this period
made no
vance upon the knowledge of the Arabs.
ad-
Peurbach
found the sum of the arithmetic and the geometric

progressions.
examined the
Stifel
series of natural
numbers, of even and of odd numbers and deduced

from them certain power
he was familiar, through Cardan, with the the-
series
orem that 1-f 2

which
is
+ 22
-j-
28-1-..
+2'î==2'l.
î^^
geometric progressions appear in an application
Stifel
As
In regard to these
series.
not found in Euclid's treatment of means, f
is
well known, n geometric
means
are inserted be-
tween the two quantities a and b by means of the

equations
x\
X\
X2
X2
x^_\
'
Cantor,
II.,
xz
pp. 397, 409.
'
tTreutlein.
HISlORr OF MATHEMATICS.
I04
where
= "^1/^.
Stifel inserts five
between the numbers

ner
man-
in the following
27
^yd
x/3r27
729
243
81
x/3c243
v/3^139968 -v/rG4S v/3lOS -v/cl944 <v/3^-l 1337408
V^S^l
v^3^3
in
and 18
geometric means
which the
last line is
by multiplying by
6.
\/3^81
Stifel
makes use
of this solution
purpose of duplicating the cube.
for the
edge
given cube
He
selects 6
three geometric
are to be inserted between 6 and 12, and as ^
the edge of the required
V c4:32.
This length
Stifel in the following
18
obtained from the preceding
for the
of the
s/^cl'Zi)
cube
will
be x
means
i^-J,
= 6f^2 =
constructed geometrically by
is
manner
F E
^C^, with the hypotenuse

AC:=12- make AD = DC, AE=.
In the right angled triangle
BC,
ED,
AB = Q,
AF=FE, F/=/E, JK=.JC=/L.
let
is
the
and
first,
AL
12.
This construction, which
entirely
^X=
7.
the second geometric
correct,
is
only an
5 instead of 6 #^2
instead of
6f/4^9.524.
Then
mean between
Stifel regards as
approximation,
7. 56,
AK
since
^Z = 3i/T0 = 9 .487
ALGEBRA.
Simple
facts involving the theory of
known
also
to
the
diametral
sum
of
numbers and
number
is
and hence 25.60
e.
to
is
the
= 252-}- 602 = 392

and 39.52 = 2028 are
g., 652
= 1500
numbers
a rational square,
diametral numbers of equal diameter.
11
magic squares.
the product of two
whose squares
square of the diameter,

522,
numbers were
such as theorems relating to
Stifel,
perfect and diametral
105
-|-
I06
already occupied, pass vertically downwards over two
magic squares were known to the Hin-
cells.* Possibly
dus
but of this there
is
no certain evidence, f Manuel
MoschopulusJ (probably
in the fourteenth century)
He
touched upon the subject of magic squares.
gave
definite rules for the construction of these figures,
which long
hire
after
found a wider diffusion through La-
During the Middle Ages magic
and MoUweide.
squares formed a part of the wide-spread number-
mysticism.
Stifel
was the
a scientific way, although
first to
Adam
investigate
them
Riese had already
in
in-
troduced the subject into Germany, but neither he nor

Riese was able to give a simple rule for their con-
We
struction.
may
nevertheless assume that towards
the end of the sixteenth century such rules were

to a
known
few German mathematicians, as for instance,
the Rechenmeister of
Nuremberg, Peter Roth.
to
In the
year 1612 Bachet published in his Problemes plaisants

a general rule for squares containing an
of cells, but
odd number
acknowledged that he had not succeeded
in finding a solution for squares containing
number.
Fr^nicle was the
vance beyond Bachet.

classes of squares,
He
first
to
make
an even
a real ad-
gave rules (1693) for both
and even discovered squares that
maintain their characteristics after striking

linger,
||
off
th
p. 109.
Montucla, Histoire des Mathimatiques, 1799-1802.
Cantor, I., p. 480.

Giesing, Leben unci Schriften Leonardo's
:}:
II
This work
is
Gauthier-Villars.
now
accessible in a
new
da
Pisa, 1886.
edition published in 1884, Paris,
ALGEBRA.
107
outer rows and columns. In 1816 Mollweide collected
De
the scattered rules into a book,
which
is
form.
distinguished by
its
More modern works
quadratis magicis^
simplicity and scientific
due
are
to
Hugel (Ans-
who also conThompson (^Quarterly
bach, 1859), to Pessl (Amberg, 1872),

siders a
magic cylinder, and
to
Journal of Mathematics, Vol. X.), by whose rules the
magic square with the side pn
deduced from the
is
square with the side .*

2.
Towards the end
Algebra.
of the
Middle Ages the Ars major,
Arte maggiore, Algebra or the Coss

ordinary arithmetic {Ars
is
opposed
The
minor').
to the
Italians called
the theory of equations either simply Algebra, like the
Arabs, or Ars magna, Ars

after the time of
montanus),
Ars
La
cossica or
Regula
Coss,
Leonardo and
cosae.
(very
common
Regio-
fully settled in
regola delta cosa {cosa
Regula
of the fifteenth
ret et census
The German
res,
thi7ig),
algebraists
and sixteenth centuries called
it
Coss,
Algebra, or, like the Greeks, Logistic.
Vieta used the term Arithmetica speciosa, and Reymers

Arithmetica analytica, giving the section treating of
equations the special
method
the
title
von der Aeguation.
The
of representing equations gradually took
modern form.
on
Equality was generally, even by
the cossists, expressed by words
it
was not
until the
middle of the seventeenth century that a special symGiinther, "Ueber magische Quadrate," Grunert's Arch., Bd.
57.
I08
bol
came
into
common
ples of the different
following are exam-
The
use.
methods
of representing equa-
tions :*
Cardan
Cubus /
6 rebus aequalis 20,
x^
6^
-\-
= 20;
Vieta
lC:_8(2-f
16iV^ aequ. 40,
Regiomontanus
x^
Sx^-i-16x =
4:0;
16 census et 2000 aequ. 680 rebus,
16jc2
_|_
2000
680a:;
Reymers
X
XXVIII XII
VI
III
l^r 65532
+18 -^30 --18 -fl2 -r- 8
65532^12 ^18;;io_ 30^6
18^3 _^12^_ 8;
^28
Descartes
d3
y_8/ lj;y-f 8j*x
* * * *
^5****_^
s2x az
^.6
0,
/?x yD 0,
30 0,
Hudde
= az
/ 8// + 8;;=0
=0
x^ dx
=0
x^ d
z^
/^2
x^
^qx-\-r.
x^co^x.r,
In Euler's time the last transformation in the develop-
ment
of the
modern form had already been accom-
plished.
Equations of the
remark.
We
may
first
degree
offer
no occasion
nevertheless call attention to the
peculiar form of the proportion which
Grammateus and Apian, f The former
is
found
writes
*Matthiessen, Grundzuge der antiken und vtodernen Algebra, 2

p. 270, etc.
t
for
Gerhardt, Geschichte der Mathematik in Deutschland,
\^TJ,
"
in
Wie
ed., 1896,
ALGEBRA.
zum
sich hadt a
b,
IO9
also hat sich c
zum
</,"
and the
latter places
Leonardo
for
T^
IZ
= X9
of Pisa solved equations of the
gree in identically the
same way
dan recognized two roots
when one
12 9
second de-
as the Arabs.*
of a quadratic equation,
Car-
even
them was negative; but he did not regard
of
such a root as forming an actual solution.
Rudolff
recognized only positive roots, and Stifel stated explicitly that,
with the exception of the case of quad-
ratic equations
with two positive roots, no equation
can have more than one root.

tion
was
mateusf
manner
affected in the
in the
example
In general, the solu-
12jc-|-
24
laid
= 2i|x2:
divide 24iV by 2-if sec,
thus:
down by Gram"Proceed
which gives 10|^
Also divide 12 pri. by 2iJ sec, which

rt;).
(10f
Square the half of ^,
gives the result 5J(^(5|
<^).
which gives %QjS to which add ^?=rlOf, giving -%2_9,

Add this to \ of ^, or
of which the square root is -JJ.
4.|,
and 7
is
the
number represented by
12x7A^=8Â^; add
plied by 49
must
24A^,
=108iV.
1 pri.
Proof
1\% sec multi-
also give 108 A^."
This ''German Coss
"
was certainly cultivated by
Hans Conrad in
EislebenJ (about 1525), yet no memoranda by either
The Uniof these mathematicians have been found.
versity of Vienna encouraged Grammateus to publish,
Hans Bernecker
Cantor,
in
II., p. 31.
Leipzig and by
Gerhardt.
Cantor,
II., p. 387.
no
German
in the year 1523, the first
under the
title,
Rechenbiichlin
^^
Eyn new
vnd gewiss
kunstlich behend
Nach Ge-
vff alle Kauffma7ins chafft.
meynen Regeln de
Welschen
tre.
Etlichen Regeln Cosse
falsi.
on Algebra
treatise
Adam
Ruthen zu machen."
Regeln
practic.
Buchhalten
Riese,
Visier
who had pub-
lished his Arithmetic in 1518, completed in 1524 the
manuscript
of the
Coss
but
and was not found
script
The Coss published by
it
is
solved,
provided with
is
manu-
in
until 1855 in Marienberg.
Christoff Rudolff in 1525 in
Strassburg met with universal
which
remained
This work,
favor.
many examples,
all
completely
described in the following words
" Behend vnd Hiibsch Rechnung durch die kunstreichen regeln Algebre
so gemeinicklich die Coss genennt werden. Darinnen
alles so treulich
an Tag geben
das auch allein ausz vleissigem
Lesen on alien miindtliche vnterricht mag begriffen werden. Hindangesetzt die meinung aller dere
so bisher vil vngegriindten regeln
angehangen. Einem jeden liebhaber diser kunst

lich
Zusamen bracht durch
The
principal
work
vnd
ergetz-
Christoffen Rudolff von Jawer."*
of the
Stifel's AriiJmietica integra,
1544.
lustig
German Coss
is
Michael
published in Nuremberg in
In this book, besides the more
common
opera-
tions of arithmetic, not only are irrational quantities
treated at length, but there are also to be found appli* A translation would read somewhat as follows: "Rapid and neat computation by means of the ingenious rules of algebra, commonly designated
the Coss. Wherein are faithfully elucidated all things in such wise that they
may be comprehended from diligent reading alone, without any oral instruction whatsoever. In disregard of the opinions of all those who hitherto have
adhered
to
numerous unfounded
rules.
Happily and divertingly collected
ôr lovers of this art, by Christoff Rudolff, of Jauer."
ALGEBRA.
Ill
cations of algebra to geometry.
published
Stifel also
1553 Die Cosz Chris toffs Rudolffs mit schonen Ex-
in
der Cosz Gebessert
7?ipeln
vnd sehr gemehrt, with copi-
ous appendices of his own, giving compendia of the
With pardonable
Coss.
serts, ''It is
am
my
purpose
self-appreciation Stifel asin
such matters (as
produce
from complexity to
able)
Therefore from
many
rules of the Coss
simplicity.
have formed
and from the many methods
a single rule
far as
for roots
have also established one uniform method for the
in-
numerable cases."
Stifel's
tion
by
writings were laid under great contribu-
later writers
lands, usually with
was done
in the
on mathematics
no mention
in
of his
widely distant
name.
This
second half of the sixteenth century
by the Germans Christoph Clavius and Scheubel, by

the
Frenchmen Ramus,
the
Dutchman Menher, and by
It
Peletier,
can, therefore, be said that
and Salignac, by
the Spaniard Nunez.
by the end
of the six-
teenth century or the beginning of the seventeenth

the spirit of the
German Coss dominated
European
of all the
the Algebra
lands, with the single exception
of Italy.
The
history of the purely arithmetical solution of
equations of the third and fourth degrees which was

successfully
marked
made
attention.
the
Cantor,
worked out upon
first
demands
Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa)*
advance in
II., p. 43.
Italian soil
this direction in
connection
112
with the equation x^
-f-
2x^
+ 10^ = 20.
Although he
in solving this only approximately,
succeeded
it
fur-
nished him with the opportunity of proving that the

value of X cannot be represented by square roots
alone, even
when
the latter are chosen in
compound
form, like
vVmVn.
The
first
due
is
complete solution of the equation x^-\-mx-=n
to Scipione del Ferro,
second discoverer
is
but
is
it
The
lost.*
On
not Cardan, but Tartaglia.
the twelfth of February, 1535, he gave the formula

for the solution of the equation x^
has since become so famous under the

rival.
By
n,
which
name
of his
7?ix
1541 Tartaglia was able to solve any equa-
tion whatsoever of the third degree.
In 1539 Cardan
enticed his opponent Tartaglia to his house in Milan
and importuned him

his
until the latter finally confided
method under the pledge
Cardan broke
of secrecy.
his word, publishing Tartaglia's solution in 1545 in

his
Ars magna, although not without some mention
the
name
of the discoverer.
Cardan
also
had the
of
satis-
faction of giving to his contemporaries, in his
Ars
magnay the solution of the biquadratic equation which

his pupil Ferrari
belli is to
had succeeded
in obtaining.
Bom-
be credited with representing the roots of
the equation of the third degree in the simplest form,

in the so-called irreducible case,
by means of a trans-
formation of the irrational quantities.

*Hankel,
p. 360.
Of the German
ALGEBRA.
II3
mathematicians, Rudolff also solved a few equations

but without explaining the method
of the third degree,
which he followed.
Stifel
by
was able
this time
give a brief account of the ''cubicoss," that
is,
to
the
theory of equations of the third degree as given in
The
Cardan's work.
first
complete exposition
of the
Tartaglian solution of equations of the third degree
comes from the pen
The
first,
of
Faulhaber (1604).
older cossists* had arranged equations of the
second, third, and fourth degrees (in so far as
they allow of a solution by

alone)
forms.
The
of square
roots
containing twenty-four different
table
in
means
peculiar form of these rules, that
is,
of
the equations with their solutions, can be seen in the
following examples taken from Riese
<*The
is
first
rule
is
when
the root [of the equation]
equal to a number, or dragma so called.
by the number
of roots
the result of this division
must answer the question."
Divide
(I. e.,
if
ax
b,
then
"The
and fourth powers.

of fourth
the
this
when squares equal cubes

Divide through by the number
sixteenth rule
powers [the
number
of
is
coefficient of ^*], then take half
cubes and multiply this by
itself,
add
product to the number of squares, extract the
square root, and from the result take half the number
of cubes.
*Treutleiii.
Then you have
the answer."
"
HISTORY OF MATHKMATICS.
114
Taking
ax""
this step
bx^
-\-
by step we have,
b
cx'^,
x'^
^^
= a
c
or
x'^.
= ^^\-^\-^^^=\^^
x^âx^=:^x'^,^ x
The twenty-four forms

duced by Riese
tions, as his
of the older cossists are re-
**acht equationes"
to
(eight equa-
combination of German and Latin means),
but as to the fact that the square root
he
is
not at
all clear.
Stifel
was the
first
is
two-valued
to let a single
equation stand for these eight, and he expressly asserts that a quadratic
can have only two roots
he asserts, however, only for the equation
x'^
^=ax
this
b.
In order to reduce the equations above mentioned to
one of Riese's eight forms, Rudolff availed himself

**
four precautions (Cautelen)," from which
seen what labor
it
" First precaution.

bers, in the
is
one
is
is
his
When
in
equating two num-
found a quantity, and
in the other
found one of the same name, then (considering the
signs
-J-
and
to or subtracted
being had to
must one
of these quantities
(I. e.,
from
make up
Sjc^
be added
from the other, one at a time, care

for the defect in the
numbers by subtracting the

4
clearly
cost to develop the coss step by
For example, here
step.
it is
of
3^ -f 4 =
-|-
equated
and adding the
2:x:2 -j-
5^,
we
derive ^x^
-\-
8jc.)
The
first
examples
of
this period,
of equations
with more than one unknown quantity, are met with
ALGEBRA.
who
Rudolff,*
in
also Stifel
them only
incidentally.
Here
went decidedl}' be3ônd his predecessors.
Besides the
IC,
treats
I15
first
unknown,
he introduced lA, IB,
Ix,
as secundae radices or
unknowns
additional
and indicated the new notation made necessary
in the
performance of the fundamental operations, as ^xA

(^S.Ty), \Ait^{=^y^), and several others.
Cardan, over whose name a shadow has been cast
by his selfishness
still
in his intercourse
with Tartaglia,
is
deserving of credit, particularly for his approxi-
mate solution
of equations of higher degrees
of the regula falsi
which he
by means
Vieta
calls regtila aurea.
in this direction
and evolved a method
of
approximating the solution
of algebraic equations
of
any degree whatsoever, the method improved by
went farther
Newton and commonly ascribed
to
Biirgi also contributed to these
mation, using the regula falsi.

that
by the beginning
him. Reymers and
methods
We
of approxi-
can therefore say
of the seventeenth century there
were practical methods
at
hand
for calculating the
positive real roots of algebraic equations to
any de-
sired degree of exactness.
The
due
real theory of algebraic equations
to Vieta.
He
is
especially
understood (admitting only posi-
tive roots) the relation of the coefficients of equations

of the
second and third degree
made
the surprising discover}^ that a certain equation
to their roots,
the forty-fifth degree, which
of
*
Cantor,
II., p. 392.
had arisen
and also
in
trig-
Il6
onometric work, possessed twenty-three roots
(in this
enumeration he neglected the negative
In Ger-
man
sine).
writings there are also found isolated statements
concerning the analytic theory of equations
for ex-
ample, Biirgi recognized the connection of a change

of sign
However unimmodern theories may
with a root of the equation.
portant these
first
approaches to
appear, they prepared the
came dominant
way
for ideas
which be-
in later times.
D.
THIRD PERIOD.
FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TO

THE PRESENT TIME.
The founding
of
academies and
of royal societies
characterizes the opening of this period, and
is
the
external sign of an increasing activity in the field of
mathematical sciences.
The
oldest learned society,
the Accademia dei Lincei, was organized upon the
Roman
suggestion of a
gentleman, the
Duke
of Cesi,
as early as 1603,
and numbered, among other famous
members,
The Royal Society of London was

the Paris Academy in 1666, and the
founded
Galileo.
in 1660,
Academy of Berlin in 1700.*

With the progressive development
of
pure mathe-
matics the contrast between arithmetic, which has to
do with discrete quantities, and algebra, which relates

rather to continuous quantities, grew
Cantor,
III.,
pp.
7, 29.
more and more
ALGEBRA.
marked.
II7
Investigations in algebra as well as in the
theory of numbers attained in the course of time great

proportions.
The mighty impulse which
Vieta's investigations
had given influenced particularly the works
Building upon Vieta's discoveries, he gave in
riot.
his Artis analy tic ae praxis,
published posthumously in
which the
the year 1631, a theory of equations, in
tem
Har-
of
was
of notation
signs
>
and
<
The
also materially improved.
than" and
for ''greater
''less
sys-
than"
originated with Harriot, and he always wrote x^ for
XX and x^
is
for xxx,
The
etc.
sign
for
''times"
found almost simultaneously in both Harriot and
Oughtred, though due to the
latter
Descartes used
a period to indicate multiplication, while Leibnitz in
1686 indicated multiplication by ^s and division by
although already
in the writings of the
tient of a divided
d
b,
alb,
or
'
-7-.
by
^-^,
Arabs the quo-
had appeared
The form a\b\s used
in the
forms
for the first
time by Clairaut in a work which was published post-
humously
Wallis made use
in the year 1760.
of the sign 00 to indicate infinity.
tensive use of the the form
a*^
Descartes
in
1655
made
ex-
(for positive integral ex-
Wallis explained the expressions x~'' and

1
n/x as indicating the same thing as l: x" and
reponents).
spectively
vx
but Leibnitz and
Newton were
recognize the great importance

consistent system of notation.
of,
and
the
first to
to suggest, a
ii8
The powers
of Pascal in his
of a
binomial engaged the attention
correspondence with Fermat
in 1654,*
which contains the ''arithmetic triangle," although,

in its essential nature at least,
by
Stifel
more than
arithmetic triangle
is
had been suggested
hundred years before.
This
a table of binomial coefficients
arranged in the following form

1
it
ALGEBRA.
numbers
only, in the course of time the fundamental
operations of arithmetic have
whole
to fractional,
rational
Iig
and
been extended from
from positive to negative, from
real to irrational
For the addition
and imaginary numbers.
of natural, or integral absolute,
numbers, which by Newton and Cauchy are often
termed merely "numbers," the associative and commutative laws hold true, that
a-{- d-\- c
a-\- (d
-\- c),
is,
a-\- b
-\-
= a-\-
c-\- d.
Their multiplication obeys the associative, commuta-
and distributive laws, so that
tive,
abc
To
= (ab)
c;
ab
= ba\
{a-\- b)c
= ac
-\-
be.
these direct operations correspond, as inverses,
The
subtraction and division.
operations to
all
natural
application of these
numbers necessitates the
in-
troduction of the zero and of negative and fractional
numbers, thus forming the great domain of rational
numbers, within which these operations are always

valid,
if
we except
the one case of division by zero.
This extension of the number-system showed

in the sixteenth
quantities.
itself
century in the introduction of negative
Vieta distinguished affirmative (positive)
and negative quantities.

to venture, in his
But Descartes was the
first
geometry, to use the same letter for
both positive and negative quantities.
The
into the
this
irrational
had been incorporated by Euclid
mathematical system upon a geometric
plan being followed for
many
centuries.
basis,
Indeed
I20
it
was not
until the
most modern times* that a purely
arithmetic theory of irrational numbers was produced

of Weierstrass,
through the researches
Dedekind, G.
Cantor, and Heine.
Weierstrass proceeds f from the concept of the
whole number.
numerical quantity consists of a
series of objects of the
fore nothing
of
same kind;
more than the
**
and division we arrive
Among the
numbers.
which,
is
there-
combined representation
one and one and one, etc."|
tion
number
By means
at negative
of subtrac-
and
fractional
latter there are certain
numbers
referred to one particular system, for exam-
if
ple to our decimal system, consist of an infinite
num-
ber of elements, but by transformation can be
made
equal to others arising from the combination of a
finite
number
of
elements
(e. g., 0.
numbers are capable

But
it
of still
1333.
These
=^2^).
another interpretation.
can be proved that every number formed from
known species,
number of those
an infinite number of elements of a
and which contains
known
finite
elements, possesses a very definite meaning, whether

it
is
capable of actual expression or not.
number
infinite
it is
of this
number
When
kind can only be represented by the

of
its
elements, and in no other way,
an irrational number.
Dedekind arranges
all
positive
and negative,
* Stolz, Vorlesungcn ilber allgetneine Arithmetik, 1885-1886.

+
Kossak, Die Elemcnte der Arithmetik,
X Rosier,
1872.
Die neiieren Definitionsforjtien der irrationalen Zahlen,
Dedekind, Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen,
1872.
1886.
in-
121
ALGEBRA.
tegral
and fractional numbers, according
nitude, in a system or in a
into the
two
given number,
classes,
Ai and
many numbers,
finitely
less
R.
korper'),
body
number
in
Ai or the
spondence with the points
{Zahlcji
each containing
A'2,
so that every
numbers can be put
tional
numbers
divides this system
a,
number
Then
than every number in A2.
greatest
of
mag-
to their
is
in-
A\
in
is
either the
least in ^2-
These
ra-
into a one-to-one correof a straight line.
It
is
then evident that this straight line contains an infinite
number
than those which correspond
of other points
to rational
numbers, that
is,
the system of rational
numbers does not possess the same continuity
as the
by the
intro-
straight line, a continuity possible only
duction of
essence of continuity
axiom
into
''If all
According to Dedekind the
new numbers.
contained in the following
is
the points of a straight line are divided
two classes such that every point of the
lies to
exists
the
left of
first
class
every point of the second, then there
one point and only one which
effects this divi-
sion of all points into two classes, this separation of
the straight line into two parts."

tion
it
becomes possible
rational
number,
a,
^2 a
number,
many points
a.
assump-
numbers.
produces a Schnitt or section
A\ and
property that there
least
this
to create irrational
(î|^2), with respect to

teristic
With
To
is
in
A'l,
with the charac-
A\ a
greatest, or in
every one of the infinitely
of the straight line
which are not covered
by rational numbers, or in which the straight line
is
122
not cut by a rational number, there corresponds one
and only one section {Ai\A2), and each one
of these
number
sections defines one and only one irrational
a.
In consequence of these distinctions "the system ^constitutes
an organized domain of
no more
I
/3
lies
If
meant
is
>
many
III.
If
numbers
is
R fall
into
many
distinct
flj
>y
also
is
two
lie
between a and
a definite number, then
classes,
A^ and A^, each
numbers; the
>a
number
the
either the greatest
all
of
numbers
number
itself
which contains
classes
less
A^ and A^
is
infinitely
numbers
numbers
all
a^
first class,
it is
then respectively
or the least of the sec-
such that every number of the
into the
first
class
two
than every number of the second class A^, and we affirm
that this separation
is
IV. If the system

classes,
all
can be assigned indifferently
second class and

of the
of the system
A^ contains
first class
y.
In every case, the separation of the system
ond.
number
the
is,
a, y.
which
/?
to either the first or the
effected
by the number
of all real
A^, A^, such that every
numbers
number
than every number Cj of the class
A 2,
a.
separated into two
is
a^, of the class A^^ is less
then there exists one and
only one number a by which this separation
that
which are <â; the second class A^ contains
which are
is
then a
/3'^-y,
are two distinct numbers, then there are infinitely
If a, y
distinct
this
:
between the numbers
II.
numbers of one dimension; by
be said than that the following laws govern *
to
and
/i^,
all real
is
effected (the
domain
possesses the property of continuity)."
According
to
the assertion of
J.
Tanneryf the fundamentai
ideas of Dedekind's theory had already appeared in
J.
Bertrand'b
text-books of arithmetic and algebra, a statement denied

kind.t
*
Dedekind, Stetigkeit und trrationale Zahlen,
t Stolz,
%
1872.
Vorlesungen uber allgemeine Arithmetik, 1885-1886.
Dedekind, Was sind und was
sollen die
Zahlen?
1888.
by Ded(
ALGEBRA.
123
G. Cantor and Heine* introduce irrational numbers through the concept of a fundamental series.
Such a
series consists of infinitely
bers, i, ^2, as,
...
a^^,
.,
many
and
rational
possesses the
it
property that for an assumed positive number

ever small, there
an index
is
n,
num-
c,
how-
so that for n^tii the
absolute value of the difference between the term
and any following term
is
smaller than
a^^
(condition of
Any two
the convergency of the series of the a's).
fundamental series can be compared with each other

to
(.
determine whether they are equal or which
reater or the less
of a
number
they thus acquire the definiteness
in the
series
number
is
an irrational number.
in the latter case
The domain
consists of the totality of

is
number."
called a ''series
is
defined
either identical with a rational
number, or not identical
numbers, that
A number
ordinary sense.
by a fundamental series
the
is
all
of series
rational
to say, of all real
and
it
defines
numbers
irrational
numbers, and
of
In this case the domain of real numbers
these only.
can be associated with a straight
line, as
G. Cantor
has shown.
The extension
tion of
of the
number-domain by the
imaginary quantities
is
addi-
closely connected with
the solution of equations, especially those of the third
degree.
The
tury called
Italian algebraists of the sixteenth cen-
them ''impossible numbers."
solutions of an equation,
*
As proper
imaginary quantities
first
Rosier, Die neueren Definitionsfornten der irrationalen Zahlen, 1886.
124
The
appear in the writings of Albert Girard* (1629).
expressions ''real" and "imaginary" as characteristic
terms for the difference
nature of the roots of an
in
equation are due to Descartes, f
De Moivre and Lam-
bert introduced imaginary quantities into trigonometry, the
former by means of his famous proposition
concerning the power (cos

its
cf>
-\-
/sin
<fi)",
first
given
present form by Euler. J
Gauss added
to his great
fame by explaining the
nature of im.aginary quantities.

eral use the sign
he
calls
a-\- di
Tjê term
^2 _j- <^2
for r {cos
<f)
l/
for
'
1 first
He
brought into gen-
suggested by Euler
'
modulus
'
'
for the quantity ^/a^
(1814), the term ''reduced
-\- i sin Kji) ,
which equals
a-\-di,
is
Cauchy, and the name "direction coefficient"

factor
cos^
-1-
zs\ncf> first
appeared
Hankel's (1861), although
earlier.
||
complex number with the norm
comes from Argand
of
in
Gauss, to
whom
in
it
form"
due
to
for the
in print in an essay
was
1799
-j-
in use
it
somewhat
seemed simply
advisable to retain complex numbers,^ by his expla-
nations in the advertisement to the second treatise on

biquadratic residues gained for them a triumphant
introduction into arithmetic operations.
The way
for the
geometric representation of com-
plex quantities was prepared by the observations of

*Cantor,
II., p. 718.
f Cantor, II. r p. 724.
Hankel, Die komplcxen Zahlcn,

|]
Beman. "Euler's Use
Math. Soc, March,

^Treutlein.
of
1898, p. 274.
i to
Cantor,
III., p. 684.
1867, p. 71.
Represent an Imaginary," Bull. Amer.
ALGEBRA.
I25
various mathematicians of the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries,
in solving
among them
especially Wallis,*
geometric problems algebraically became
aware of the
when
fact that
certain assumptions give
two real solutions to a problem as points

line,
who
other assumptions give two
*'
of a straight
impossible" roots
as the points of a straight line perpendicular to the first
The
one.
first
satisfactory representation of
quantities in a plane
in 1797,
complex
was devised by Caspar Wessel
without attracting the attention
it
deserved.
A similar treatment, but wholly independent, was

by Argand
in
1806.f
But
his publication
given
was not ap-
In the year 1813 there ap-
preciated even in France.
peared in Gergonne's Annales by an artillery
officer
Francais in the city of Metz the outlines of a theory

of
imaginary quantities the main ideas of which can
be traced back to Argand.
proved his theory by his

gain recognition until
champion.
means
It
Although Argand imwork, yet
later
Cauchy entered the
was, however, Gauss
of his great reputation,
made
who
it
lists
common
property of
all
as
its
(1831), by
the representa-
tion of imaginary quantities in the ''Gaussian
the
did not
plane"
mathematicians. J
Gauss and Dirichlet introduced general complex
numbers
into arithmetic.
The primary
*Hankel, Die kofnplexen Zahlen,
1867, p. 81.
Hankel, Die komplexen Zahlen,
1867, p. 82.
investigations
For a resumi of the history of the geometric representation of the imaginary, see Beman, "A Chapter in the History of Mathematics," Proc.
Atner, Assn. Adv. Science, 1897, pp. 33-50
X
26
regard to complex numbers, which,
of Dirichlet in
to-
gether with indications of the proof, are contained in

the Berichte der Berliner Akademie for 1841, 1842, and
1846, received material amplifications through Eisen-
Kummer, and Dedekind.
stein,
opment
of the
real theory of
Gauss, in the develbiquadratic residues,
introduced complex numbers of the form a-\-bi^ and
Lejeune Dirichlet introduced into the new theory
complex numbers the notions
prime numbers,
of
congruences, residue-theorems, reciprocity, etc
of proof.*
offering greater difficulties in the
Instead of the equation x^
gives as roots the Gaussian units, -f
Eisenstein
made
the
showing greater complexity
propositions, however,
and variety and
of
=
1
1>
use of the equation
0,
way
which
and
x^ =
1> -\-h
considered the complex numbers a-\- bp (p being a
complex cube root
of unity) the theory resembling that
of the
Gaussian numbers
certain
marked
theory
still
a-\-bt, but yet possessing
Kummer
differences.
generalized the
further, using the equation
x*'
=
1
as
the basis, so that numbers of the form
a-=a\Ai-\- a2A2-\-azA^-\arise
where the
a's are
roots of the equation
real integers
x**
=
1
0.
and the A's are
Kummer
forth the concept of ideal numbers, that
numbers
numbers which gives

*Cayley, Address
is
is,
also set
of
such
prime numbers and possess
as are factors of
the property that there
always a power of these ideal
a real
number.
to the British Association, etc., 1883.
For example,
ALGEBRA.
there exists for the prime
ization so
and
number/ no
that/^=y^-^ (where A
/^); but in the theory of
rational factor-
from /
numbers formed from
is
different
the twenty-third roots of unity there are prime

bers
this
/ which
case / is
named
satisfy the condition
num-
above.
In
the product of two ideal numbers, of
which the third powers are the real numbers

B, so that/^
27
= ^*^.
and
In the later development given
by Dedekind the units are the roots of any irreducible

equation with integral numerical coefficients.
case of the equation x^
is
x-\-l =
^(l-[-/l/3), that
^,
to say, the p of Eisenstein, is to
In the
be regarded as
in-
tegral.
In tracing out the nature of complex numbers,
H. Grassmann, Hamilton, and Scheffler have arrived
Grassmann, who also mate-
at peculiar discoveries.
rially
developed the theory
of determinants, investi-
gated in his treatise on directional calculus {Ausdeh7iungslehre) the addition
numbers.
and multiplication
of
complex
In like manner, Hamilton originated the
calculus of quaternions, a
method
of calculation re-
garded with especial favor in England and America
and
justified
by
its
relatively simple applicability to
spherics, to the theory of curvature,
The complete double

chief
title*
work which appeared
translated, is:
in
and
of
the
to mechanics.
H. Grassmann's
year 1844,
as
''The Science of Extensive Quantities
or Directional Calculus {Ausdehnungslehre).

*V. Schlegel, Grassmann, sein Leben und seine Werke.
A New
128
Mathematical Theory, Set Forth and Elucidated by

Part First, Containing the Theory of
Applications.
The Theory
Lineal Directional Calculus.

Directional Calculus,
A New
Branch
of
of Lineal
Mathematics,
Set Forth and Elucidated by Applications to the
Remaining Branches
Statics,
of
Mathematics, as well as to
Mechanics, the Theory of Magnetism and
Crystallography."
The
favorable criticisms of this
wonderful work by Gauss,
who
discovered that *'the
tendencies of the book partly coincided with the paths
upon which he had himself been
travelling for half a
who
century," by Grunert, and by Mobius

in
Grassmann
<'a
recognised
congenial spirit with respect to
mathematics, though not to philosophy," and

congratulated Grassmann upon his
were not able to secure
As
late as
for
it
excellent work,"
*'
a large circle of readers.
1853 Mobius stated that '^Bretschneider
was the only mathematician

him
who
that he
in
Gotha who had assured
had read the Ausdehnungslehre through."
Grassmann received the suggestion
for
his
re-
searches from geometry, where A, B, C, being points

of a straight
line,
AB-^BC=AC^
With
combined the propositions which regard the
gram
as the product of
two adjacent
this
parallelo
sides, thus intro-
ducing new products for which the ordinary rules

multiplication hold so long as there
is
of
no permutation
of factors, this latter case requiring the

* Grassmann, Die Ausdehnungslehre von
nungslehre, ein neuer Ziveig der Mathematik.
he
1844 oder
change
of
die lineale Ausdeh-
Zweite Auflage,
1878.
ALGEBRA.
More exhaustive researches led Grassmann

regard as the sum of several points their center
signs.
product of two points the
gravity, as the
segment between them, as the product

the area of their triangle,
volume
points the
and
to
of
finite line-
of three points
as the product of four
Through the
their pyramid.
of
29
study of the Barycentrischer Calciil of Mobius, Grass-
mann was
led
still
The product
further.
of
two
line-
segments which form a parallelogram was called the

'êxternal product" (the factors can be
permuted only
by a change of sign), the product of one line-segment
and the perpendicular projection of another upon

formed the ''internal product
" (the
it
factors can here
The
be permuted without change of sign).
introduc-
tion of the exponential quantity led to the enlarge-
ment
brief survey to
appear
Hamilton! gave
cation to the
/,
which Grassmann permitted a
of the system, of
j, k,
in
Grunerfs Archiv (1845).*
for the first time, in a
Academy
of
Dublin
in 1844,
so characteristic of his theory.
communithe values
The
Lectures
on Quaternions appeared in 1853, the Elements of Quaternions in 1866.
drawn
From
to the point
nates X, y,
z.
F having
Now if
(unit distances
a fixed point
/',
J,
let a line J
be
the rectangular co-ordi-
k represent fixed coefficients
on the axes), then
Translated by Beinan, Analyst,
Unverzagt,
1881, pp. 96, 114.
Theorie der gonioinetrzschen unci longhnetrzschen Quater-
nionen, 1876.
iCayley,
matics, 1887.
A.,
"On
Multiple Algebra," in Quay-terly Jou?nal 0/ Mathe-
130
is
a vector,
and
quantity" or
**
this additively joined to the
scalar"
''pure
produces the quaternion
Q w-\-tx -\-jy 4- kz.

The
addition of two quaternions follows from
the
usual formula
But
in the
P'
^p =
so that
Q'
case of multiplication
we
/^2
__
\^
I z=Jk
k = ij=.
kj,
place
= ki =:
-
ik,
-ji,
obtain
Q =z ww' XX yy'
On
we must
this
same subject
zz'
-\-
i{wx'
-\-
-\-
j{wy'
-f-
-f- k (wz'
-f-
xz)
xy'
xw' -\- yz'

yw' -\- zx
zw'
-f-
zy'^
yx').
Scheffler published in 1846
his first work, Ueber die Verhdltnisse der AritJutietik zur
Geometrie, in 1852 the Situationscalcul,
r
r
is
1880 the
/
in
represented by
= -^"'^~^ /'^"^,
= x-^y 1/T
rz=iX-\-y'i-\-Z'i'i\
in
For him* the vector
Polydimensionalen Gross en.

three dimensions
and
-[-
z 1/
where
i=^V
or
l/Tl,
or
and /i:=i,/-f-l
are turning factors of an angle of 90 in the plane of xy
and
xz.
In Scheffler's theory the distributive law does
not always hold true for multiplication, that

a{b -f
c) is
not always equivalent to ab
-\-
is
to sa)
ac.
Investigations as to the extent of the domain in

*
Unverzagt, Ueber die Grundlagen
de?-
Kcc/iHung
f>n't
Quatey-niontm, i8Si.
ALGEBRA.
I3I
which with certain assumptions the laws
of the ele-
mentary operations of arithmetic are valid have led
To
establishment of a calculus of logic*
to the
class of investigations there belong,
besides Grass-
mann's Formenlehre (1872), notes by Cayley and
and
in particular the
works
this
Ellis,
of Boole, SchrOder,
and
Charles Peirce.
minor portion
of the
or higher arithmetic,
The algorism
such fractions, which

greatest
of
is
is
made up
of continued
also used in calculating the
back to the time of Euclid.
of
two numbers, reaches
The combination
partial quotients in a continued fraction
who
of
leading to the formation of
common measure
with Cataldi,f
numbers
which concerns the theories
congruences and of forms,

fractions.
modern theory
in the year
of the
originated
1613 approximated the
value of square roots by this method, but failed to
examine closely the properties

Daniel Schwenter was the
terial
contribution
new fractions.
to make any ma-
of the
first
(1625) towards determining the
convergents of continued fractions.
He
devoted his
attention to the reduction of fractions involving large
numbers, and determined the rules now
in
culating the successive convergents.
Huygens and
Wallis also labored in this
field,
use for cal-
the latter discover-
ing the general rule, together with a demonstration,

vvhich
combines the terms
* Schroder,
t
Cantor,
Der Operationskreis
II., p. 695.
of the
convergents
des Logikcalculs, iSyy.
132
Pn
in the following
manner
Pn __ ^npK-\
The theory
+ ^nPn-i
continued fractions received
of
development
Pn-I
Pn-\
its
greatest
in the eighteenth century with Euler,*
who introduced the name fractio continua (the German term Kettenbruch has been used only since the
beginning of the nineteenth century).
He
his attention chiefly to the reduction of
devoted
continued
fractions to the form of infinite products and series,
and doubtless
in this
way was
led to the attempt to
give the convergents independent form, that
cover a general law by means of which
it
is
to dis-
would be
possible to calculate any required convergent without

first
obtaining the preceding ones.
Although Euler
did not succeed in discovering such a law, he created
an algorism of some value.
This, however, did not
bring him essentially nearer the goal because, in spite

of the
of
example
of
Cramer, he neglected to make use
determinants and thus to identify himself the more
closely with the pure theory of combinations.

this latter point of
Hindenburg and
Still,
tions
view the problem was attacked by

his pupils
Burckhardt and Rothe.
who proceed from the theory of combina

alone know continued fractions only from one
those
side; the
*
From
Cantor,
method
III., p. 670.
of
independent presentation allows
ALGEBRA.
I33
the calculation of the desired convergent

sides,
from both
forward as well as backward, to the practical
value of which Dirichlet has testified.
Only
in
modern times has the calculus
nants been employed in this
combinatory symbol, and the

rection dates from the
first
together with a
impulse in this
di-
Danish mathematician Ramus
Similar investigations were begun, however,
(1855).
by Heine, Mobius, and

formation of
The
field,
of determi-
S. Giinther,
leading to the
"continued fractional determinants.'*
irrationality of certain
infinite
continued
frac-
tions* had been investigated before this by Legendre,
who,
like
ries in
Gauss, gave the quotient of two power
the form of a continued fraction.
the application of continued fractions
it
By means
It
TT^
of
can be shown
that the quantities e* (for rational values of x)^
and
se-
e,
v,
cannot be rational (Lambert, Legendre, Stern).
was not
until very recent times that the transcen-
dental nature of e
that of
TT
by F. Lindemann.
In the theory of
difficult
was established by Hermite, and
numbers
strictly
speaking, quite
problems concerning the properties
bers were solved by the
first
Euclid and Diophantus.
of
num-
exponents of that study,
Any
considerable advance
was impossible, however, as long as investigations had

be conducted f without an adequate numerical notation, and almost exclusively with the aid of an algebra
to
*Treutlein.
t
Legendre, Thiorie des nombres,
ist ed. 1798,
3rd ed. 1830.
134
under the guise of geometry.
just developing
the time of Vieta and Bachet there
vance to be noted
former solved
latter
gave
in the
is
no essential ad-
The
theory of numbers.
many problems
in this field,
work ProbVemes plaisants
in his
Until
and the
et d^lectables
a satisfactory treatment of indeterminate equations

of the first degree.
Still later
the
stones for the
first
foundation of a theory of numbers were laid by Fer-
who had
mat,
whose works
carefully studied
as elaborated
Diophantus and into
by Bachet he incorporated
The
valuable additional propositions.
great
mass
of
propositions which can be traced back to him he gave

for the
most part without demonstration, as
for ex-
ample the following statement

''Every prime number of the form 4-(-l
sum
of
-f"
two squares; a prime number

has
y^-{-2z^, y^
at
2^2;
y'^
y^
-j-
^,
every prime number of the form
8 -|- 3 appears as y^
appears as
form
of the
same time the three forms
the
the
is
-\-
2z^,
2z^.'^
formed by the addition
every one of the form
Further,
8-|- 7
"Any number can
be
of three cubes, of four squares,
of five fifth powers, etc."
Fermat proved
that the area of a Pythagorean
right-angled triangle, for example a triangle with the

sides
the
1
3, 4,
first
and
5,
cannot be a square.
He was
also
to obtain the solution of the equation ax'^
=y^, where a
is
not a square
at
all
events,
-\-
he
brought this problem to the attention of English

mathematicians,
among whom Lord Brouncker
dis-
ALGEBRA.
covered a solution which found
works
of Wallis.
Many
way
its
into
35
the
Fermat's theorems belong
of
to *'the finest propositions of
higher mathematics/'*
and possess the peculiarity that they can easily be

discovered by induction, but that their demonstrations
are extremely difficult
and yield only
the most
to
which imparts
searching investigation.
It is just this
to higher arithmetic
magic charm which made
that
it
a favorite with the early geometers, not to speak of
inexhaustible treasure-house in which
its
ceeds
all
other branches of pure mathematics.
After Fermat, Euler
was the
any serious investigations
To him we owe, among

tific
far ex-
it
first
again to attempt
in the theory of
other things, the
numbers.
first
scien-
solution of the chess board problem, which re-
quires that the knight, starting from a certain square,
occupy
shall in turn
all
sixty-four squares,
further proposition that the

tiplied into another similar
He
four squares.
and the
sum of four squares mulsum also gives the sum of
also discovered demonstrations of
various propositions of Fermat, as well as the general

solution of indeterminate equations of the second de-
gree with two
unknowns on the hypothesis
cial solution is
that a spe-
known, and he treated a large number
of other indeterminate equations, for
which he
dis-
covered numerous ingenious solutions.
Euler (as well as Krafft) also occupied himself

Ganss,
IVerke, II., p. 152.
136
These numbers, which are
with amicable numbers.*
mentioned by lamblichus as being known
to
the
Pythagoreans, and which are mentioned by the Arab

Tabit ibn Kurra, suggested to Descartes the discovery
of a
law of formation, which
is
given again by Van
Schooten.
Euler made additions
duced from
it
to this
law and de-
the proposition that two amicable
bers must possess the
same number
of
prime
num
factors.
The formation of amicable numbers depends either

upon the solution of the equation xy-\-ax-\-by-\-c^^,
or
upon the factoring
of the quadratic
form ax^
-\-
bxy
Following Euler, Lagrange was able to publish
many
interesting results in the theory of numbers.
He showed
the
of
sum
that any
number can be represented
of four or less squares,
an algebraic equation
of
and that a
real root
any degree can be con-
He was
verted into a continued fraction.

first to
as
prove that the equation x^
Ay^ =
also the
always
l is
soluble in integers, and he discovered a general
method
for the derivation of propositions concerning
prime
numbers.
Now
the development of the theory of numbers
bounds forward
Gauss.
in
two mighty leaps
The valuable
la thiorie des nombres,
to
Legendre and
treatise of the former, Essai siir
which appeared but a few years
before Gauss's Disquisitiones arithfneticae, contains an
epitome
of all results that
had been published up
*Seelhoff, " Befreundete Zahlen," Hoppe Arch., Bd.
70.
to
ALGEBRA.
I37
that time, besides certain original investigations, the
most
being the law of quadratic reciprocity,
brilliant
Gauss called
or, as
the Theorema fundamentale in
it,
This law gives a
doctrina de residuis quadratis.
odd and unequal prime numbers
tionship between two
and can be enunciated

''Let
ing
^~ hy
or
and n may
and
let
words
is left after
be the remainder
divid-
left after
These remainders are always
by m.
dividing tT^
-j-
in the following
be the remainder which

n,
rela-
Whatever then the prime numbers m
1.
be,
we always
obtain
=
1
in case the
numbers are not both

are of the form
Ax -f
of the
3,
form ix -f
then
we have
if
mJ
in the
first
formula
of the indetermi-
degree with two unknowns,
an equation which in Gauss's notation appears
xâ
(mod
b'),
identical with
n).
Fermat was aware
the complete solution

zh 1, 2,
of the
3,
of a
in
the
=y-\-a, mathe-
maticians began the study of the congruence
(mod
\n
Bachet having exhausted the theory
form
both
These two cases are contained
nate equation of the
But
3.
x'^^m
few special cases of
he knew under what conditions
5 are quadratic residues or non-residues
odd prime number
;;/.*
For the cases
*Baumgart, " Ueber das quadratische Reciprocitatsgesetz,"

milch' s Zeitschrift, Bd. 30, HI. Abt.
and
in Schlo-
138
the demonstrations originate with Euler, for it 2
and zb 5 with Lagrange. It was Euler, too, who gave

the propositions which embrace the law of quadratic
reciprocity in the
most general terms, although he
did not offer a complete demonstration of
famous demonstration
of
Legendre
(in
The
it.
Essai sur
la
theorie des nombres, 1798) is also, as yet, incomplete.
In the year 1796 Gauss submitted, without knowing

of Euler's work, the first unquestionable demonstra-
tion
demonstration which possesses at the same
time the peculiarity that
which were used

adduced no
law, of
less
later.
it
embraces the principles
In the course of time Gauss
than eight proofs for this important
which the sixth (chronologically the
simplified almost simultaneously
and Eisenstein.
was
last)
by Cauchy, Jacobi,
Eisenstein demonstrated in partic
ular that the quadratic, the cubic and the biquadratic
laws are
year 1861
all
derived from a
Kummer worked
common
source.
In the
out with the aid of the
theory of forms two demonstrations for the law of

quadratic reciprocity, which were capable of generalization
for
the
twenty-five distinct
;th-power residue.
demonstrations of
quadratic reciprocity had been published
Up
the
;
to
1890
law
they
of
make
use of induction and reduction, of the partition of the

perigon, of the theory of functions, and of the theory
of forms.
In addition to the eight demonstrations by
Gauss which have already been mentioned, there

four by Eisenstein, two by
are
Kummer, and one each
ALGEBRA.
139
by Jacobi, Cauchy, Liouville, Lebesgue, Genocchi,
Kronecker, Bouniakowsky, Schering,
Stern, Zeller,
Petersen, Voigt, Busche, and Pepin.
However much
is
due
to the co-operation of
math-
ematicians of different periods, yet to Gauss unquestionably belongs the merit of having contributed in
his Disquisitiones arithmeticae of 1801 the
tant part of the elementary

of
numbers.
development
most imporof the theory
Later investigations in this branch have
their root in the soil
investigations,
which Gauss prepared.
which were not pursued
Of such
until after the
introduction of the theory of elliptic transcendents,
may be mentioned
to the
number
the propositions of Jacobi in regard
decompositions of a number into
of
two, four, six, and eight squares,* as well as the investigations of Dirichlet in regard to the equation
His work
in the
favorite pursuit, f
theory of numbers was Dirichlet's
He was
to boast of
arithmeticae of
task in which
first to
deliver lectures
German university and

having made the Disquisitiones
on the theory of numbers
was able
the
in a
Gauss transparent and

a
Legendre,
intelligible
according to his
own
avowal, was unsuccessful.

Dirichlet's earliest treatise,
biliti
Mimoire sur IHmpossi-
de quelques equations inddterminis du cinquieme
degrd (submitted to the French
Academy
in 1825),
Dirichlet, " Gtdachtnisrede auf Jacobi," Crelle's Journal, Bd.

t
Kummer, " Gedachtnisrede auf Lejeune-Dirichlet,"
52.
in Berl. Abh.
i860.
140
Fermat without
deals with the proposition, stated by
sum
demonstration, that "the
of
two powers having
the
same exponent can never be equal
the
same exponent, when these powers
ers
this proposition for the third
Dirichlet discusses the
and proves that

be equal to az^.
its
power
of
are of a degree
Euler and Legendre had
higher than the second."
proved
to a
for integral
sum
and fourth pow-
two
fifth
powers
numbers x^
-\-y^
cannot
The importance
of
of this
work
lies in
intimate relationship to the theory of forms of
higher degree. Dirichlet's further contributions in the

field of
the theory of
numbers contain elegant demonGauss
strations of certain propositions of

to biquadratic residues
which were published
and the law
in
lehrte Anzeigen, as well as
in
regard
of reciprocity,
1825 in the Gottingen Gewith the determination of
the class-number of the quadratic form for any given
determinant.
His "applications
of
analysis to the
theory of numbers are as noteworthy in their

Descartes's applications of analysis to
would
as a
also, like the analytic
new mathematical
way as
geometry. They
geometry, be recognized
discipline
if
they had been ex-
tended not to certain portions only of the theory
number, but
to all its
The numerous
and laws
of
problems uniformly.*
investigations into the properties
numbers had
tury! to the study of

*Kummer,
of
led in the seventeenth cen-
numbers
in regard to their divis-
" Gedachtnisrede auf Lejeune-Dirichlet."
Berl. Abh.
tSeelhoff, " Geschichte der Faktorentafeln," in Hoppe Arch., Bd. 70.
i860.
ALGEBRA.
I4I
For almost two thousand years Eratosthenes's
ors.
method
''sieve" remained the only
of
determining
prime numbers. In the year 1657 Franz van Schooten

published a table of prime numbers up to ten thou-
Eleven years
sand.
later Pell constructed a table of
the least prime factors (with the exception of 2 and 5)

of
numbers up
all
tables remained
100 000.
to
Germany
In
almost unknown, and
in
these
the year
1728 Poetius published independently a table of factors
for
numbers up
100 000, an example which
to
was repeatedly imitated.
Kriiger's table of 1746 in-
cludes numbers up to 100 000; that of Lambert of
which
1770,
used
in
is
the
first
more modern
Of the
102 000.
show the arrangement
to
numbers up
tables, includes
six tables
to
which were prepared be-
tween the years 1770 and 1811 that
of Felkel is inter-
esting because of
its
the
singular fate;
its
Kaiserlich konigliches Aerarium
completed as
far as
408 000
publication by
in
Vienna was
the remainder of the
manuscript was then withheld and the portion already

printed was used for manufacturing cartridges for the
last
Turkish war
of the
eighteenth century.
In the
year 1817 there appeared in Paris Burckhardt's Table
pour tons
du 7*% 2% j'
mi/lion.
Between 1840 and 1850 Crelle communicated
to the
des diviseurs
Berlin
Academy
and sixth
lished.
ius,
was
tables of factors for the fourth,
million,
fifth,
which, however, were not pub-
who is known for his arithmetic genmake the calculations for the seventh to
Dase,
to
les no7tibres
142
the tenth million, having been designated for that
work by Gauss, but he died
in
1861 before
its
com-
Since 1877 the British Association has been
pletion.
having these tables continued by Glaisher with the

assistance
The
two computers.
of
tables of factors for the fourth million
publication
of
was completed
in 1879.
In the year 1856 K. G. Reuschle published his

tables for use in the theory of numbers, having been
encouraged
undertake the work by his correspond-
to
ence with Jacobi.
numbers
= 242,
of the
They
form 10"
contain the resolution of

1 into
prime
and numerous similar results
up
to
numbers
of
factors,
for
and a table of the resolution of prinie

into the forms
numbers / =
/ = ^2_|_3^2 and 4/ = C^ + 27 J/2^
the form
1,
a*"
6^? -[- 1
as they occur in the treatment of cubic residues
and
in the partition of the perigon.
Of greatest importance
for the
advance of the
sci-
ence of algebra as well as that of geometry was the
development
of the theories of
of elimination,
and
symmetric functions,
of invariants of algebraic forms,
as they
were perfected through the application
jective
geometry
The
tions
first
(sums
to the theory of equations.*
formulas for calculating symmetric funcof
powers) of the roots
equation in terms of
*A.
Brill,
of pro-
its coefficients
AntriUsrede in Tubingen,
1884.
of
an algebraic
are due to
Manuscript.
Newton.
ALGEBRA.
Waring
a
worked
also
in this field (1770)
43
and developed
theorem, which Gauss independently discovered
by means
(1816),
may be expressed
of
in
which any symmetric function

terms of the elementary sym-
This
metric functions.
is
accomplished directly by a
method devised by Cayley and Sylvester, through laws

due
former in regard to the weight of sym
to the
The
metric functions.
oldest
tables
of
symmetric
functions (extending to the tenth degree) were published by
Meyer-Hirsch
The
(1809).
in his collection of
problems
calculation of these functions, which
was
very tedious, was essentially simplified by Cayley and

Brioschi.
The
resultant of two equations with one
what
or,
is
unknown,
the same, of two forms with two
homo-
geneous variables, was given by Euler (1748) and by
B^zout (1764).
To both
belongs the merit of having
reduced the determination of the resultant to the solution of a system of linear equations.*
duced the name
**
resultant"
B^zout
intro-
(De Morgan suggested
''eliminant") and determined the degree of this function.
Lagrange and Poisson also investigated ques-
tions of elimination
common
for
method
multiple-roots
of the roots of a
advancement
made by
the former stated the condition

;
the latter furnished a
forming symmetric functions of the com-
of
mon values
further
system
of equations.
of the theory of elimination
The
was
jacobi, Hesse, Sylvester, Cayley, Cauchy,
Salmon, Higher Algebra.
144
Jacobi's memoir,* which rep-
Brioschi, and Gordan.
resented the resultant as a determinant, threw light
same time on the aggregate
at the
of coefficients be-
longing to the resultant and on the equations in which

the resultant and
its
product by another partially
ar-
bitrary function are represented as functions of the
This notion of Jacobi gave Hesse
two given forms.
the impulse to pursue
numerous important
investiga-
especially on the resultant of two equations,
tions,
which he again developed

dialytic
method
in
1843 after Sylvester's
(1840); then in 1844, ''on the elimi-
nation of the variables from three algebraic equations
with two variables
";
and shortly
of inflexion of plane curves."
after ''on the points
Hesse placed the main
value of these investigations, not in the form of the

final equation,
of the
but in the insight into the composition
same from known
functions.
upon the functional determinant
Thus he came
of three quadratic
prime forms, and further upon the determinant
of the
second partial differential coefficients of the cubic

form, and
upon
its
Hessian determinant, whose geo-
metric interpretation furnished the interesting result

that in the general case the points of inflexion of a
plane curve of the nth order are given by

intersection with a curve of order 3{n
sult
was previously known
order, having
is
for curves
been discovered by
further due the
first
its
2).
of
Pliicker.
complete
This
the third
To Hesse
important example of the
*0. H. Noether, Schldmikh''s Zeitschrift, Bd.
20.
re-
re-
ALGEBRA.
moval
of factors
I45
from resultants,
factors are foreign to the real
so far as these
'in
problem
to
be solved.
Hesse, alwa3^s extending the theory of elimination,

in
1849 succeeded in producing, free from
super-
all
the long-sought equation of the 14th
fluous factors,
degree upon which the double tangents of a curve of

the 4th order depend.
The method
of elimination
used by Hesse*
method published by Sylvester
in
1843
1840;
is
the dialytic
it
gives the resultant of two functions of the mth and
in
orders as a determinant, in which the coefficients
;/th
and those
of the first enter into n rows,
into
rows.
was Sylvester
It
troduced the name
time,
it
who
also,
second
in 1851 in-
^'discriminant " for the function
which expresses the condition

two equal roots
of the
for the existence of
of an algebraic equation
was customary,
after the
example
up
to this
of
Gauss,
to say ''determinant of the function."
The
important for
all
branches of mathematics to-day, dates back in
its
notion of invariance,
beginnings to
Lagrangef,
so
who
in
1773
remarked
that the discriminant of the quadratic form ax^
23xy-{-cy^ remains unaltered
x-\-\y for X.
by the substitution
This unchangeability
-\-
of
of the discrim-
inant by linear transformation, for binar}' and ternary
quadratic forms,
(1801)
was completely proved by Gauss
but that the discriminant in general and in
every case remains invariant by linear transformation,

* Matthiessen, p. 99.
Salmon, Higher Algebra.
146
G. Boole (1841) recognized and
first
demonstrated.
In 1845, Cayley, adding to the treatment of Boole,
found that there are
still
other functions which possess
showed
invariant properties in linear transformation,
how
to
determine such functions and named them
''hyperdeterminants."
This discovery
of
Cayley de-
veloped rapidly into the important theory of invariparticularly
ants,
through the writings
Cayley,
of
Aronhold, Boole, Sylvester, Hermite, and Brioschi,
and then through those of Clebsch, Gordan, and

After the appearance of Cayley's first paper,
others.
Aronhold made an important contribution by determining the invariants S and
The
From
same form.
ries of
ternary form, and
their relation to the discriminant of
by developing
the
7' of a
1851 on, there appeared a
important articles by Cayley and Sylvester.
latter created in these a large part of the
ology of to-day,
(1851).
se-
especially
the
name
termin
''invariant"
In the year 1854,^ Hermite discovered his law
of reciprocity,
which states that
to every covariant or
invariant of degree p and order ^ of a form of the mth

order, corresponds also a covariant or invariant of
degree
and
of order r of a
form
of the pth order.
Clebsch and Gordan used the abbreviation
duced
for binary
forms by Aronhold, in their funda-
mental developments,
tension of the
e. g.,
in
the systematic ex-
process of transvection in forming
invariants and covariants, already

in his
d", intro-
known
to Cayley
preliminary investigations, in the folding-pro-
ALGEBRA.
I47
cess of forming elementary covariants,
mation
of
in the for-
simultaneous invariants and covariants,
finiteness of the
form-system constitutes the most im-
portant recent advance in this theory
of a binary
Gordan has
number
states that there is only a finite
and covariants
in
Gordan's theorem on the
particular the combinants.
forms.
and
form or
also given a
of a
theorem
this
of invariants
system of such
method
for the for-
mation of the complete form-system, and has carried

out the
same
for the case of binary
forms of the
Hilbert (1890) showed the
and sixth orders.
fifth
finite-
ness of the complete systems for forms of n variables.*
To
refer in a
word
to the great significance of the
invariants for other branches of mathematics, let
it
theory of
suffice
to
mention that the theory of binary forms has been transferred by

Clebsch to that of ternary forms
Ime co-ordinates)
that the
form
(in
particular for equations in
of the third order finds its repre-
sentation in a space-curve of the third order, while binary forms

of the fourth order play a great part in the theory of plane curves
of the third order,
and
equation of
assist in the solution of the
the fourth degree as well as in the transformation of the elliptic

integral of the
first
combinants can be
equations of the
tions
class into Hermite's

efifectively
fifth
normal form
finally that
introduced in the transformation of
and sixth degrees.
The
results of investiga-
by Clebsch, Weierstrass, Klein, Bianchi, and Burckhardt,
have shown the great significance of the theory of invariants for

the theory of the hyperelliptic
and Abelian functions. This theory
has been further used by Christoffel and Lipschitz in the representation of the line-element,
by Sylvester, Halphen, and Lie
in the
case of reciprocants or differential invariants in the theory of dif*
W. F., " Bericht iiber den gegenwartigen Stand der InvariantenJahreshericht der deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigtmg, Bd. I.
Meyer,
theorie."
148
ferential equations,
and by Beltrami
in his differential
theory of curvature of surfaces.
in the
have been proposed
The
in various articles
by Hilbert.
theory of probabilities assumed form under
the hands of Pascal and Fermat.*

a
parameter
Irrational invariants also
In the year 1654,
gambler, the Chevalier de M6r^, had addressed two
inquiries to Pascal as follows
" In how many throws
with dice can one hope to throw a double six," and

''In
what
game
ratio should the stakes be divided
broken up
is
questions,
given
moment?"
whose solution was
were the occasion
new
at a
the
These two
for Pascal very easy,
of his laying
science which was
if
the foundation of a
named by him "G6om6tYie du
At Pascal's invitation, Fermat also turned
hasard."
his attention to such questions, using the theory of
combinations.
of the
Huygens soon followed
the example
two French mathematicians, and wrote
a small treatise on
games
of chance.
The
in
1656f
first
to
apply the new theory to economic sciences was the

''grand pensioner" Jean de Witt, the celebrated pupil
of Descartes.
He made
a report in 1671 on the
man-
ner of determining the rate of annuities on the basis

of a table of mortality.
vestigations on the
same
Hudde
subject.
also published in-
"Calculation
of
chances" (^Rechnung uber den Zufall^ received comprehensive treatment at the hand of Jacob Bernoulli in
his
Ars
conjectandi (1713), printed eight years after the
death of the author, a book which remained forgotten

*
Cantor,
II., p. 688.
Cantor,
II., p.
692.
ALGEBRA.
149
Condorcet called attention to
until
Since Ber-
has scarcely been a distinguished alge-
noulli, there
who has
braist
it.
not found time for some work in the
theory of probabilities.
To the method of least squares Legendre gave the

name in a paper on this subject which appeared in
1805.* The first publication by Gauss on the same
subject appeared in 1809, although he. was in possession of the
method
as early as 1795.
The honor
therefore due to Gauss for the reason that he

forth the
method
practical account
in its
first
planetoid Ceres on the
by Piazzi.
it
The apparent
scale.
spiration for this investigation
the
first set
present form and turned
on a large
was the discovery

first
is
to
in-
of
of January, 1801,
Gauss calculated by new methods the
orbit of this
heavenly body so accurately that the
same planetoid could be again found towards the end

year 1801 near the position given by him.
of the
investigations
The
connected with this calculation ap-
peared in 1809 as Theoria motus corporum coelestium,

etc.
The work contained
position of a heavenly
means
of the
difficult
tions.
known
problem
the determination of the
body
for
orbit, besides the solution of the
to find the orbit
In order to
any given time by
make
from three observa-
the orbit thus determined
agree as closely as possible with that of a greater
number
of observations.
Gauss applied the process
*Merriman, M., "List of Writings relating

Squares."
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. IV.
to
the
Method
of Least
150
The
discovered by him in 1795.

''so to
of
object of this
was
combine observations which serve the purpose
determining unknown quantities, that the unavoid-
able errors of observation affect as
numbers sought."
the values of the
as possible
little
For
purpose
this
Gauss gave the following rule*: ''Attribute
to
each
moment depending upon its value, multiply

the moment of each possible error by its probability
and add the products. The error whose moment is
equal to this sum will have to be designated as the
error a
mean."
As the simplest
which
error
shall be the
chose the square.
arbitrary function
moment
of the latter,
Laplace published
this
first
great
work
is
due
he uses his arithmetic triangle,
;2th class.
much new
e.
combig.,
to Pascal.
by
In
in order to de-
termine the number of combinations of

the
Gauss
method.
of the theory of
nations are found in the sixteenth century,
Cardan, but the
the
year 1812
in the
a detailed proof of the correctness of Gauss's
Elementary presentations
of
elements of
Leibnitz and Jacob Bernoulli produced
Towards
material by their investigations.
the end of the eighteenth century, the field was cultivated by a
number
of
German
scholars,
and there
arose under the leadership of Hindenburg the
"com-
binatory school,"t whose followers added to the de-
velopment
all in
of the
binomial theorem. Superior to them
systematic proof
is
Hindenburg, who separated
Gerhardt, Geschichte der Mathematik in Deutschlaiid,

tGerhardt, Geschichte der Mathematik in Deufschland,
1877.
1877.
ALGEBRA.
polynomials into a
d-{-
He
first
151
form
class of the
and into a second,
a-\- bx-\- cx^
a-]- d-{- c
-\-
-{-
dx^ -]-....
perfected what was already known, and gave the
number
lacking proofs to a
the
title
of
*'
of theorems, thus earning
founder of the theory of combinatory
analysis."
The combinatory
and especially
duced a varied
school,
which included Eschenbach, Rothe,
addition to
Pfafif, in
literature,
elegant formal results.
and commanded respect because of
But, in
domain of the new and
distinguished founder, pro-
its
its
aims,
it
fruitful theories cultivated especially
such French mathematicians as Lagrange and Laplace, that
mained without influence

ics,
at least at the
in the further
its
stood so far outside the
it
by
re-
development of mathemat-
beginning of the nineteenth century.
In the domain of infinite series,*
many
cases which
reduce for the most part to geometric series, were

treated by Euclid,
lonius.
and
it
and
degree by Apol-
to a greater
The Middle Ages added nothing essential,

remained for more recent generations to make
important contributions to this branch of mathematical
Saint-Vincent and Mercator devel-
knowledge.
oped independently the
series for log(l -f x^,
Gregory
cosec^.
In the
those for tan~^jcr, sin^, cosx,
sec^xr,
writings of the latter are also found, in the treatment

of infinite series,
"divergent."
the expressions
Leibnitz was led
through consideration of
realized at the
* Reiff, R.,
finite
*'
convergent" and
to
infinite
series,
arithmetic series.
same time the necessity
of
He
examining
Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen, Tubingen, 1889.
152
more closely
This necessity was also
series.
used
into the convergence
infinite
felt
manner
series in a
and divergence
of
by Newton, who
similar to that of
Apollonius in the solution of algebraic and geometric

problems, especially in the determination of areas,
and consequently as equivalent to integration.
The new
ideas introduced by Leibnitz were further
The former
developed by Jacob and John Bernoulli.

found the sums
ter
with constant terms, the
of series
lat-
gave a general rule for the development of a func-
tion into
an
no exact
criteria for
At
infinite series.
this
time there were
convergence, except those sug-
gested by Leibnitz for alternating series.
During the years immediately following, essential

advances
in
were made.
the formal treatment of infinite series
De Moivre
wrote on recurrent series and
exhausted almost completely their essential properTaylor's and Maclaurin's closely related series
ties.
appeared, Maclaurin developing a rigorous proof of

Taylor's theorem, giving numerous applications of
and stating new formulas

played the greatest
series,
skill
of
in
but troubled himself
and divergence.
summation.
dis-
the handling of infinite

little
He deduced
about convergence
the exponential from
the binomial series, and was the
first
tional functions into series of sines
integral
Euler
it,
multiple arguments.*
In
develop
ra-
and cosines
of
to
this
manner he
defined the coefficients of a trigonometric series by

*
Reiflf,
Geschichte der unendlicheti Reihen. 1889, pp.
105, 127.
ALGEBRA.
definite integrals without
53
applying these important
formulas to the development of arbitrary functions

into trigonometric series.
This was
accomplished
first
by Fourier (1822), whose investigations were completed by
Riemann and Cauchy.
was brought
to a
investigation
temporary termination by Dirichlet
(1829), in so far as
entific
The
by
rigid
methods he gave
a sci-
foundation and introduced general and com-
plex investigations on
From Laplace
convergence
the
gendre furnished a valuable extension

of series
series.*
of
date the developments into series of
two variables, especially into recurrent
by the introduction
series.
of the
in this as in nearly all
Le-
theory
of spherical functions.
With Gauss begin more exact methods

ment
it
of treat-
branches of mathematics,
the establishment of the simplest criteria of conver-
gence, the investigation of the remainder, and the
continuation of series beyond the region of convergence.
The
series of
Gauss
introduction to this was the celebrated
'+ l-y^+
l-2-y(y+l)
*+'
which Euler had already handled but whose great

value he had not appreciated. f
The
generally ac-
cepted naming of this series as ^'hypergeometric"
due
to J. F. Pfaff,
series in
who proposed
which the quotient
*Kummer,
of
it
for
" Gedachtnissrede auf Lejeune-Dirichlet."
Reiff, Geschichte
the general
any term divided by the
lungen, i860.
t
is
der unendlichen Reikcn,
1889, p. 161.
Berliner Abhand-
154
preceding
is
a function of the index.
same name
ing Wallis, used the

that quotient
index.*
Euler, follow-
for the series in
which
an integral linear function of the
is
Gauss, probably influenced by astronomical
applications, stated that his series,

tain special values of
of nearly all the series
a, /3, y,
by assuming
cer-
could take the place
then known; he also investi-
gated the essential properties of the function represented by this series and gave for series in general an
important criterion of convergence.

to
Abel (1826)
for
We
are indebted
important investigations on the con-
tinuity of series.
The
idea of uniform convergence arose from the
study of the behavior of series in the neighborhood of

their discontinuities,
and was expressed almost simul-
taneously by Stokes and Seidel

latter calls a series
The
(1847-1848).
uniformly convergent when
it
rep-
resents a discontinuous function of a quantity x^ the
separate terms of which are continuous, but in the

vicinity of the discontinuities
is
of
such a nature that
values of x exist for which the series converges as
slowly as desired, f
On
of
account of the lack of immediate appreciation
Gauss's memoir of 1812, the period of the discovery
of effective criteria of
may
convergence and divergence
be said to begin with Cauchy (1821).
*Riemann, Werke,
His meth-
p. 78.
t Reiff, Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen, 1889, p. 207.
tPringsheim, "Allgemeine Theorie der Divergenz und Konvergenz von

Reihen mit positiven Gliedern," Math. Annalen, XXXV.
ALGEBRA.
ods of investigation, as well as the theorems on
finite
1832 and 1851 by Raabe, Duhamel,
for they
lar
and Paucker,
De Morgan,
tlie
form
Criteria of essentially
by Dini (1867).
time, at least in
a", *,
particu-
nQog??)^ and others.
more general nature were
Kummer
discovered by
Ber-
set forth special criteria,
compare generally the nth term with
functions of
in-
between
series with positive terms published
trand, Bonnet,
55
first
(1835), and were generalized
researches remained for a
Dini's
Germany, completely unknown.
Six
years later Paul du Bois-Reymond, starting with the
same fundamental ideas

chief results
of
the
as Dini, discovered
Italian
anew
the
mathematician, worked
them out more thoroughly and enlarged them essentially to a
system of convergence and divergence
teria of the first
cri-
and second kind, according as the
general term of the series
a,^
were completed and
later
by A. Pringsheim.
Du
the basis of investigation.

sults
or the quotient a^^ ^
Bois-Reymond's
in part verified
is
re-
somewhat
After the solution of the algebraic equations of the

third
and fourth degrees was accomplished, work on
the structure of the system of algebraic equations in
general could be undertaken.
Tartaglia, Cardan, and
Ferrari laid the keystone of the bridge which led from

the solution of equations of the second degree to the
complete solution of equations of the third and fourth

degrees.
But centuries elapsed before an Abel threw
a flood of light
upon the solution
of
higher equations.
156
Vieta had found a means of solving equations allied
and
to evolution,
was further developed by Harriot
this
and Oughtred, but without making the process

tiresome.*
Harriot's
name
connected with another
is
theorem which contains the law
formation of the
of
coefficients of an algebraic equation
although the theorem was

cartes (1683)
less
first
from
its
roots,
stated in full by Des-
and proved general by Gauss.
Since there was lacking a sure method of deter-
mining the roots
of equations of
higher degree, the
attempt was made to include these roots within as
narrow
limits
Schooten tried
to
De Beaune and Van
possible.
as
do
this,
but the
first
usable methods
date from Maclaurin (Âlgebra, published posthumously in 1748) and
Newton
(1722)
who
fixed the real
roots of an algebraic equation between given limits.
In order to effect the general solution of an algebraic

equation, the effort was
made
either to represent the
given equation as the product of several equations of
lower degree, a method further developed by Hudde,

or to reduce, through extraction of the square root,
an equation of even degree
to
half that of the given equation
one whose degree

this
by Newton, but he accomplished
is
method was used
little
in this direc-
tion.
Leibnitz had exerted himself as strenuously as
Newton
to
equations.
make advances
in the theory of algebraic
In one of his letters he states that he has
*Montucla, Histoire des Mathimatiques, 1799-1802.
ALGEBRA.
been engaged for a long time
I57
in
attempting to find
the irrational roots of an equation of any degree, by
eliminating the intermediate terms and reducing

the form x"
this
= A,
and that he was persuaded that
manner the complete
etc." in the Leipziger
is
in
be effected. This method
of transformation of the general
Tschirnhausen and
to
solution of the general equa-
tion of the nth degree could
to
it
equation dates back
found as
"Nova methodus
Acta eruditorum of the year 1683.
In the equation
Tschirnhausen places
= a -f
/?.r
'^x'^
-(-...-[- /M:r"-i
x from these two equations gives
the elimination of
likewise an equation of the th degree injv, in which

the undetermined coefficients
a,
)8,
y,
can so be
taken as to give the equation in y certain special characteristics, for
example, to make some of the terms
From the values of j', the values of x are determined.

By this method the solution of equations
of the 3rd and 4th degrees is made to depend respecvanish.
tively
upon those
of the
application of this
2nd and 3rd degrees
method
but the
to the equation of the 5th
degree, leads to one of the 24th degree,
upon whose
solution the complete solution of the equation of the

5th degree depends.
Afterwards, also, toward the end of the seventeenth
and the beginning of the eighteenth century,
De Lagny,
158
Rolle, Laloub^re, and Leseur
made
futile
attempts to
advance with rigorous proofs beyond the equation

Euler* took the problem
the fourth degree.
He
in 1749.
attempted
undetermined
into
first
to resolve
in
of
hand
by means
of
coefficients the equation of degree 2n
two equations each
of degree n, but the results
obtained by him were not more satisfactory than those

of his predecessors, in that
an equation of the eighth
degree by this treatment led to an equation of the 70th

degree. These investigations were not valueless, however, since through
of the
them Euler discovered the proof
theorem that every rational integral algebraic
function of even degree can be resolved into real factors of the
second degree.
In a work of the date 1762 Euler attacked the solution of the equation of the nth degree directly. Judg-
ing from equations of the 2nd and 3rd degrees, he sur-
mised that a root
of the general equation of the nth
degree might be composed of {n
1) radicals of
nth degree with subordinate square roots.
He
the
formed
expressions of this sort and sought through compari-
son of coefficients to accomplish his purpose.
method presented no
difficulty
up
This
to the fourth de-
gree, but in the case of the fifth degree Euler
was
compelled to limit himself
For
to particular cases.
example, he obtained from

^5
4o^^3
the following value

*Cantor,
III., p. 582.
72:v2
-j-
50^
+ 98 =
ALGEBRA.
I59
^=^' 31-f 3i/ 7 +v^_31 3i'^

_fv''_l8
Analogous
ing (1779).
of
degree
n,
+ 10T/ 7 + 5/ 18 lOi/
to this
attempt
of
Euler
7.
that of
is
War-
In order to solve the equation /(^)
he places
After clearing of radicals, he gets an equation of the
degree, F{x)=^^,
;/th
and by equating
finds the necessary equations for

.
and
p,
but
is
determining
from the equations
=
/(^) =
0,
0,
, b^
c,
unable to complete the solution.
He
B^zout also proposed a method.
-\-x
coefficients
y"'
1=0,
ay''~^
and obtained an equation

and then equated
-\r
eliminated
by'~'^
-\-
J^'
of the nth degree,
Bezout was
coefficients.
no more able to solve the general equation of the 5th

degree than Waring, but the problem gave him the
impulse to perfect methods of elimination.
Tschirnhausen had begun, with his transformation, to
tions
study the roots of the general equation as func-
of
The same
the coefficients.
result
reached by another method not different
namely the formation
of
resolvents.
can be
in principle,
In this way,
Lagrange, Malfatti and Vandermonde independently

reached results which were published in the year 1771.
Lagrange's work, rich in matter, gave an analysis of

all
the then
known methods
of solving equations,
and
explained the difficulties which present themselves in
l6o
passing beyond the fourth degree.
Besides this he
gave methods for determining the limits
and the number
of
of the roots
imaginary roots, as well as meth-
ods of approximation.
Thus
tion,
all
made
expedients for solving the general equaprior to the beginning of the nineteenth
century yielded poor results, and especially with
erence to Lagrange's work Montucla* says
''all this
who
well calculated to cool the ardor of those
is
inclined to tread this
new way.
ref-
Must one
are
entirely
despair of the solution of this problem?"
Since the general problem proved insoluble,
tempts were made with special cases, and

gant results were obtained in this way.
at-
many eleDe Moivre
brought the solution of the equation

1
71
"-^+
T^
..^
('-l)-('i-9)
odd integral values
for
/ + =".
"'*+
2îT^5
of , into the
form
Euler investigated symmetric equations and B^zout
deduced the relation between the
coefficients of an
equation of the th degree which must exist in order

that the
same may be transformed
Gauss made an especially

vance
0,
in the solution of the
where
??
is
into
jv"
flf
:= 0.
significant step in ad-
cyclotomic equation
a prime number.
Equations
x''
of this
sort are closely related to the division of the circum>^
Histoire des Sciences Mathhnatiques 1799-1802.

,
ALGEBRA.
ference into n equal parts.
If
l6l
the side of an in-
is
scribed i^-gon in a circle of radius

nal connecting the
= 2sin n
If
and third
first
and
1,
z the diago-
vertices, then
= 2 sin n
however
:x:
= cos
27r
27r
n cos
=
h^sm
then the equation
x"^
27r
is
kzsin^
11
to
27r\
^
=1?
be considered as the
algebraic expression of the problem of the construction of the regular -gon.
The
following very general theorem was proved
Gauss.*
b}^
''If
;^
is
resolved into prime factors

rt*
b^ cy
lution of
then
.,
X**
it is
a,
a, b, Cj
\i
always possible to make the so-
=0 depend upon that of several equa1
namely upon
tions of lower degree,
degree
1 be
so that n =
prime number, and
/3
equations of degree
example, the solution of
x'^^
b,
=
1
a equations of
etc."
Thus
for
(the division of
the circumference into 73 equal parts) can be effected,

since n
1=72 = 32.2^,
by solving three quadratic
and two cubic equations.

to four equations of the
16
= 2^;
therefore
the
1=0 leads
degree, since n =
Similarly
second
x^"^
regular 17-gon can be con-
structed by elementary geometry, a fact which before

the time of
Gauss no one had anticipated.
Detailed constructions of the regular 17-gon by
elementary geometry were

*
Legendre, Theorie dcs Notnbres.
first
given by Pauker and
62
Erchinger.*
figure
is
due
A
to
noteworthy construction
von Staudt.
For the case that the prime number n has the form
the solution of the equation
of
m quadratic equations
x**
of
1=0
=2*
m1
It
are necessary in the
should be observed that for
number
(^ a positive integer), the
2*^-1-1,
depends upon the solution
which only
construction of the regular n-gon.

;w
same
of the
may be
2*"-\-l
prime,
but, as R. Baltzerf has pointed out, is not necessarily prime.
is
given successively the values

1, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6. 7, 8, 16.
n=2^-\-l
2^2,
2",
will take the respective values
3, 5, 9, 17,
of
If
which only
33, 65, 129, 257. 65537. 22*^-f-l, 2^^^ -\-l,
257, 65537 are prime.
The remaining num-
in particular, the last
two values of n have
3, 5, 17,
bers are composite
The circle there-
respectively the factors 114 689 and 167 772161.
fore can be divided into 257 or 65537 equal parts
spectively 7 or 15 quadratic equations, which
is
by solving
re-
possible by ele-
mentary geometric construction.
From
the equalities
= 28 1=(2* 1)(2* + 1)= 15

1 = _
65535 =
4-1)= 255
255
216
it
is
(28
easily seen that,
i) (28
256=28,
17,
257, 65536
by elementary geometry, that
is,
= 2^^
by use
of
only straight edge and compasses, the circle can be divided respectively into 255, 256, 257
The
65535, 65536. 65537 equal parts.
process cannot be continued without a break, since w
= 2^^
-}-
1 is
not prime.
The
possibility of
regular 65535-gon
is
evident from the following
65535
If the
= 255
= 15
257
circumference of the circle
* Gauss, Werke,
t
an elementary geometric construction of the
II.,
is 1,
17
257.
then since
p. 187.
Netto, Substitutionentheorie 1882

,
English by Cole,
iSga, p. 187.
ALGEBRA.
jL
iB
it
follows that
2_
j^
5^5
555
255'
17
163
2o7
65533'
of the circumference can be obtained
by
ele-
mentary geometric operations.
After Gauss had given in his earliest scientific
work, his doctor's dissertation, the
important theorem that every algebraic equa-
of the
tion has a real or
memoir
great
his proofs
first of
an imaginary
of 1801
conjecture that
it
root,
he made
in his
on the theory of numbers, the
might be impossible
to solve gen-
eral equations of
degree higher than the fourth by
radicals.
and Abel gave a
fact,
and
Rufifini
it
is
due
fruitless efforts to
rigid proof of this
to these investigations that the
reach the solution of the general
equation by the algebraic method were brought to an

In their stead the question formulated by Abel
end.
came
to the front,
''What are the equations
of given
degree which admit of algebraic solution?'*
The cyclotomic equations of Gauss form such a

group.
But Abel made an important generalization
by the theorem that an irreducible equation
soluble by radicals
when
of
is
always
two roots one can be
ra-
tionally expressed in terms of the other, provided at
the
same time the degree
this is
of the
equation
is
prime
if
not the case, the solution depends upon the
solution of equations of lower degree.
A further great
tions
is
group
of algebraically soluble equa-
therefore comprised in the Abelian equations.
But the question as
to the necessary
and
sufficient
conditions for the algebraic solubility of an equation
164
was
of
of
answered by the youthful Galois, the crown
first
whose investigations
is
the theorem, *'If the degree
an irreducible equation
equation
is
is
a prime number, the
soluble by radicals alone, provided the
roots of this equation can be expressed rationally in
terms
of
any two
of
them."
Abel's investigations
and 1829, those
fall
between the years 1824
of Galois in the years 1830
Their fundamental significance for

in this direction is
all
an undisputed fact
and 1831.
further labors
the question
concerning the general type of algebraically soluble

equations alone awaits an answer.
Galois,
of
who
also earned special honors in the field
modular equations which enter
elliptic functions,
substitutions.*
and
its
tions,
introduced the idea of a group
The importance
development into
Cauchy has
as
d^ analyse
etc.,
into the theory of
metric considerations.
innovation,
a formal theor}^ of substitu-
first
given
when he speaks
jugate substitutions,"
this
of
of
it
of
in the Exercices
"systems
of con-
became manifest through geo-
The
first
example
of this
was
furnished by Hesse f in his investigation on the nine

points of inflexion of a curve of the third degree.
The
equation of the ninth degree upon which they depend
belongs to the class of algebraically soluble equations.

In this equation there exists between any two of the
roots
and a third determined by them an algebraic
* Netto, Substitutionentheorie, 1882.

t
English by Cole,
Noether, O. H., Schl'dmilch's Zeitschrift,
Band
20.
1892.
re-
ALGEBRA.
expressing
lation
the geometric
points of inflexion
To
lines.
Betti,
fact
that the nine
by threes on twelve straight
lie
the development of the substitution theory
times, Kronecker, Klein, Noether, Hermite,
later
in
165
Serret, Poincar^, Jordan,
Capelli,
and Sylow
especially have contributed.
Most
of the algebraists of recent times
have par-
ticipated in the attempt to solve the equation of the

fifth
degree.
Before the impossibility of the algebraic
was known, Jacobi
solution
age of 16 had made
at the
an attempt in this direction; but an essential advance

is
to
be noted from the time when the solution of the
equation of the
fifth
degree was linked with the theor}^
of elliptic functions.*
as given
By
the help of transformations
on the one hand by Tschirnhausen and on
the other by E. S. Bring (1786), the roots of the equation of the fifth degree
a single
can be made to depend upon
quantity only, and therefore the equation, as
shown by Hermite, can be put
0.
By Riemann's methods,
roots of the equation
trated;
into the form
it
is
is illus-
possible by power-
series to calculate these five roots to
proximation.
the dependence of the
upon the parameter
on the other hand,
fi
any degree of ap-
In 1858, Hermite and Kronecker solved
the equation of the fifth degree
by
elliptic functions,
but without reference to the algebraic theory of this

equation, while Klein gave the simplest possible solu*
Klein, F.,
schtingen, 1872.
Vergleichende Betrachtungcn Yibcr neuere geotiietrische For-
l66
by transcendental functions by using the theory
tion
of the icosahedron.
The
solution of general equations of the nth degree for
by transcendental functions has therefore become
possible,
the operations entering into the solution are the following
lower degree
tion of equations of
^4
and
Solu-
solution of linear differential
equations with
known
of integration,
by calculating the moduli of periodicity of hyper-
elliptic integrals for
integrated are
singular points; determination of constants
which the branch-points
known
of the function to be
finally the calculation of theta-functions of
several variables for special values of the argument.
The methods leading

an algebraic equation are
this
to the
in
complete solution
many
cases tedious
of
on
account the methods of approximation of real
where they can
roots are very important, especially
be applied to transcendental equations.
The most
general method of approximation
to
(communicated
to
Barrow
in
is
due
Newton
was
1669), but
also
reached by Halley and Raphson in another way.*
For the solution
of equations of the third
and fourth
degrees, John Bernoulli worked out a valuable

of
approximation
in
his
Lectiones
calculi integralis.
Further methods of approximation are due

Bernoulli, Taylor,
method
to
Daniel
Thomas Simpson, Lagrange, Le-
gendre, Horner, and others.
By
tion
graphic and mechanical means also, the roots of an equa-
can be approximated.
for this purpose,
crums
C. V.
which consisted
Cunynghamef used
Montucla.
Boysf made use

of a
of a
machine
system of levers and
ful-
a cubic parabola with a tangent scale

'(Nature, XXXIII.,
p. i66.
ALGEBRA.
on a straight edge
companying
167
C. Reuschle- used an hyperbola with an ac-
gelatine-sheet, so that the roots could be read as in-
tersections of an hyperbola with a parabola.
suited especially to equations of the third
due
to Bartl, R.
also deserve
Hoppe, and Oekinghausf
mention
Similar methods,
and fourth degrees are

Lalanne and
Mehmke
in this connection.
For the solution
of equations, there
had been
in-
vented in the seventeenth century an algorism which

since then has gained a place in
all
branches of mathe-
The
matics, the algorism of determinants. J
first
sug-
gestion of computation with those regularly formed
now
aggregates, which are
called determinants (after
Cauchy), was given by Leibnitz
He
used the aggregate

^ll5 ^12j
^\n
^2\, ^22j
în
forming the resultant of n linear equations with
in
unknowns, and that
with one unknown.

a
the year 1693.
in
of
two algebraic equations
Cramer (1750)
is
considered as
second inventor, because he began to develop a sys-
tem
of
computation with determinants.
orems are due
to
B^zout (1764), Vandermonde (1771),
Laplace (1772), and Lagrange (1773).

quisitiones arithmeticae
*
I?ts-
1886, p. loa.
1884.
Muir, T., Theory 0/ Deiermifiants in the Historical Order of its Developund Anivendungen der Determinanten,
ment, Parti, 1890; Baltzer. R., Theorie

1881.
Gauss's
(1801) formed an essential ad-
Boklen, O., Math. Mittheilungen,
\ Fortschriite, 1883;
Further the-
l68
vance, and this gave Cauchy the impulse to
many
new
of the
investigations, especially the
development
general law (1812) of the multiplication of two deter-
minants.
Jacobi by his "masterful
rendered conspicuous service
skill in technique,'* also
in the theory of determi-
nants, having developed a theory of expressions which
The
he designated as "functional determinants.'*
analogy of these determinants with differential quotients led
him
to
the general " principle of the last
multiplier " which plays a part in nearly

of integration.*
Hesse considered
all
problems
an especially
in
thorough manner symmetric determinants whose
ments are
linear functions of the co-ordinates of a
He
geometric figure.
observed their behavior by
and
ear transformation of the variables,
by a single bordering. f
lin-
their rela-
formed from them
tions to such determinants as are
Later discussions are due
Cayley on skew determinants, and

S.
ele-
to
Nachreiner and
to
Giinther on relations between determinants and
continued fractions.
The appearance
one
of the
of the differential calculus
most magnificent discoveries
The preparatory
forms
of this period.
ideas for this discovery appear in
manifest outline in Cavalieri,J
who
in a
work Metho-
dus indivisibilwin (1635) considers a space-element as
Dirichlet,
"
Gedachtnissrede auf Jacobi."
tNoether, O. H., Scklomilck's Zei'tschri/t,

t Liiroth, Rektoratsrede,
Crelle's
Band
Freiburg, 1889; Cantor,
Journal,
20.
II.,
p. 759.
Band
52.
ALGEBRA.
sum
the
ments
of this
infinite
of the next
sum
the
an
of
an
of
169
number
of simplest space-ele-
lower dimension,
infinite
number
e.
g., a solid as
of planes.
The danger
conception was fully appreciated by the inven-
tor of the
method, but
it
was improved
who considers a surface

number of infinitely small
and Roberval
composed
an
infinite
rectangles, then by
Fermat
as
of
methods, however, there
in all these
appeared the drawback that the sum
of the resulting
Kepler remarked
seldom be determined.
series could
by Pascal
first
that a function can vary only slightly in the vicinity

a greatest or
of
Fermat, led by
least value.
this
made an attempt to determine the maximum

minimum of a function. Roberval investigated the
thought,
or
problem
it
drawing a tangent
of
by generating the curved
to a curve,
and solved
by the cornposition
line
two motions, and applied the parallelogram

to
ties
the construction of
Newton's teacher, used

reference to
Cartesian
the tangents.
of
of veloci-
Barrow,
preparatory work with
this
co-ordinate
geometry.
He
chose the rectangle as the velocity-parallelogram, and

at the
same time introduced
like
Fermat
infinitely
small quantities as increments of the dependent and
independent variables, with special symbols.
He
gave
also the rule, that, without affecting the validity of the
result of computation, higher
quantities
first
may be
power.
tions
neglected
powers of
in
comparison with the
But Barrow was not able
and radicals involving
infinitely small
to
handle
frac-
infinitely small quantities,
170
and was compelled
move them.
determine
Like his predecessors, he was able
in the
to
simpler cases the value of the quo-
tient of two, or the
finitesimals.
to resort to transformations to re-
The
sum
of
an
infinite
number
of in-
general solution of such questions
was reached by Leibnitz and Newton, the founders
of
the differential calculus.
Leibnitz gave for the calculus of infinitesimals, the

notion of which had been already introduced, further
examples and also rules
By summation
for
more complicated
cases.
according to the old methods,* he de-
duced the simplest theorems of the integral calculus,
which he, by prefixing
a long
S as
the sign of
summa-
tion wrote,
From
the fact that the sign of
summation T
raised
the dimension, he drew the conclusion that by differ-
ence-forming the dimension must be diminished so

that, therefore, as
29, 1675,
from
he wrote
in a
manuscript of Oct.
n=zya, follows immediately 1=^-
Leibnitz tested the power of his
geometric problems
termine the curve
new method by
he sought, for example, to de-
''for
which the intercepts on the
axis to the feet of the normals vary as the ordinates."
In this he let the abscissas

ratio
increase in arithmetic
and designated the constant difference
Gerhardt, Geschichte der Matkematik in Deutschland,

p. 160.
of the
1877; Cantor,
III.,
ALGEBRA.
abscissas
by
first
ing in detail the
and
later
meaning
171
by dx, without explain-
of
this
new symbol.
new
1676 Leibnitz had developed his
In
calculus so far
problems which could
as to be able to solve geometric
Not before
not be reduced by other methods.
1686,
however, did he publish anything about his method,

great importance being then immediately recog-
its
nized by Jacob Bernoulli.
What
ment
Leibnitz failed to explain in the develop-
methods, namely what
of his
his infinitely small quantities,
was
understood by
is
clearly expressed
by Newton, and secured for him a theoretical superi-
Of
ority.
a quotient of
Newton speaks
of the
two
infinitely small quantities
as of a limiting value*
which the
vanishing quantities approaches, the smaller
they become. Similar considerations hold for the

of
an
ratio
infinite
number
of
such quantities.
termination of limiting values,
sum
For the de-
Newton devised an
especial algorism, the calculus of fluxions, which
is
essentially identical with Leibnitz's differential calculus.
Newton considered
as a flowing
he sought
the change in the variable

to
determine the velocity of
when the variable changes

The velocities were called
the variation of the function
with a given velocity.

fluxions
and were designated by
x, y,
dx, dy, dz, as in Leibnitz's writings).
z (instead
The
of
quantities
themselves were called fluents, and the calculus of

fluxions determines therefore the velocities of given
* Liiroth, Rektoratsrede, Freiburg, 1889.
172
motions, or seeks conversely to find the motions when

the law of their velocities
on
this subject
known.
was finished
of Methodtis fluxionum^ but

after his death.
is
Newton
borrowed the idea
in
was
is
Newton's paper
name
1671 under the
published in 1736,
first
thought by some to have
of fluxions
from a work of Napier.*
According to Gauss, Newton deserved much more

credit than Leibnitz, although he attributes to the
latter great talent,
sipated.
to
give
Newton
sides, is hardly warranted.
satisfactory explanation
to
much
dis-
appears that this judgment, looked at
It
from both
which, however, was too
one
idea of limits.
of his
On
Leibnitz failed
that which
of
led
most important innovations, the

the other hand,
Newton
is
not
always entirely clear in the purely analytic proo
Leibnitz, too, deserves very high praise for the intro-
C and dx, as well
duction of the appropriate symbols
as for stating the rules of operating with them.
To-
day the opinion might safely be expressed that the

and integral calculus was independently
differential
discovered by Newton and by Leibnitz

is
without doubt the
first
inventor
that
Newton
that Leibnitz, on
the other hand, stimulated by the results
communi-
cated to him by Newton, but without the knowledge

of
methods, invented independently the
Newton's
calculus;
and that
finally
priority of publication,
Cohen, Das
Cantor,
to
Leibnitz belongs the
"f
Frinzip der InfinitesivialTnethode
und seine
Geschickte, i88g
III., p. 163.
tLiiroth.
very good
summary
of the discussion
is
also given in Ball's
ALGEBRA.
I73
The systematic development of the new calculus

made necessary a clearer understanding of the idea of
Investigations on the infinitely great are
the infinite.
course of only passing interest for the explanation
of
natural
of
phenomena,* but
it
is
entirely different
with the question of the infinitely small.
The
infini-
tesimal t appears in the writings of Kepler as well as
those of Cavalieri and Wallis under varying forms,
in
essentially as ''infinitely small null-value," that

a quantity
which
as
smaller than any given quantity,
is
and which forms the
limit of a given finite quantity.
Euler's indivisibilia lead systematically in the

direction.
is,
same
Fermat, Roberval, Pascal, and especially
Newton operated with the "unlimitedly

small," yet in such a way that frequently an abbreviated method of expression concealed or at least obLeibnitz and
scured the true sense of the development.

writings of
In the
John Bernoulli, De I'Hospital, and Pois-
son, the infinitesimal appears as a quantity different
from zero, but which must become

able value,
By
i.
as a
e.,
''
less
than an assign-
pseudo-infinitesimal " quantity.
the formation of derivatives, which in the main
are identical with
tempted entirely
Newton's
fluxions,
Lagrange |
to avoid the infinitesimal,
at-
but his
attempts only served the purpose of bringing into

Short History of Mathematics, London, 1888.
Cantor, Vol. III.
in
*Riemann, Werke
t R.
-g
zt"]
Hoppe, Differentialrechnung,
1865.
tLiiroth, Rektoratsrede, Freiburg, 1889.
The
best
summary
is
that given
174
prominence the urgent need
for a
deeper foundation
for the theory of the infinitesimal for
which Tacquet
and Pascal
in the seventeenth century,
and Maclaurin
and Carnot
in the eighteenth
We
are indebted to
Cauchy
had made preparation.
his investigations there is clearly established the
mean-
ing of propositions which contain the expression

finitesimal,"
calculus
The
is
and a safe foundation
thereby
''in-
for the differential
laid.
integral calculus
was
by Cotes, who showed how

braic functions.
In
for this contribution.
further extended
first
to integrate rational alge-
Legendre applied himself
to the in-
tegration of series, Gauss to the approximate deter-
mination of integrals, and Jacobi to the reduction and

evaluation of multiple integrals.
cially to
Dirichlet
is
espe-
be credited with generalizations on definite
integrals, his lectures

this theory.*
He
it
showing
his great fondness for
was who welded the scattered

connected whole,
results of his predecessors into a
and enriched them by a new and original method
of
The introduction of a discontinuous facallowed him to replace the given limits of integra-
integration.
tor
tion by different ones, often
changing the value of the
by
infinite limits,
integral.
cent investigations the integral has
without
In the more re
become the means
of defining functions or of generating others.
In the realm of differential equations f the works

*Kummer,
t
Cantor,
" Gedachtnissrede auf Lejeune-Dirichlet." Berliner Abh., i860
III., p.
429; Schlesinger, L.,
Handbuch der Theorie der linearen
ALGEBRA.
worthy
and
noulli
in
of
mention date back to Jacob and John BerRiccati's merit consists mainly
to Riccati.
having introduced Newton's philosophy into
He
75
Italy.
also integrated for special cases the differential
an equation completely
by Daniel Bernoulli and discussed the ques-
equation
solved
named
in his
honor
tion of the possibility of lowering the order of a given
The theory
differential equation.
tailed scientific treatment at the
received a de-
first
hands
Lagrange,
of
especially as far as concerns partial differential equa-
which D'Alembert and Euler had handled

d u
d u
Laplace also wrote on this
the equation ^
-i-^tions, of
differential equation
and on the reduction
of the solu-
tion of linear differential equations to definite integrals.
On German
and next
F. Pfaff, the friend of Gauss
him the most eminent mathematician
to
presented certain elegant investigations
of that time,
(1814,
soil, J.
on
1815)
differential
equations,* which led
name ''Pfaffian problem."

an original way the general integration
Jacobi to introduce the

Pfaff
found
in
of partial differential equations of
any number
the
of variable quantities.
first
degree for
Beginning with
the theory of ordinary differential equations of the

first
degree with n variables, for which integrations
I., 1895, an excellent historical review; Mansion,

Theorie der partiellen Differe>ttialgleichunge7i erster Ordnu/ig, deutsch
Differentialgleichungen, Bd.
P.,
von Maser, Leipzig,
1892, also excellent
on history.
*A, Brill, "Das mathematisch-physikalische Seminar in Tiibingen."

Aus der Festschrift der Universit'dt zum Konigs-Jtibiliiuvi, 1889.
176
were îven by Monge (1809)

Pfaff
simple cases,
in special
gave their general integration and considered
the integration of partial differential equations as a

particular case of the general integration.
In this the
general integration of differential equations of every
degree between two variables
is
assumed
as
known.*
Jacobi (1827, 1836) also advanced the theory of

ential equations
was so
the
of
first
The treatment
order.
determine unknown functions that an integ-
to
which contains these functions and the
ral
coefficient in a prescribed
minimum.
the
first
differ-
The
way reaches
condition therefor
is
differential
maximum
or
the vanishing of
variation of the integral, which again finds
its
expression in differential equations, from which the
unknown functions
are determined.
able to distinguish whether a real
mum
appears,
riation into a
This leads
to
it is
show
form suitable
new
first
or mini-
for investigating its sign.
differential equations
to solve,
which La-
but of which Jacobi was
that their integration can be
from the integration

ing to the
maximum
necessary to bring the second va-
grange was not able

able to
In order to be
of differential
variation.
deduced
equations belong-
Jacobi also investigated
the special case of a simple integral with one
unknown
function, his statements being completely proved
Hesse.
of
the
showing
by
Clebsch undertook the general investigation
second variation, and he was successful

for the case of multiple integrals that
Gauss, Werke,
III., p. 232.
in
new
ALGEBRA.
77
integrals are not necessar}' for the reduction of the
Clebsch (1861, 1862), following the
second variation.
suggestions of Jacobi, also reached the solution of the
problem by making
Pfaffian
of
it
depend upon
a system
simultaneous linear partial differential equations,
the statement of which
is
possible without integration.
Of other investigations, one
of the
most important
is
the theory of the equation
~d^^ ~df^
which Dirichlet encountered
tential,
but
'
~d^
had been known since Laplace
Vy'hich
Recent investigations on
(1789).
tions, especially
work on the po-
in his
equa-
differential
on the linear by Fuchs, Klein, and
Poincare, stand in close connection with the theories
and groups,
of functions
tions
and
as well as with those of equa-
series.
"Within
equations has
a half century the theory of ordinary differential
come
to
be one of the most important branches of
analysis, the theory of partial differential equations
one
still
to
be perfected.
The
remaining as
difiSculties of the general
problem
of integration are so manifest that all classes of investigators
have
confined themselves to the properties of the integrals in the neigh-
borhood
of certain
greatest inspiration
given points.
The new departure
from two memoirs by Fuchs
work elaborated by Thome and Frobenius.
took
(i866, i868), a
"Since 1870 Lie's labors have put the entire theory of

ential equations
on a more satisfactory foundation.
He
isolated,
differ-
has shown
that the integration theories of the older mathematicians,
had been looked upon as
its
which
can by the introduction of the
concept of continuous groups of transformations be referred
to a
178
common
and that ordinary
source,
differential
equations which
admit the same infinitesimal transformations present
He
ties of integration
like difficul-
has also emphasized the subject of trans-
formations of contact {^Beruhrungs-Transformationen) which

underlies so
shown
the
much
of the recent theory.
same tendency noticeable
Cauchy, the tendency
in the
Recent writers have
works of Monge and
two schools, the one
to separate into
inclin-
ing to use the geometric diagram and represented by Schwarz,
and Goursat, the other adhering
Klein,
to
pure analysis, of which
Weierstrass, Fuchs, and Frobenius are types."*
short time after the discovery of the differential
and integral calculus, namely
in the year 1696,
John
Bernoulli proposed this problem to the mathematicians of his time
To
find the curve described
body
falling
point
B in the shortest time.f
from a given point
by
another given
to
The problem came from
a case in optics, and requires a function to be found
whose
integral
is
minimum.
oped the wave-theory
had found under
Huygens had
of light,
definite
and John Bernoulli
assumptions the
equation of the path of the ray of

tion he sought another example,
devel-
light.
differential
Of such mo-
and came upon the
cycloid as the brachistochrone, that
is,
upon the above
statement of the problem, for which up to Easter

1697, solutions from the Marquis de I'Hospital, from
Tschirnhausen, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Leibnitz
were received.
Only the two
latter treated the
Smith, D. E., "History of Modern Mathematics," in Merriman and

Woodward's Higher Mathematics, New York, 1896, with authorities cited.
t Reiff, R., "Die Anfange der Variationsrechnung," Math. Mittheihitigen
von Boklen, 1887, Cantor, HI., p. 225. Woodhouse, A Treatise on Isoperimetrical Problems (Cambridge, 1810). The last named work is rare.
ALGEBRA.
problem as one
of
179
maxima and minima.
Jacob Ber-
method remained the common one
noulli's
for the
treatment of similar cases up to the time of Lagrange,
and he
is
therefore to be regarded as one of the found-
At that time*
ers of the calculus of variations.
problems which demanded the statement
mum
of a
all
maxi-
minimum property of functions were called

isoperimetric problems.
To the oldest problems of
or
kind belong especially those in which one curve
this
maximum
with a
or
minimum property was
to
from a class
of curves of equal perimeters.
circle, of all
isoperimetric figures, gives the
area, is said to
have been known
the writings of
Pappus
be found
That the
maximum
to Pythagoras.
In
a series of propositions on fig-
Also in the four-
ures of equal perimeters are found.
teenth century the Italian mathematicians had worked
on problems of
tions
may be
(1696).
this kind.
But
''the calculus of varia-
said to begin with
John Bernoulli
immediately occupied the attention
It
of
Jacob Bernoulli and the Marquis de I'Hospital, but

Euler
first
the isoperimetric problem
metric
HeJ
elaborated the subject, "f
manner
of
investigated
in the analytic- geo-
first
Jacob Bernoulli, but after he had
worked on the subject eight years, he came
upon a new and general solution by
method
(in his celebrated
Anton,
work
a purely analytic
Geschichte des isoperimetrischen Problems, 1888.
t
$
Cantor,
pp. 243, 819, 830.
1744
Methodus ifweniendi
Smith, D. E., History of Modern Mathematics,

III.,
in
p. 533.
l8o
lineas curvas, etc.
shows how those
this solution
or-
dinates of the function which are to assume a greatest

or least value can be derived from the variation of the
Lagrange
curve-ordinate,
thode, etc.,
(Êssai dhine nouvelle vi^-
1760 and 1761) made the
last essential step
from the pointwise variation of Euler and his predecessors to the simultaneous variation of
all
ordinates
of the required curve
by the assumption
limits of the integral.
His methods, which contained
new
the
of variable
feature of introducing 8 for the change of the
function, were later taken
up
in Euler's Integral Cal-
Since then the calculus of variations has been
culus.
of valuable service in the solution of
problems
in the-
ory of curvature.
The beginnings
of a real theory of functions*, espe-
cially that of the elliptic
back
to
and Abelian functions lead
Fagnano, Maclaurin, D'Alembert, and Landen.
Integrals of irrational algebraic functions were treated,

especially those involving square roots of polynomials
of the third
and fourth degrees
works hinted
at containing the
dominating the whole subject
assumed more
definite
but none of these
beginnings of a science
of algebra.
The matter
form under the hands
Lagrange, and Legendre.

transcendental functions
For
of Euler,
a long time the only
known were
the circular func-
* Brill, A., and Noether, M., "Die Entwickelung der Theorie der algebraischen Functionen in alterer und neuerer Zeit, Bericht erstattet der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung, JaJu-cshericht, Bd. II., pp. 107-566, Berlin,
Konigsberger, L., Zur Geschichte der Theorie der elliptischen Transcen1894
denten in den Jahren i826-i82g, Leipzig, 1879.
;
ALGEBRA.
tions (sin^r, cos
:v,
the
.)>
l8l
common
logarithm, and,
especially for analytic purposes, the hyperbolic log-
arithm with base

ponential function
e,
and (contained
in this) the ex-
But with the opening
e^.
of the
nineteenth century mathematicians began on the one
hand thoroughly
tions,
as
to study special transcendental func-
was done by Legendre, Jacobi, and Abel,
and on the other hand

of functions
of a
develop the general theory
to
complex
variable,
which
in
field
Gauss, Cauchy, Dirichlet, Riemann, Liouville, Fuchs,
and Weierstrass obtained valuable
The
first
results.
signs of an interest in elliptic functions*
are connected with the determination of the arc of the
lemniscate, as this
was carried out
the eighteenth century.
In this
in the
middle
of
Fagnano made the
discovery that between the limits of two integrals expressing the arc of the curve, one of which has twice
the value of the other, there exists an algebraic relation of simple nature.
By
this
means, the arc of the
lemniscate, though a transcendent of higher order,
can be doubled or bisected by geometric construction
like
an arc of a
Euler gave the ex-
circle, f
planation of this remarkable phenomenon.
He
pro-
duced a more general integral than Fagnano (the

class)
and showed
two such integrals can be combined
into a third
so-called elliptic integral of the

that
of the
same
*Enneper,
kind, so that
A.,
first
between the
EUiptische Functio7ien, Theorie
tDirichlet, " Gedachtnissrede auf Jacobi."
und
limits of these
Gescht'chte, Halle, 1890.
Crelle's
Journal, Bd.
52.
102
integrals there exists a simple algebraic relation, just

as the sine of the
the
sum
same functions
The
orem).
two arcs can be composed
of
of
of the separate arcs (addition-the-
elliptic integral,
however, depends not
merely upon the limits but upon another quantity be-
While Euler
longing to the function, the modulus.
placed only integrals with the same modulus in rela-
Landen and Lagrange considered those with
tion,
and showed that
different moduli,
it
is
possible by
simple algebraic substitution to change one
same
integral into another of the
class.
elliptic
The
estab-
lishment of the addition-theorem will always remain

at least as
important a service of Euler as his trans-
formation of the theory of circular functions by the

introduction of imaginary exponential quantities.
The
origin* of the real theory of elliptic functions
and the theta-functions
To Legendre
falls
between 1811 and 1829.
are due
two systematic works, the Exer-
cices de calcul intigral
(1811-1816) and the Thiorie des
fonctions elliptiques (1825-1828), neither of
known
to Jacobi
and Abel.
which was
Jacobi published in 1829
the Funda7ne7ita nova theoriae functionuni ellipticarum,

certain of the results of which
ously discovered by Abel.

that a
new branch
investigations,
work
to its
had been simultane-
Legendre had recognised
of analysis
was involved
and he devoted decades
of
in those
earnest
development. Beginning with the integral
which depends upon a square root

*Cayley, Address
to the
of
an expression
British Association, etc., 18S3.
of
ALGEBRA.
the fourth degree in x,
183
Legendre noticed that such
integrals can be reduced to canonical forms.
Vl k^sin'îf/
was substituted
for
the
Ai/r
radical,
and
three essentially different classes of elliptic integrals
were distinguished and represented by
Jîifi),
-E(if/),
These classes depend upon the amplitude
n(j/r).
and the modulus

meter
k,
upon
the last class also
/r
a para-
n.
In spite of the elegant investigations of Legendre
on
theory
elliptic integrals, their
eral enigmatic
phenomena.
It
presented sev-
still
was noticed that the
degree of the equation conditioning the division of

the elliptic integral
is
not equal to the
number
of the
parts, as in the division of the circle, but to its square.
The
solution of this and similar problems
was
re-
Of the many productive
served for Jacobi and Abel.
ideas of these two eminent mathematicians there are

especially tv/o
which belong
to
both and have greatly
advanced the theory.

In the
first
place, Abel
each other observed that
and Jacobi independently

it is
of
not expedient to inves-
tigate the elliptic integral of the first class as a func-
tion of its limits, but that the
must be reversed, and the
limit introduced as a funcit.
Expressed
other words, Abel and jacobi introduced the direct
functions instead of the inverse.

(f),
of consideration
two quantities dependent upon
tion of
in
method
/,
F,
or, as
and Jacobi named them
sin
Abel called them

aj?i,
they are written by Gudermann,
cos
a??i,
sn, en, dn.
am,
184
second ingenious idea, which belongs to Jacobi
as well as to Abel,
the introduction of the imagi-
is
As Jacobi himself affirmed, it

innovation which rendered possible the
nary into this theory.
was
just this
solution of the
out that the
enigma
new
of the earlier theory.
It
turned
functions partake of the nature of
While
the trigonometric and exponential functions.
the former are periodic only for real values of the ar-
gument, and the
latter only for
elliptic functions
said that
imaginary values, the
have two periods.
Gauss as early
It
can safely be
as the beginning of the nine-
teenth century had recognised the principle of the
double period, a fact which was
first
made
plain in
the writings of Abel.
Beginning with these two fundamental

cobi and Abel, each in his
own way, made
important contributions to the theory of

tions.
ideas, Ja-
elliptic func-
Legendre had given a transformation
elliptic integral into
further
of
one
another of the same form, but a
second transformation discovered by him was un-
known
to Jacobi, as the latter after serious difficulties
reached the important result that a multiplication

the theory of such functions can be
transformations.
composed
him
two
Abel applied himself to problems
concerning the division and multiplication of

integrals.
of
in
elliptic
thorough study of double periodicity led
to the discovery that the general division of the
elliptic integral
ally possible as
with a given limit
is
always algebraic-
soon as the division of the complete
ALGEBRA.
integrals
is
assumed
and in
this
of the
whole lemniscate
connection
it
solution
to the lemniscate,
was proved
is
85
that the division
altogether analogous to
and can be performed algebraically
that of the circle,
same
The
as accomplished.
problem was applied by Abel
of the
in the
case.
Another important discovery
of
Abel's occurred in his allowing, for elliptic functions

of multiple
in
argument, the multiplier to become
infinite
formulas deduced from functions with a single
gument.
sions
From
this resulted the
which represent
elliptic
ar-
remarkable expres-
functions by infinite
series or quotients of infinite products.
Jacobi had assumed in his investigations on transformations that the original variable
is
rationally ex-
pressible in terms of the new. Abel, however, entered

this field
with the more general assumption that be-
tween these two quantities an algebraic equation

ists,
and the result of his labor was that
this
ex-
more
general problem can be solved by the help of the

special problem completely treated
Jacobi carried
further
many
of the investiga-
Abel had given the theory
tions of Abel.
eral
still
by Jacobi.
division, but the actual
application
of the gen-
demanded
the formation of certain symmetric functions of the

roots
which could be obtained only
in special cases.
Jacobi gave the solution of the problem so that the

required functions of the roots could be obtained at
once and
in
manner simpler than
Abel's.
When
Jacobi had reached this goal, he stood alone on the
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
86
broad expanse of the new science, for Abel a short

time before had found an early grave at the age of 27.
The
later efforts
of
Jacobi culminate in the in-
troduction of the theta-function.
Abel had already
represented elliptic functions as quotients of infinite

products.
Jacobi could represent these products as
special cases of a single transcendent, a fact which
the French mathematicians had
come upon
in physical
researches but had neglected to investigate.
examined
them
nature, brought
their analytic
Jacobi
into
connection with the integrals of the second and third

class,
and noticed especially that integrals
class,
though dependent upon three elements, can be
new transcendent
represented by means of the

ing only two elements.
of the third
The execution
involv-
of this process
gave to the whole theory a high degree of comprehensiveness and clearness, allowing the elliptic functions
sn, en,
dn to be represented with the new Jacobian
transcendents i, 02? 3, 4 as fractions having a com-
mon denominator.
What Abel accomplished
functions
is
in the theory of elliptic
conspicuous, although
greatest achievement.
There
is
it
was not
his
high authority for
saying that the achievements of Abel were as great in

the algebraic field as in that of elliptic functions. But
his
most
brilliant results
of the Abelian
first
functions
development
''Abel's
were obtained
falling
named
in
the
in the theory
in his
honor, their
years
Theorem" has been presented by
1826-1829.
its
discov-
ALGEBRA.
The
erer in different forms.
propria e
87
paper, Maiioire sur une
gdfierale (fune class e ties-etendtie de fonctions
transcendentes,
which
after the death of the author re-
ceived the prize from the French academy, contained

the most general expression.
In form
of the integral calculus, the integrals
depending upon
connected with x by
y)=^.
Abel's fundamental
F(^x,
theorem states that a sum
of
expressed by a definite number
such integrals can be
of similar integrals
where p depends only upon the properties

tion F{x, y)=^{).
F{Xj y)^()
first
(This/
is
of the equa-
the deficiency of the curve
the notion of deficiency, however, dates
For the case that
from the year 1857.)
a theorem
is
an irrational function jf, which
an algebraic equation
it is
= VAx^ + Bx^
-f-
C^2 _^
jr^^c
4-
E,
Abel's theorem leads to Legendre's proposition on
sum
the
of
two
= VAx^^Bx^-\-
where
can also be
or
> 3,
/>
3,
Here/ = 1.
elliptic integrals.
0,
then
is 2,
If
-\-P,
and so on.
For
the hyperelliptic integrals are only spe-
cial cases of the
Abelian integrals of like
class.
After Abel's death (1829) Jacobi carried the theory

further in his Considerationes generates de transcendenti-
bus Abelianis (1832), and
showed
for hyperelliptic in-
tegrals of a given class that the direct functions to
which Abel's proposition applies are not functions
of
a single variable, as the elliptic functions sn, en, dn,
but are functions of
variables.
Separate papers of
88
essential significance for the case
/ = 2,
are due to
Rosenhain (1846, published 1851) and Goepel (1847).
Two
Riemann, founded upon the
articles of
Gauss and Cauchy, have become
ings of
development
in the
writ-
significant
complete theory of func-
of the
Cauchy had by rigorous methods and by the
tions.
introduction of the imaginary variable "laid the foun-
dation for an essential improvement and transformation of the
whole
Riemann
built
and wrote the Grundlage fiir
this foundation
gemeine
of analysis."*
Theorie der Funktionen
komplexen Grosse in the
^''ear
einer
eine all-
verdnderlichen
1851, and the Theorie der
AbeVschen Fufiktionen which appeared
For the treatment
upon
six years later.
of the Abelian functions,
Riemann
used theta-functions with several arguments, the theory of which
based upon the general principle of
is
the theory of functions of a complex variable.
He
begins with integrals of algebraic functions of the
most general form and considers

tions, that
Then
sum
is,
the Abelian functions of p variables.
a theta function of
of
their inverse func-
variables
defined as the
a /-tuply infinite exponential series
general term depends, in addition to

certain
to 3/
is
whose
variables,
upon
constants which must be reducible
3 moduli, but the theory has not yet been com-
pleted.
Starting from the works of Gauss and Abel as well

*Kummer,
lungen, i860.
" Gedachtnissrede auf Lejeune-Dirichlet," Berliner
Abhand-
ALGEBRA.
as the
developments
of
Cauchy on integrations
89
in the
imaginary plane, a strong movement appears in which

occur the names of Weierstrass, G. Cantor, Heine,
Dedekind,
P.
Pringsheim,
Du Bois-Reymond,
Holder,
tendency aims
Pincherle,
at freeing
and others.
This
from criticism the founda-
by a new treatment
of
based upon the theory of functions with
its
tions of arithmetic, especially

irrationals
Dini, Scheeffer,
considerations
continuity
of
and
discontinuity.
It
likewise considers the bases of the theory of series by
investigations on convergence and divergence, and
gives to the differential calculus greater preciseness
through the introduction of mean-value theorems.

After
of
the
Riemann valuable contributions
theta-functions
Weber, Nother, H.
Riemann
Since
to the theory
were made by Weierstrass,
Stahl, Schottky,
and Frobenius.
a theory of algebraic functions
and
point-groups has been detached from the theory of
Abelian functions, a theory which was founded through
Lindemann upon
Riemann-Roch theo-
the writings of Brill, Nother, and

the remainder-theorem and the
rem, while recently
Weber and Dedekind have
allied
themselves with the theory of ideal numbers, set forth

in
the
rich
first
appendix
development
in recent years has
to
Dirichlet.
The extremely
of the general theory of functions
borne
fruit in different
mathematical science, and undoubtedly
branches of
is
to
be rec-
ognised as having furnished a solid foundation for the
work
of the future.
GEOMETRY.
IV.
A.
'T^HE
GENERAL SURVEY.
among
oldest traces of geometry are found
the Egyptians and Babylonians.
In this
first
made to serve practical purposes

From the Egyptian and Baby-
period geometry was
almost exclusively.
lonian priesthood and learned classes geometry
transplanted to Grecian
soil.
was
Here begins the second
period, a classic era of philosophic conception of geo-
embodiment
metric notions as the

of
of a general science
mathematics, connected with the names
oras,
Eratosthenes,
Euclid,
medes. The works of the
last
lines not clearly defined until
nius in his
of a
Come
geometry
Apollonius,
Pythag-
of
and Archi-
two indeed, touch upon
modern
Apollo
times.
Sections gives the first real
of position, while
example
Archimedes
most part concerns himself with the geometry
for the
of
meas-
urement.
The golden age

yet
it
great
of
was not wholly
men
of
Greek geometry was

extinct until the
Alexandria was lost
of their successors.
brief
memory
and
of the
in the insignificance
Then followed more than
a thou-
GEOMETRY.
IQI
sand years of a cheerless epoch which at best was

stricted to
re-
borrowing from the Greeks such geometric

History might
knowledge as could be understood.

pass over these
many
centuries in silence were
it
not
compelled to give attention to these obscure and unproductive periods in their relation to the past and
In this third period
future.
come
the Romans,
first
Hindus, and Chinese, turning the Greek geometry to

use after their
own
fashion
then the Arabs as skilled
mod-
intermediaries between the ancient classic and a

ern era.
fourth period comprises the early develop-
The
ment
By
of
geometry among the nations
the labors of
of the
Arab authors the treasures
West.
of a
time
long past were brought within the walls of monasteries
and into the hands
of teachers in
schools and universities,
without as yet forming a
subject for general instruction.

intellects of this period are
their
sis
are
etry
into being.
fifth
of analy-
into geometry. Analytic
The
application of
its
geom-
seductive
methods received the almost exclusive attention

the mathematicians of the seventeenth
centuries.
Then
in the so-called
In
period which be-
The powerful methods
now introduced
comes
The most prominent
Vieta and Kepler.
methods they suggest the
gins with Descartes.
newly established
of
and eighteenth
modern
or projective
geometry and the geometry of curved surfaces there

arose theories which, like analytic geometry, far tran-
scended the geometry of the ancients, especially
in
ig2
the
way
of leading to the almost unlimited generaliza-
tion of truths already
known.
FIRST PERIOD.
B.
EGYPTIANS AND BABYLONIANS.

In the same book of
Ahmes which has
disclosed to
us the elementary arithmetic of the Egyptians are

also found sections
on geometry, the determination
simple surfaces, with figures appended.
of areas of
Among
These
figures are either rectilinear or circular.
them
are found isosceles triangles, rectangles, isos-
celes trapezoids
angle
is
and
The
circles.*
correctly determined
area of the rect-
as the measure of the
area of the isosceles triangle with base a and side
however, \ab
is
found, and for the area of the isosceles
trapezoid with parallel sides

b,
b,
the expression \
{a'
and " and oblique side
a'
-f a") b
is
given.
These approx-
imate formulae are used throughout and are evidently

considered perfectly correct.
follows,
^
9
The
area of the circle
with the exceptionally accurate value
7r
=3.1605.
Among
the problems of geometric
one stands forth preeminent by reason

importance,
construction
of its practical
viz., to lay off a right angle.
The
solu-
tion of this problem, so vital in the construction of
temples and palaces, belonged to the profession of

*Cantor,
I.,
p. 52.
GEOMETRY.
193
They used
rope-Stretchers or harpedonaptae.
a rope
divided by knots into three segments (perhaps corre-
sponding
numbers
to the
3, 4, 5)
forming a Pythago-
ean triangle.*
Among
the Babylonians the construction of figures
of religious significance led
up
to a formal
geometry
of
divination which recognized triangles, quadrilaterals,

right angles, circles with the inscribed regular hex-
agon and the division
of
the circumference into three
hundred and sixty degrees as well as a value
7r
3.
Stereometric problems, such as finding the contents of granaries, are found in
Ahmes; but
not
much
be learned from his statements since no account
is
to
is
given of the shape of the storehouses.
As
for projective
wall-sculptures
of perspective.
the Egyptian
representations,
show no evidence
For example
of
any knowledge
a square
pond
is
pic-
tured in the ground-plan but the trees and the water-
drawers standing on the bank are added to the picture

in
the elevation, as
C.
it
were from the outside, f
SECOND PERIOD.
THE GREEKS.
In a survey of
there appear as
*Cantor,
it
will here
and
investigations connected in a very
p. 62.
Wiener, Lehrbuch der darstellenden Geotnetrie,

as Wiener.
t
to
I.,
if
Greek geometry
1884.
Hereafter referred
194
simple manner with well-known theorems were not
known
to the Greeks.
At
least
it
seems as
if
they
could not have been established satisfactorily, since
they are thrown in
among
without connection.
Doubtless the principal reason
for this is that a
number
other matters evidently
of the
the ancient mathematicians are
important writings of
lost.
simply by oral tradition, and the

stiff
and repulsive way
in
less
much was handed down
weighty reason might be that
the
Another no
by reason
latter,
which most
of the
of
Greek
demonstrations were worked out, did not always render the truths set forth indisputable.
In Thales are found traces of Egyptian geometry,
but one must not expect to discover there
known
to the
of
that
was
Thales mentions the theo-
Egyptians.
rems regarding
all
vertical angles, the angles at the base
an isosceles triangle, the determination of a triangle
from a side and two adjacent angles, and the angle

scribed in a semi-circle.
He knew how
the height of an object by comparing
shadow
the
shadow
to
its
in-
determine
shadow with
of a staff placed at the extremity of the
of the object, so that here
may
beginnings of the theory of similarity.
be found the
In Thales the
proofs of the theorems are either not given at

are given without the rigor
demanded
all
or
in later times.
In this direction an important advance was
made
To him without questheorem known to the Egyp-
by Pythagoras and his school.

tion
tian
is
to
be ascribed the
"rope-stretchers" concerning the right-angled
GEOMETRY.
which they knew
triangle,
angle with sides
to
4,
5,
case of the
the
in
without giving a rigorous
theorem. Of other matters, what
Pythagoras himself, and what
difficult to
sum
decide.
is to
They knew
be ascribed
to his pupils,
The Pythagoreans proved
of the angles of a plane triangle is
gles.
tri-
Euclid's is the earliest of the extant proofs of
proof.
this
3,
195
it
that the
two right an-
the golden section, and also the
regular polygons so far as they
make up
aries of the five regular bodies.
the bound-
Also regular starIn
polygons were known, at least the star-pentagon.

the Pythagorean theorems of area the
and
which by
shadow indicated the hours,
its
later the right angle
Among
mechanically represented.
the Pythagoreans the
left after
gnomon played
This word originally signified the
an important part.
vertical staff
is
gnomon
is
the figure
a square has been taken from the corner of
Later, in Euclid, the
another square.
gnomon
is
parallelogram after similar treatment (see page 66).
The Pythagoreans called

line "a. line directed
the perpendicular to a straight
according to the gnomon."*
But geometric knowledge extended beyond the

school of Pythagoras. Anaxagoras is said to have been
the
first
to try to
determine a square of area equal
to that of a given circle.
most
of his successors
of solving this
It is to
he believed
problem.
draw a perpendicular from

Cantor,
I.,
p. 150.
be noticed that like

in the possibility
CEnopides showed how

a point to a line
to
and how
ig6
to lay off a given angle at a given point of a given
Hippias
line.
of Elis likewise
and
of the circle,
sought the quadrature
he attempted the trisection
later
of
an angle, for which he constructed the quadratrix.
This curve
is
cumference cut
the points A,
described as follows
Upon
by two perpendicular
off
.
K, L,
uniform velocity about
The
B.
O from
g-
when
the
If
K'
OA
falls
OA
to that of
P is
the intersection of
OA
lie
K"
OB.
OA moves
a tangent to
OB
at the time
upon (9 A" then the parallel to
through K' meets the radius OK'in a point

If
and OB,
to the position
the intersection of g' with
is
moving radius
quadratrix.
OA
r= OA revolves with
always parallel to
with uniform velocity from the position

the circle at B.
radii,
radius
the position
At the same time a straight line
a quadrant of a cir-
OA
belonging to the
with the quadratrix,
it
follows in part directly and in part from simple considerations, that
arc
AK
OK'
arc
AL
OL'
a relation which solves any problem of angle sections.
Further-
more,
OA
TT
whence
it is
OA
arc
AB'
obvious that the quadrature of the circle depends upon
GEOMETRY.
which the radius
the ratio in
OA
is
197
divided by the point
P of
the
quadratrix. If this ratio could be constructed by elementary geometry, the
quadrature of the circle would be effected.*
that the quadratrix
and that
its
later, f as is
was
relation to the quadrature of the circle
in
appears
an angle
was discovered
shown by Dinostratus.
The problem
found
It
first invented for the trisection of
quadrature of the circle
of the
He
Hippocrates.
endeavored
to
also
is
accomplish
purpose by the consideration of crescent-shaped
his
bounded by
figures
arcs of circles.
It is of
especial
importance to note that Hippocrates wrote an
mentary book of mathematics (the

in
of the kind)
which he represented a point by a single capital
letter
to
first
ele-
and a segment by tô, although we are unable
determine
who was
the
first to
introduce this sym-
bolism.
Geometry was strengthened on the philosophic

by Plato, who
side
tions
felt
the need of establishing defini-
and axioms and simplifying the work of the
in-
vestigator by the introduction of the analytic method.
systematic representation of the results of
the earlier investigations in the
domain
geometry, enriched by the fruits of his

labor,
is
of
all
elementary
own abundant
given by Euclid in the thirteen books of his
Elements which deal not only with plane figures but

also with figures in space
*The equation
where a
t
OA.
Montucla.
and algebraic investiga-
of the quadratrix in polar co-ordinates is r:=
Putting
<|)
= o,
= ô'
^^ have
tt
""
-,
sin<p
98
'*
tions.
Whatever has been
said in praise of mathe-
matics, of the strength, perspicuity and rigor of
presentation,
especially true of this
all is
Definitions, axioms,
great Alexandrian.
sions are joined together link
by
work
its
of the
and conclu-
link as into a chain,
firm and inflexible, of binding force but also cold and
hard, repellent to a productive
mind and
room
ing
is
for
independent
needed
ripened understand-
to appreciate the classic beauties of this
monument
greatest
activity.
of
Greek ingenuity.
arena for the youth eager for enterprise
him
a field of action
hope
to discover
The
first
affording no
is
It is
;
not the
to captivate
better suited where he
may
something new, unexpected."*
book
of the Elements deals with the the-
ory of triangles and quadrilaterals, the second book
with the application of the Pythagorean theorem to

a large
number
The
nature.
of constructions, really of arithmetic
book introduces
third
circles, the fourth
book inscribed and circumscribed polygons.

by the aid
tions explained
of line-segments
Propor-
occupy
the fifth book, and in the sixth book find their application to the proof of theorems involving the similarity of figures.
The
seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth
books have especially

bers.
do with the theory of num-
These books contain respectively the measure-
ment and
division of numbers, the algorism for de-
termining the least
common
*A.
to
divisor,
common
multiple and the greatest
prime numbers, geometric
Brill, Antrittsrede in
Tubingen, 1884.
series,
GEOME'IRY.
and incommensurable
follows stereometry
in the eleventh
book the
99
Then
numbers.
(irrational)
the plane, the prism
line,
straight
in the twelfth, the discus-
sion of the prism, pyramid, cone, cylinder, sphere;
and
in the thirteenth, regular
polygons with the regu-
formed from them, the number
lar solids
Euclid gives definitely as
five.
of
Without detracting
the least from the glory due to Euclid for the

sition of this
imperishable work,
that individual portions
grew out
preparatory work of others.

true of the fifth book, of
have been the
which
compo-
may be assumed
it
of the well
This
in
is
grounded
almost certainly
which Eudoxus seems
to
real author.
Not by reason
of a great compilation like Euclid,
but through a series of valuable single treatises, Archi-
medes
is
have a more detailed de-
justly entitled to
scription of his geometric productions.

tigations of the sphere
the straight line
From
points.
work
is
and cylinder he assumes that
the shortest distance between two
the Arabic
we have
Archimedes consisting
of
lemmas, some
of
is
shows
IT
straight lines
of circles, the trisection of the angle,
to lie
between 3^ and 3^^.
results
and
Of especial impor-
his mensuration of the circle, in
many other
of
so-called
in connection with
bounded by
the determination of cross-ratios.
tance
a small geometric
of fifteen
which have value
the comparison of figures
and arcs
In his inves-
which he
This as well as
Archimedes obtains by the method
exhaustions which
among
the ancients usually took
20D
the place of the
modern
integration.*
The quantity
sought, the area bounded by a curve, for example,
may be
considered as the limit of the areas of the
in-
number
of
scribed and circumscribed polygons the
whose
sides
of the arcs,
is
continually increased by the bisection
and
shown
it is
that the difference between
two associated polygons, by an indefinite continuance

of this process,
must become
than an arbitrarily
This difference was thus, as
small given magnitude.

it
less
were, exhausted, and the result obtained by exhaus-
tion.
The
field of the
constructions of elementary geom-
etry received at the
hands
of
Apollonius an extension
in the solution of the
problem
tangent to three given
circles,
to construct a circle
and
in the systematic
introduction of the diorismus (determination or limitation).
This also appears in more
in his Conic Sections^
difficult
problems
from which we see that Apollo-
nius gives not simply the conditions for the possibility

of the solution in general, but especially desires to
determine the limits of the solutions.
From Zenodorus
several theorems regarding iso-
perimetric figures are
still
extant
for
example, he
states that the circle has a greater area than
among all
same number of sides
any
iso-
perimetric regular polygon, that
isoperi-
metric polygons of the
the reg-
ular has the greatest area, and so on.

Chasles, Aperû historique sur
en geomitrie, 1875.
Hypsicles gives
I'origine et le diveloppement des ntithodes

Hereafter referred to as Chasles.
GEOMETRY.
20I
something new the division
as
of the circumference
From Heron
into three
hundred and sixty degrees.
we have
book on geometry (according
another, a
still
which deals
in
an extended manner with the mensu-
Here we
whose
of the triangle
where 2iSâ-\-b
we
also find
In the period
deduced
sides are
a)
{s
b)
but
ir;
tt
after
(j-
we
In the measurement of the circle
an approximation for
find
for the
and
^, b^
c,
the formula
-{- c^
Ar=lA(j
ure?nents
Tannery
commentary on Euclid's Elements)
ration of plane figures.
area
to
still
6).
usually find ^- as
in the
Book of Meas-
3.
the
commencement
Christian era the output becomes
still
of
the
more meager.
Only occasionally do we find anything noteworthy.

Serenus, however, gives a theorem on transversals
which expresses the
fact that a
by an arbitrary transversal
the Almagest
occurs the
harmonic pencil
in a
7r
= 3.8.30,
^^
i.
cut
harmonic range.
In
theorem regarding the
scribed quadrilateral, ordinarily
Theorem, and
is
known
in-
as Ptolemy's
a value written in sexagesimal
form
e.,
= ^+1)+
60-60
=^W = ^-14^''*'----*
In a special treatise on geometry Ptolemy shows that
he does not regard Euclid's theory

disputable.
Cantor,
I.,
p. 394.
of parallels as in-
202
To
the last supporters of
Sextus Julius Africanus,
Greek geometry belong
who determined
the width of
a stream by the use of similar right-angled triangles,
and Pappus, whose name has become very well known

by reason
of his Collection.
inally of eight books,
and the second
lost
of
This work consisting orig-
which the
first
is
wholly
in great part, presents the sub-
stance of the mathematical writings of special repute

in the
time of the author, and in some places adds
Since his work was evidently composed
corollaries.
with great conscientiousness,
it
has become one of
the most trustworthy sources for the study of the
The geomet-
mathematical history of ancient times.

part of the Collection contains
ric
discussions of the three different
among
other things
means between two
line-segments, isoperimetric figures, and tangency of

circles.
cles
It also
discusses similarity in the case of
so far at least as to
show
join the ends of parallel radii of
the
same
that all lines
two
circles,
cir-
which
drawn
in
or in opposite directions, intersect in a fixed
point of the line of centers.
The Greeks rendered important

in the field of
elementary geometry
service not simply

:
they are also the
And
as in
of Euclid, so in the other the
name
creators of the theory of conic sections.
the one the

of
name
Apollonius of Perga has been the signal for con-
troversy.
The theory
of the curves of second order
does not begin with Apollonius any more than does
Euclidean geometry begin with Euclid
but what the
GEOMETRY.
203
Elements signify for elementary geometry, the eight
books of the Conies signify

the second order.
Conic
Sections
Greek
text
and
is
first
first
four books of the
Apollonius
are
preserved in the
known through Arabic
the eighth book has never been found
given up for
restored
Only the
the next three are
translations
of
for the theory of lines of
lost,
though
its
contents have been
by Halley from references
book deals with the formation
in
The
Pappus.
of conies
by plane
sections of circular cones, with conjugate diameters,
and with axes and tangents.

cially to
off
on a tangent from the point of con-
tact the half-length of the parallel

its
diameter and joining
extremity to the center of the curve.
book contains theorems on

fourth
upon the
of conies with
espe-
These Apollonius ob-
do with asymptotes.
by laying
tains
The second has
foci
The
third
and secants, and the
intersection of circles with conies and
one another.
With
this the
treatment of conies by Apollonius closes.
elementary
The
fol-
lowing books contain special investigations in application of the
Thus the
methods developed
fifth
in the first four books.
book deals with the maximum and min-
imum
lines
conic,
and also with the normals from a given point
in the
plane of the curve of the second order; the sixth
which can be drawn from a point
with equal and similar conies
to the
the seventh in a re-
markable manner with the parallelograms having conjugate diameters as sides and the theorem upon the
sum
of the squares of conjugate diameters.
The eighth
204
book contained, according

lems connected
to Halley, a series of prob-
in the closest
manner with lemmas
of
the seventh book.
The
first effort
toward the development of the the-
ory of conic sections
is
ascribed to Hippocrates.*
reduced the duplication

tion of two
mean
of the
= :=
y
4- gives x^
o
x^
cube to the construc-
proportionals
given line-segments a and b
He
.t
and j' between two
thusf
= ay,
y^
= dx,
= d^b ==
a^ z=m'
a
whence
a^.
Archytas and Eudoxus seem to have found, by plane

construction, curves satisfying the above equations
but different from straight lines and circles. Menaech-
mus sought
for the
new
known by
curves, already
plane constructions, a representation by sections of

cones of revolution, and became the discoverer of
conic sections in this sense.
He employed
only sec-
tions perpendicular to an element of a right circular
cone; thus the parabola was designated as the

tion of a right-angled
is
45)
cone" (whose generating angle
the ellipse, the
''
section of an acute-angled
cone"; the hyperbola, the ''section

angled cone."
''sec-
These names are
of
an obtuse-
also used
by Archi-
medes, although he was aware that the three curves

can be formed as sections of any circular cone. Apol-
V.
Zeuthen, Die Lehre von den Kegelschnitten itn Altertum. Deutsch von
Fischer-Benzon, 1886. P. 459. Hereafter referred to as Zeuthen.
t Cantor,
I.,
p. 200.
GEOMETRY.
lonius
205
introduced the names
first
''ellipse,'
"para-
Possibly Menaechmus, but in
bola," ''hyperbola."
any case Archimedes, determined conies by a linear
= kxx\.
equation between areas, of the form y^
semi-parameter, with Archimedes and possibly

of his predecessors,
the axis,"
i.
was known
the axis of the cone.
due
It
to
its
to
intersection with
The designation "parameter"
Desargues (1639).*
has been shown
f that
Apollonius represented the conies by
equations of the form y^=:^fx-\-ax^, where

as parallel coordinates
From
"the segment
the segment of the axis of the circle
e.,
from the vertex of the curve to
is
as
The
some
and every term
is
a:
and ^ are regarded
represented as an area.
this other linear equations involving areas
so equations belonging to analytic geometry
were derived, and
were obtained by the
use of a system of parallel coordinates whose origin could, for
geometric reasons, be shifted simultaneously with an interchange

of axes.
Hence we already
analytic geometry
The study
cone
tal
itself
find certain
fundamental ideas of the
which appeared almost two thousand years
of conic sections
only
till
the time
plane property rendered
was continued upon the
when
it
a single
become known, up
fundamen-
possible to undertake
the further investigation in the plane. J

there had
later.
to the
In this
way
time of Archi-
medes, a number of important theorems on conjugate

diameters, and the relations of the lines to these di-
ameters as axes, by the aid of linear equations be*Baltzer, R., Analytische Geotnetrie, 1882.
tZeuthen.
p. 32.
Zeuthen,
p. 43.
206
There were also known the so-called
tween areas.
Newton's power-theorem, the theorem that the
rect-
angles of the segments of two secants of a conic drawn
through an arbitrary point
in
given direction are in a
constant ratio, theorems upon the generation of a

conic by aid of
its
tangents or as the locus related to
four straight lines, and the theorem regarding pole
and polar.
to only
But these theorems were always applied
one branch of the hyperbola. One
able services of Apollonius
was
to
of the valu-
extend his
own
theorems, and consequently those already known, to
His whole method
both branches of the hyperbola.

justifies us in
regarding him the most prominent rep-
resentative of the Greek theory of conic sections, and

so
much
the
more when we can
work that the foundations
see from his principal
for the theory of projective
ranges and pencils had virtually been laid by the ancients in different theorems
With Apollonius
and applications.
the period of
new
discoveries in
the realm of the theory of conies comes to an end. In

later times
theorems
to
we
find only applications of long
problems
of
no great
difficulty.
known
Indeed,
the solution of problems already played an important

part in the oldest times of Greek geometry and fur-
nished the occasion for the exposition not only of

conies but also of curves of higher order than the sec-
ond.
In the
number
of their classic value
of problems,
which on account
have been transmitted from gen-
eration to generation and have continually furnished
GEOMETRY.
207
occasion for further investigation, three, by reason of

their importance, stand forth
preeminent
the dupHca-
more generally the multiplication
tion of the cube, or
and the quad-
of the cube, the trisection of the angle
The appearance
rature of the circle.
of these three
problems has been
of the greatest significance in the
development
whole
of the
of
The
mathematics.
first
requires the solution of an equation of the third de-
gree
the second (for certain angles at least) leads to
an importcvnt section of the theory of numbers,

cyclotomic equations, and Gauss (see
to the
was the
first to
show
that
rations with straight edge
polygon
struct a regular
= 2^^
by a
number
finite
p.
i.
e.,
i6o)
of ope-
and compasses we can conof n sides only
(/ an arbitrary integer).
The
when
third
problem
reaches over into the province of algebra, for Linde-
mann*
1882 showed that
in the year
tt
cannot be the
root of an algebraic equation with integral coefficients.
The
multiplication of the cube, algebraically the
determination of x from the equation

x^ :=
is
a^
z=:ma^,
also called the Delian problem, because the Delians
were required
lution of this
to
double their cubical
Menaechmus;
Cantor,
I.,
The
so-
1897.
p. 219.
the latter solved
it
by
See also Mathem. Annalen, XLIII., and

p. 215.
Elementary Geometry, 1895, translated by Beman
*Mathem. Annalen, XX.,

Klein, Famoiis Problems of
problem was specially studied by Plato,
Archytas, and
and Smith, Boston,
altar,
208
the use of conies (hyperbolas and parabolas).
Era-
tosthenes constructed a mechanical apparatus for the
same purpose.
Among
the solutions of the problem of the trisec-
tion of an angle, the
worthy.
*'
furnishes
It
method
Archimedes
of
made use when
His process was as follows
AB
Required to divide
the diameter
AE in D,
Then
the circle.
According
arc
CD
laying
to pass
through
CE = ÂB,
off
upon
a ruler a length
we
it
AE.
By moving
get a certain position in which the other
and thus the point C
manner
causing
D of the seg-
falls
is
of the ancients
upon the circumfer-
determined.
This problem Pappus claims

the
r,
while one extremity
extremity of the segment r

ence,
the di-
equals the radius r of
r slides along the diameter
the ruler
C and
to the rules of insertion the process con-
sists in
ment
so that
into three
AE, and through
a secant cutting the circumference in
ameter
of the circle with center
Draw
equal parts.
was impos-
solution by straight edge and compasses
the arc
note-
an example of the so-called
insertions" of which the Greeks
sible.
is
to
have solved
by the use
after
of conic sec-
GEOMETRY.
209
Since in the writings of Apollonius, so largely
tions.
lost, lines of
the second order find an extended appli-
cation to the solution of problems, the conies were
frequently called solid loci in opposition to plane

i.
the straight line and circle.
e.,
came
loci,
Following these
linear loci, a term including
all
other curves, of
which a large number were investigated.

This designation of the
in
Pappus, who says
lem
is
in his
loci is
found, for example,
seventh book* that a prob-
called plane, solid, or linear, according as its
solution requires plane, solid, or linear loci.
however, highly probable that the
names from problems, and

of
problems into plane,
solid,
and loci"
till
we do
lems and loci" were
received their
and linear preceded the

First
loci.
not hear of
after the
is,
that therefore the division
designation of the corresponding
be noticed that
loci
It
'*
linear
it is
to
problems
terms ''plane and solid prob-
in use.
Plane problems were
those which in the geometric treatment proved to be
dependent upon equations
of the first or
second de-
gree between segments, and hence could be solved
by the simple application of areas, the Greek method

for the solution of quadratic equations.
pending upon the solution
Problems de-
of equations of the third
degree between segments led to the use of forms of

three
dimensions,
as,
e.
g.,
the
duplication of the
cube, and were termed solid problems; the loci used

in their solution (the conies)
*Zeuthen,
p. 203.
were
solid loci.
At a
2IO
time when the significance of ''plane" and "solid"
was
forgotten, the term ''linear
problem" was
first
applied to those problems whose treatment (by "linear loci") no longer led to equations of the
first,
sec-
ond, and third degrees, and which therefore could no
longer be represented as linear relations between seg-
ments, areas, or volumes.
Of
linear loci Hippias applied the quadratrix (to
which the name
Dinostratus was later attached
of
through his attempt
at the
quadrature of the circle)*
to the trisection of the angle.
Eudoxus was acquainted
with the sections of the torus
made by planes
to the axis of the surface, especially the
figure-of-eight
attained
The
curve. f
spirals
hippopede or
Archimedes
of
His exposition
special celebrity.
parallel
of
their
properties compares favorably with his elegant investigations of the quadrature of the parabola.
Conon had already generated the spiral of Archimedes J by the motion of a point which recedes with
uniform velocity along the radius
from the center O, while

formly about O.
OA
OA
of a circle k
likewise revolves uni-
But Archimedes was the
first to dis-
cover certain of the beautiful properties of this curve;
he found that
if,
after
the circle k of radius
one revolution, the spiral meets
OA
in
to the spiral at O), the area

Cantor,
I.,
(where
bounded
BO is
by BO
pp. 184, 233.
Majer, Proklos uber die Petita
Cantor,
I.,
p. 291.
und Axiotnata
bei Euklt'd, 1875.
tangent
and the
GEOMETRY.
211
Spiral is one-third of the area of the circle k\ further
that the tangent to the spiral at
pendicular to
OB
at
B cuts off
segment equal
from a per-
to the circum-
ference of the circle k.*
The only noteworthy discovery
Nicomedes
of
is
the construction of the conchoid which he employed
problem
to solve the
what amounts
or,
two mean proportionals,
of the
to the
same
thing, the multiplica-
The curve is the geometric locus of

upon a moving straight line g which con-
tion of the cube.
the point
B and cuts
stantly passes through a fixed point

straight line
Nicomedes
>^
in
Kso
XV has
that
a constant length.
also investigated the properties of this
curve and constructed an apparatus

for its
cissoid of
Diodes
plication of the cube.

:
made
of rulers
mechanical description.
The
lows
also of use in the multi-
is
It
may be
Through the extremity
constructed as
of the radius
A C which
OB perpendicular to OA
a circle k passes the secant
cuts k in
the radius
in B>
AC,
IS
a fixed
a point of the cissoid
fol-
OA
of
C and
X, upon
when DX=^DC.'\ Gemi-
nus proves that besides the straight line and the circle
the
common
helix invented by Archytas possesses the
insertion property.
Along with the geometry

oped the geometry
of the plane
of space, first as
was devel-
elementary stere-
*Montucla.
\;K\e\n,.,
Famous Problems o/Eletnentary Geometry,
nnd Smith, Boston,
1897, P- 44'
translated by
Beman
212
ometry and then
theorems dealing with surfaces
in
The knowledge
the second order.
of
of the five regular
bodies and the related circumscribed sphere certainly
According
goes back to Pythagoras.

of
Timaeus
air of
of Locri,* fire is
to the statement
made up
of tetrahedra,
octahedra, water of icosahedra, earth of cubes,
while the dodecahedron forms the boundary of the

universe.
Of these
cosmic or Platonic bodies
five
Theaetetus seems to have been the
Eudoxus
connected treatment.
(or cone) is
The
-J
of a
prism
to publish a
states that a
pyramid
base and altitude.
of equal
eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth books of Euclid's
Elements offer a
stereometry.
summary
(See
p.
discussion of the ordinary
aries are regular
kinds.
Archimedes introduces
199.)
thirteen semi-regular solids,
ume
first
polygons
i.
of
e.,
solids
whose bound-
two or three
different
Besides this he compares the surface and vol-
of the sphere with the
corresponding expressions
for the circumscribed cylinder
and deduces theorems
which he esteems so highly that he expresses the desire to
cut
have the sphere and circumscribed cylinder
upon
Among
his tomb-stone.
cians Hypsicles and
Heron
later
mathemati-
give exercises in the men-
suration of regular and irregular solids.
Pappus
also
furnishes certain stereometric investigations of which
we
specially mention as
of the
volume
new only
of a solid of revolution
meridian section and the path of

* Cantor,
I.,
the determination
p. 163.
its
by means
of the
center of gravity.
GEOMETRY.
He
213
thus shows familiarity with a part of the theorem
known
later
as Guldin's rule.
Of surfaces
the second order the Greeks
of
the elementary surfaces of revolution,
e.,
i.
the sphere,
the right circular cylinder and circular cone.
deals only with cones of revolution,
knew
Euclid
Archimedes on the
contrary with circular cones in general.
In addition,
Archimedes investigates the "right-angled conoids"

(paraboloids of revolution), the ''obtuse-angled co-
noids" (hyperboloids of revolution of one sheet), and

''long and
flat
spheroids" (ellipsoids of revolution
about the major and minor axes).
He
determines the
character of plane sections and the volume of seg-
ments
knew
that these surfaces form the geometric locus of
a point
whose distances from
plane are in a constant
who
is
was
also
circle of radius r
so that
its
cases r
ratio.
and a given
According to Proclus,*
e,
known
a surface
generated by a
revolving about an axis in
its
center describes a circle of radius
e.
plane
The
"ê, <ê were discussed.
With methods
of projection, also, the
not unacquainted."!"
said to
a fixed point
importance as a commentator upon Euclid,
of
the torus
and
Probably Archimedes also
such surfaces.
of
Greeks were
Anaxagoras and Democritus are
have known the laws
of the vanishing point
of reduction, at least for the simplest cases.
Hip-
parchus projects the celestial sphere from a pole upon

*Majer, Proklos
t
Wiener.
iiber die Petita
und Axi07nata
bei Etcklid, 1875.
214
the plane of the equator
he
is
of the stereographic projection
known by
the
name
D.
of
therefore the inventor
which has come
to
be
Ptolemy.
THIRD PERIOD.
ROMANS, HINDUS, CHINESE, ARABS.
Among no
other people of antiquity did geometry
reach so high an eminence as
among
Their acquisitions in this domain were

planted to foreign
soil,
in part trans-
that (with the
not so
yet
the Greeks.
possible exception of arithmetic calculation) anything

essentially
new
resulted.
Frequently what was
in-
herited from the Greeks was not even fully understood,
and therefore remained buried
of the foreign nation.
From
in the literature
the time of the Renais-
sance, however, but especially from that of Descartes,
an entirely new epoch with more powerful resources

investigated the ancient treasures and laid
them under
contribution.
Among
the
Romans independent
investigation of
mathematical truths almost wholly disappeared.
made
they obtained from the Greeks was

practical ends exclusively.
For
this
Euclid and Heron were translated.
work
What
to serve
purpose parts
To
of the surveyors or agrimensores,
of
simplify the
important geo-
metric theorems were collected into a larger work of
which fragments are preserved
in the
Codex
Arceri-
GEOMETRY.
{c.
work
In the
anus.
14)
is
of
Vitruvius
found the value
7r
accurate than Heron's value
employed
215
on
= 3j which,
= 3^, was
though
more
7r
less
easily
Boethius has
duodecimal system.*
in the
architecture
a special treatise on geometry, but the contents
left
are so paltry that
is
it
assume that he made
safe to
use of an earlier imperfect treatment of Greek geometry.
Although the Hindu geometry

the Greek, yet
arithmetical
it
has
modes
its
of
own
is
dependent upon
peculiarities
thought of the people.
known
the rope-stretching already

e.,
to the
Certain
These teach
parts of the ûlvasutras are geometric.
i.
due
to the Egyptians,
they require the construction of a right angle by
means
of a
rope divided by a knot into segments 15
and 39 respectively, the ends being fastened
to a seg-
= 392).
gnomon
ment 36
(152 -p 362
They
also use the
and deal with the transformation
and the
of figures
application of the Pythagorean theorem to the multiplication of a given square. Instead of the quadrature
of the circle
i.
e.,
appears the circulature of the square,f
the construction of a circle equal to a given
square.
Here the diameter
is
put equal to J of the
diagonal of the square, whence follows

value used
process
The
rect
is
among
the Romans).
7r
= 3^
(the
In other cases a
carried on which yields the value
7r
3.
writings of Aryabhatta contain certain incor-
formulae for the mensuration of the pyramid and

*Cantor,
I.,
p. 508.
Cantor,
I.,
p. 601.
2l6
Sphere (for the pyramid
approximate value
the
but also a number
geometric theorems. Aryabhatta
of perfectly accurate
gives
V=^Bk),
tt
= ffffj- := 3.1416.
Brahmagupta teaches mensurational

ometry and
is
or Heronic ge-
familiar with the formula for the area
of the triangle,
A = ^/s {s a)
and the formula
d)
{s
{s
c),
for the area of the inscribed quadri-
lateral,
/
l/(i-
a)
(s
/?)
which he applies incorrectly

his
work besides
7r
{s
c){s d)f
any quadrilateral.
to
In
= 3 we also find the value = l/10,

7r
but without any indication as to
how
it
was obtained.
Bhaskara likewise devotes himself only
algebraic
to
he gives not only the Greek value
geometry.
For
^- and that
Aryabhatta fffff, but also a value

14166
Of geometric demonstrations
7r
= JfJ = 3.
tt
of
Bhaskara knows nothing.
He
states
the theorem,
adds the figure and writes '^Behold !"*

In Bhaskara a transfer of geometry from Alexandria to India
haps
is
undoubtedly demonstrable, and per-
this influence
extended
composed perhaps
several centuries after Christ, the
Pythagorean theorem
Cantor,
I.,
further eastward to
In a Chinese work upon mathematics,
the Chinese.
sides 3, 4, 5
still
is
applied to the triangle with
rope-stretching
p. 614.
is
indicated
the ver
GEOMETRY.
tices of a figure are
Greek fashion
designated by letters after the
put equal to
is
tt
217
end of the sixth century to
3,
^.
Greek geometry reached the Arabs

and
in part
through the Hindus.
which the
ever, in
make up
held could not

tive
classic
and toward the
works
of
in part directly
The
esteem, how-
Greek origin were
for the lack of real produc-
power, and so the Arabs did not succeed in a
single point in carrying theoretic geometry, even in
the subject of conic sections,
beyond what had been
reached in the golden age of Greek geometry.

a
few particulars
razmi
may be mentioned.
found a proof
is
of the
Only
Khowa-
In Al
Pythagorean theorem
consisting only of the separation of a square into

eight isosceles right-angled triangles.
On
the whole
Al Khowarazmi draws more from Greek than from
Hindu
is
The
sources.
that of Euclid
Heron's fashion.
find the
classification of quadrilaterals
the calculations are
Besides the Greek value
Hindu values T
Wafa wrote
made
7r
after
= -^ we
= f Jf^ and tt^t/IO.
Abul
book upon geometric constructions.
In this are found combinations of several squares into

a single one, as well as the construction of polyhedra
after the
methods
of
Pappus.
After the Greek fash-
ion the trisection of the angle occupied the attention

of
Tabit ibn Kurra, Al Kuhi, and Al Sagani.
later
mathematicians the custom of reducing a geo-
metric problem to the solution of an equation
mon.
Among
It
was thus
is
com-
that the Arabs by geometric solu-
2l8
tions attained
some
excellent results, but results of no
theoretic importance.
FOURTH PERIOD.
E.
FROM GERBERT TO DESCARTES.
Among
Western nations we
the
of
geometry
as
Pope Sylvester
works
in the
find the first traces
of Gerbert, afterward
Gerbert, as
II.
upon the Codex Arcerianus, but

agoras and Eratosthenes.*
We
it
seems, depends
also mentions Pyth-
find scarcely anything
Some-
here besides field surveying as in Boethius.

thing more worthy
first
known
appears in Leonardo's (Fibo-
nacci's) Practica geomet7'iae\ of 1220, in
which work
Ptolemy.
made to Euclid, Archimedes, Heron, and

The working over of the material handed
down from
the ancients, in Leonardo's book,
reference
is
Thus
independent.
shows where
of
this
the
rectification
of
is fairly
the circle
mathematician, without making use
Archimedes, determines from the regular polygon

1440
of 96 sides the value
Since
among
ir=
,^^
the ancients no proper theory of star
polygons can be established,

at that the early
it is
not to be wondered
Middle Ages have
Star-polygons had
this direction.
nificance only
=3.1418.
little to
first
show
a mystic sig
they were used in the black art as the
pentacle, and also in architecture and heraldry.

* Cantor,
in
I.,
p. 8io,
Hankel,
p. 344.
Adel-
GEOMETRY.
ard of Bath went with
star-polygons in his
more
219
detail into the study of
commentary on Euclidean geom-
etry; the theory of these figures
is first
begun by Re-
giomontanus.
The
sche
of
German mathematical work is the Deut

Sphdra written in Middle High German by Conrad
first
Megenberg, probably
in
Vienna
The
the fourteenth century.
in the first half of
first
popular introduc-
geometry appeared anonymously
tion to
in
the
fif-
teenth century, in six leaves of simple rules of con-
The
struction for geometric drawing.
taining the construction of
BC
perpendicular to
by the aid of the right-angled triangle
BE
"From geometry some

First to
1.
Draw two
ABC
in
AB
which
hypotenuse AC, runs as follows:*
bisects the
after this.
beginning, con-
lines across
useful bits
make
which are written
a right
angle quickly.
each other just about as you
wish and where the lines cross each other there put
an
e.
Then
the point
e,
place the compasses with one foot upon
and open them out as
and make upon each

letters a,
b,
c,
all
at
from a to d and from

of
which here
line a point.
one distance.
d to
c.
far as
you wish,
Let these be the
Then make
So you have
a line
a right angle
an example."
is
This construction of a right angle, not given in

Euclid but
first
1500 to be in
method
of
in
Proclus, appears about the year
much more
extensive use than
the
Euclid by the aid of the angle inscribed in
* Giinther, p. 347.
220
a semi-circle.
By
his
tion
Adam
tect
who knew how
method
Riese
is
knowledge
of this last construc-
said to have humiliated an archi-
draw a
to
right angle only by the
of Proclus.
Very old printed works on geometry

len
German
Dz Puech-
are
der fialen gerechtikait by Mathias Roriczer (1486) and Al-
brecht Diirer's Uîderiveysung der
und
rtcktsckeyt {Nnremherg, 1525).
unscientific
ture
in
manner
rules for a special
the latter, however,
is
messung mit dem zirckel

The former gives in rather
problem
of
Gothic architec-
a far more original work and on that
account possesses more interest.*
With
the extension
geometric knowledge
of
in
Germany Widmann and Stifel were especially conWidmann's geometry, like the elements of
cerned.
Euclid, begins with explanations
thing that cannot be divided.
which
is
made
there
b}^
two
*'
:
Functus
Angulus
lines,
"f
is
a small
a corner
is
Quadrilaterals
have Arab names, a striking evidence that the ancient
Greek science was brought

fluence.
Widmann
into the
Roman
Nevertheless, by
is
led into
many
West by Arab
in
writers (Boethius)
errors, as,
e.
when he
g.,
gives the area of the isosceles triangle of side a as
â'^.
In Rudolff's Coss, in the theory of powers, Stifel
has occasion to speak of a subject which
first
proper estimation in the modern geometry,

right to admit
more than
however, we are
to invent
many
three dimensions.
in arithmetic
where
it
is
receives
viz., the
"Since,
permitted
things that otherwise have no form,
\n Schloiuilch's Zeitschri/t, XX., HI.
Gunthex
Gerhardt. Geschichte der Mathematik in Dezitschland,
2.
1S77.
GEOMETRY.
permitted which geometry does not allow,
this also is
namely
assume
to
221
yond the cube
solid lines
just as
dimensions, which
and surfaces and go be-
more than three
there were
if
of course, against
is,
nature.
But we have such good indulgence on account

charming and wonderful usage
after the
Stifel
manner
of the
Coss."*
of
of
Ptolemy extends the
study of regular polygons and after the manner of
Euclid the construction of regular
solids.
He
dis-
cusses the quadrature of the circle, considering the
polygon of
latter as a
infinitely
many
clares the quadrature impossible.
sides,
and de-
According
to Al-
brecht Durer's Underweysung, etc., the quadrature of

the circle
is
obtained
when
the diagonal of the square
contains ten parts of which the diameter of the circle

contains eight,
i.
however, that this
is
the
is
It
expressly stated,
is
only an approximate construc-
''We should need
tion.
that
= 3j.
e., 7r
making equal
to
know quadratura
circuit,
a circle
and a square, so that
much
as the other, but this
the one should contain as
has not yet been demonstrated mechanically by scholars
but that
in practice
be
it
is
may
made equal
merely incidental
fail
only slightly,
therefore so that
at all, they
if
may
as follows, f
Die Coss Christoffs Rudolffs. Mit schbnen Exempeln der Coss.

Stifel Gebessert vnd sehr gemehrt.
Gegeben zum Habersten bei Konigsberg in Preussen den letzten tag dess Herbstmonds im
Zu Amsterdam Getruckt bey Wilhem Janson. Im Jar 1615.
Jar 1552.
* Stifel,
Durch Michael
tDiirer, Underweysung der inessung mit dem zirckel vnd richtscheyt in

Linien ebneii vnd ga7itzen corporen. Durch Albrecht Diirer zusamen getzogn
vnd zu nutz alln kunstlieb habenden mit zu gehorigen figuren in truck
gebracht im jar
MDXXV.
(Consists of vier Buchlein.)
222
Upon
the mensuration of the circle* there appeared in 1584 a

1521
- was
work by Simon van der Evoke
in which the value 7r=
'
'
484
By
given.
calculating the side of the regular polygon of 192 sides
Ludolph van Ceulen found (probably

1
in 1585) that 7r<;
<
3.14205
KOI
In his reply Simon
484
v. d.
Eycke determined
7r=: 3. 1446055,
whereupon L.
v.
and 3.14103.
Ludolph van Ceulen's papers contain a value
to 35 places,
upon
Ceulen in 1586 computed
and
between 3.142732
of
tt
Ludolphian number was put
this value of the
his tombstone (no longer
ir
known)
in St. Peter's
Church
in
Leyden. Ceulen's investigations led Snellius, Huygens, and others

to further studies.
was
first
made
By
the theory of rapidly converging series
possible to
compute
revival of geometry
With
Vieta and Kepler.
tt
to 500
and more decimals, f
accompanied the
activity of
these investigators begins a
period in which the mathematical spirit

to reach out
it
beyond the works
commences
of the ancients. J Vieta
completes the analytic method of Plato
in
an ingeni
ous way he discusses the geometric construction
of
roots of equations of the second and third degrees
he also solves in an elementary manner the problem

of
the circle
tangent to three given
more important
results are secured
him geometry furnishes the key

world.
With
and
circles.
by Kepler.
Still
For
to the secrets of the
sure step he follows the path of induc-
in his
geometric investigations freely con-
forms to Euclid.
Kepler established the symbolism
tion
of the ''golden
*Rudio,
F.,
Das
section," that problem of
Problevi von der
tD. Bierens de Haan

tChasles.
in
Quadratur des
Nieuw. Arch.,
I.;
Eudoxus
Zirkels, Zurich, 1890.
Cantor, H.,
p. 551.
GEOMETRY.
book
stated in the sixth
223
'Euclid's
of
/emends
divide a limited straight line in extreme and
'*To
mean
This problem, for which Kepler introduced
ratio."*
the designation sec^w divina as well as proportio divina,

in his
is
eyes of so great importance that he expresses
himself:
'*
Geometry has two great treasures: one
is
the theorem of Pythagoras, the other the division of

a line in
extreme and mean
compare
to a
mass
The first we may

second we may call a
ratio.
of gold, the
precious jewel."
The
It
expression " golden section
"
is
of
more modern
origin.
occurs in none of the text-books of the eighteenth century and
appears to have been formed by a transfer from ordinary arithmetic.
In the arithmetic of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
the rule of three
is
frequently called the " golden rule." Since the
beginning of the nineteenth century this golden rule has given way
more and more before the
Consequently
the Pestalozzi school.
which
is
so-called Schlussrech7ien (analysis) of
no longer known
in place of the
to the arithmetics, there
"golden rule,"
appeared in the
elementary geometries about the middle of the nineteenth century

the "golden section," probably in connection with contemporary
endeavors
to attribute to this
geometric construction the impor-
tance of a natural law.
Led on by his astronomical speculations, Kepler

made a special study of regular polygons and starpolygons.
He
considered groups of regular polygons
capable of elementary construction,
viz.,
the series of
polygons with the number of sides given by 4 2",

3- 2", 5-2", 15-
2''
(from
*Sonnenburg, Der goldene Schnitt,
on), and remarked that

1881.
224
heptagon cannot be constructed by the help
a regular
of the straight line
and
Further there
circle alone.
no doubt that Kepler well understood the Conies
ApoUonius and had experience
of
in the solution of prob-
In his works
lems by the aid of these curves.

first
is
we
term ''foci" for those points of conic
find the
known
sections which in earlier usage are
as puncia
ex comparatione, puncta ex applicatione facta, umbilici^

or ''poles";*
also the term "eccentricity" for the
distance from a focus to the center divided by the
semi-major
axis, of the
curve of the second order, and
name "eccentric anomaly"
the
where
OA
is
for the angle
J^'OA,
the semi-major axis of an ellipse and
the point in which the ordinate of a point
jP'
on the
curve intersects^the circle upon the major axis.f

Also in stereometric investigations, which had been
cultivated to a decided extent by Diirer and Stifel,
Kepler
is
preeminent among his contemporaries.
In
Harmonice Mundi he deals not simply with the
his
five regular
medean
Platonic and thirteen semi-regular Archi-
solids, but also
with star-polygons and star-
dodecahedra of twelve and twenty

this
we
vertices.
find the determination of the
volumes
Besides
of solids
obtained by the revolution of conies about diameters,

tangents, or secants.
Similar determinations of vol-
umes were effected by Cavalieri and Guldin. The

former employed a happy modification of the method
*C. Taylor, in Cainbr. Proc, IV.
t
Baltzer, R., Analytische Geometrie, 1882.
GEOMETRY.
of exhaustions, the latter
to
225
used a rule already known
Pappus but not accurately established by him.
To
this period
to solve
belong the oldest known attempts
geometric problems with only one opening of
the compasses, an endeavor
expression
scientific
which
first
Steiner's
in
found accurate
Geoitietrischc
Con-
ausgefuhrt mittels der geraden Linie und
strukiionen,
The
eines festen Kreises (1833).
constructions go back to Abul
traces of such
first
Wafa.* From the Arabs
they were transmitted to the Italian school where they
appear
The
in the
works
Leonardo da Vinci and Cardan.
of
latter received his
impulse from Tartaglia who
used processes of this sort in his problem-duel with
Cardan and Ferrari.
They
also occur in the Resolutio
omnium Euclidis problematu77i (Venice, 1553)

dictis, a
of
Bene-
pupil of Cardan, in the Geometria deutsch and
in the construction
pentagon by
of a regular
Diirer.
In his Underweysung, etc., Durer gives a geometrically
accurate construction of the regular pentagon but also
an approximate construction of the same figure to be
made with
a circle of fixed radius.
This method of constructing a regular pentagon on

follows
About
and B
cles intersecting in
the
FG
the
The
circle
AB,
is
as
construct cir-
about Z> as a center with
and
B in E and
common chord CD in G. The same circles

in /and H.
A J and BH are sides of
are cut by
same radius cuts the
F and
as centers, with radius
C and D.
AB
circles with centers at
and ^6^
pentagon.
*Gunther
(The calculation of
this
in Schlomilch's Zeitschrift,
XX.
the regular
symmetric pentagon shows

Cantor,
I.,
700.
226
HBA = 108^20',
while the corresponding angle of the regular
pentagon
is
1US.)
In Durer and
all
regular heptagon
'
his successors
we
metric construction,
'
find
The
write upon rules of geo-
side of the regular heptagon
is
half that
from calculation the half side
of the equilateral triangle, " while

of the equilateral
who
an approximate construction of the
triangle = 0.998
of the side of the heptagon.
Daniel Schwenter likewise gave constructions with a single opening

of the
compasses in his Geometria fractica nova
Diirer, as
etc.,
is
et aticta (1625).
manifest from his work Underzveysung der messung,
already cited several times, also rendered decided service in
the theory of higher curves.
He
notion of asymptotes and found as

tain cyclic curves
gave a general conception of the
new forms
and mussel-shaped
lines.
Frpm the fifteenth century on,

jection make a further advance.
the gVeat*altar painting in
laws of perspective,
* Wiener.
e.
of higher curves cer-
the
methods
Jan van Eyck*
Ghent makes use
g., in
of proin
of the
the application of the
GEOMETRY.
227
vanishing point, but without a mathematical grasp of

these laws.
Durer who
zlrckel
und
This
in his
accomplished by Albrecht
first
is
Underweysung der messung mit dem
richtscheyt
makes use
of the point of sight
and distance-point and shows how to construct the

perspective picture from the ground plan and eleva-
was developed by the
archi-
and the sculptor Donatello.
The
In Italy perspective
tion.
tect Brunelleschi
new theory
first
work upon
Leo
Battista Alberti.
tive
image as the intersection
this
is
due
to the architect
In this he explains the perspec-
rays with the picture-plane.
strument for constructing
it,
of the
He
pyramid
also
of visual
mentions an
which consists
of a
in-
frame
with a quadratic net-work of threads and a similar
net-work of lines upon the drawing surface.

gives the
method
He
also
of the distance-point as invented
by
him, by means of which he then pictures the ground

divided into quadratic figures.* This process received
a further extension at the
cesca
who employed
hands
of Piero della
Fran-
the vanishing points of arbitrary
horizontal lines.
In
German
territory perspective
was cultivated
with special zeal in Nuremberg where the goldsmith
Lencker, some decades after Diirer, extended the

ter's
is
methods.
due
The
first
to the artist J.
de la perspective
French study
lat-
of perspective
Cousin (1560) who in his Livre
made use
of the point of sight
and the
distance-point, besides the vanishing points of hori*
Wiener.
228
zontal lines, after the
manner
goes noticeably further
of Piero.
Guide Ubaldi
when he introduces
the van-
ishing point of series of parallel lines of arbitrary direction.
What Ubaldi
Stevin clearly grasps in
simply foreshadows, Simon

its
principal features, and in
an important theorem he lays the foundation for the
development
of the theory of collineation.
F.
FIFTH PERIOD.
FROM DESCARTES TO THE PRESENT.

Since the time of ApoUonius
many
centuries had
elapsed and yet no one had succeeded in reaching the

full
height of Greek geometry.
This was partly be
cause the sources of information were relatively few,
and attainable indirectly and with
difficulty,
and partly
because men, unfamiliar with Greek methods of

vestigation, looked
ment.
From
of helpless
upon them with devout
astonish-
this condition of partial paralysis,
endeavor longing
delivered by Descartes.
for relief,
in-
and
geometry was
This was not by a simple ad-
dition of related ideas to the old geometry, but merely
by the union
of algebra
rise to analytic
By way
of all
with geometry, thus giving
geometry.
of preparation
many mathematicians,
ApoUonius, had referred the most important
mentary curves, namely the conies,
and tangents and had expressed
first
ele-
to their diameters
this relation
by equa-
GEOMETRY.
between areas, so that
tions of the first degree

tain relations
229
cer-
were obtained between line-segments
identical with abscissas
and ordinates.
In the conies of Apollonius
we
find expressions
which have been translated ''ordinatim applicatae"
For the former expression Fermat
and ''abscissae."
" applicate
used
"
while
others
wrote
''ordinate."
Since the time of Leibnitz (1692) abscissas and ordinates have been called "co-ordinates."*
Even
ject of
in the fourteenth
century
we
find as an ob-
study in the universities a kind of co-ordinate
geometry, the "latitudines formarum." "Latitudo"f

signified the ordinate, "longitu/io" the abscissa of a
variable point referred to a system of rectangular coordinates,
and the different positions of
The
formed the "figura. "
this point
technical words longitude
and latitude had evidently been borrowed from the

language of astronomy. In practice of this
confined himself to the
first
art
Oresme
quadrant in which he
dealt with straight lines, circles,
and even the para-
bola, but always so that only a positive value of a co-
ordinate was considered.
Among
the predecessors of Descartes
we reckon,
besides Apollonius, especially, Vieta, Oresme, Cavalieri,
Roberval, and Fermat, the last the most distin-
guished in this
field
but nowhere, even by Fermat,
had any attempt been made

*Baltzer, K., Analytische Geotnetrie,
t Giinther, p. 181.
to refer several curves of

1882.
230
different orders simultaneously to
ordinates,
for
which
one system
of co-
most possessed special significance
at
one of the curves.
It is
exactly this thing which
Descartes systematically accomplished.
The thought with which Descartes made

of arithmetic subservient to
geometry
the laws
by
set forth
is
himself in the following manner *

:
''All
problems of geometry may be reduced
such
to
we need only to know

lines.
And just as arith-
terms that for their construction

the length of certain right
metic as a whole comprises only four or five operations, viz.. addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi-
and evolution, which may be considered as a
sion,
kind of division, so in geometry to prepare the lines
sought to be known we have only to add other lines

to
them
which
or subtract others from
I call
them
unity (so as better to refer
which can ordinarily be taken
having one
or,
it
to
at pleasure,
numbers),
having two
others to find a fourth which shall be to one of these

as the other
is
to unity,
which
is
the
same
as multi-
plication ;f or to find a fourth which shall be to one

of the
two as unity
to the
is
other which
as division ;J or finally to find
mean
which
root.
is
the
same
one or two or several
proportionals between unity and any other line,

the
is
same
as to extract the square, cube,
shall not hesitate to introduce these terms
* Marie, M., Histoire des Sciences
= ab,
%c a = \:b, c = a:b.
%i:aâ:b=^b:c = c:d=.
^c:a-=b:
i,
Matkhnatiques
et Physiques, 1883-1887.
gives <i,=
\/b ==
V c = ^d
GEOMETRY.
of arithmetic into
more
b^,
intelligible.
geometry
It
in order to
I call
them square or cube only so
the third proportional to unity
and similarly b
b^
b'^
b'^
a^,
understand as usual sim-
employ the ordinary terms
as to
render myself
should be observed that, by
and similar quantities,
ple lines, and that
231
of algebra."
and
a,
or 1
{c^ is
= a:a^,
.^
This method of considering arithmetical expressions
was especially influenced by the geometric
coveries of Descartes.
dis-
As Apollonius had already de-
termined points of a conic section by parallel chords,

together with the distances from a tangent belonging
to the
same system, measured
in the direction of the
conjugate diameter, so with Descartes every point of

a curve is the intersection of
lonius and
all
two straight
his successors,
lines.
Apol-
however, apply such
systems of parallel lines only occasionally and that for

the sole purpose of presenting
of the conies
some
definite property
with especial distinctness.
Descartes,
on the contrary, separates these systems of parallel

lines
from the curves, assigns them an independent
existence and so obtains for every point on the curve

a relation
between two segments
which
nothing else than an equation.
is
of given direction,
The
geo-
metric study of the properties of this curve can then
be replaced by the discussion of the equation after the
methods
of algebra.
The fundamental elements
the determination of a point of a curve are

dinates,
and from long known theorems
it
its
for
co-or-
was evident
232
that a point of the plane can be fixed by two co-ordinates, a point of space
by three.
Geofnetry
Descartes's
is
perhaps, a treatise
not,
on analytic geometry, but only a brief sketch which

sets forth the foundations of this theory in outline.
Of the three books which constitute the whole work

only the
two deal with geometry
first
the third
of
is
algebraic nature and contains the celebrated rule of

signs illustrated by a simple example, as well as the
and fourth degrees
solution of equations of the third
with the construction of their roots by the use
of
conies.
The
impulse to his geometric reflections was
first
due, as Descartes himself says, to a problem which
according to Pappus had already occupied the atten-
and Apollonius.
tion of Euclid
It is
the problem to
find a certain locus related to three, four, or several

lines.
Denoting the distances, measured
rections, of a point
g,^
by
^1,
^2
^j
F from
the straight lines ^1, ^2
respectively,
we
for three straight lines
for four straight lines
for five straight
lines
shall
and so on.
first
two
The Greeks
cases,
in given di
have
k,
k,
k,
e\ ^5
originated the solution of the
which furnish conic sections.
ample could have shown better the advantage
No
ex-
of the
GEOMETRY.
new method.
For the case
233
of three lines Descartes
denotes a distance by y, the segment of the corres-
ponding
line
between the foot
and a fixed point by
segment involved
structed.
and shows that every other
x,
in the
problem can be
easily con-
we
allow y to
Further he states "that
grow gradually by
grow
of this perpendicular
in the
infinitesimal
if
increments, x will
same way and thus we may get
many points of the locus in question."

The curves with which Descartes makes
ally familiar
he
first
sixth orders a third,
and so on.
which
tion of the nth. degree
is
and
group, those of the third
and fourth orders a second, those
of the fifth
Newton was
the
and
first
defined by an algebraic equa-
between parallel co-ordinates, a
line of the nth order, or a
The
us gradu-
classifies so that lines of the first
second orders form a
to call a curve,
infinitely
curve of the {n
division into algebraic
l)th
class.
and transcendental curves
was introduced by Leibnitz
previously,
after
the
Greek fashion, the former had been called geometric,

the latter mechanical lines.*
Among
the applications which Descartes makes,
the problem of tangents

in a peculiar
at the
way
is
prominent.
This he treats
Having drawn a normal
to a curve
point F, he describes a circle through
the center at the intersection of this
with
normal with the
'R., Analytische Geometrze, 1882.

Up to the time of Descaites
except straight lines and conies were called mechanical. He was
the first to apply the term geometric lines to curves of degree higher than
the second.
*Baltzer,
all lines
234
Jf-axis,
in
and asserts that
this circle cuts the curve at
two consecutive points;
i.
e.,
he states the condi-
tion that after the elimination of

shall
have a double
^ the equation
in
j>^
root.
natural consequence of the acceptance of the
Cartesian co-ordinate system was the admission of
These negative
negative roots of algebraic equations.

roots
had now a
real significance
they could be rep-
resented, and hence were entitled to the
same
rights
as positive roots.
In the period immediately following Descartes,
geometry was enriched by the labors
of
Cavalieri,
Fermat, Roberval, Wallis, Pascal, and Newton, not

at first
by a simple application
of the co-ordinate ge-
ometry, but often after the manner of the ancient
Greek geometry, though with some

essentially improved.
The
little
culus, but
later
may
methods
latter is especially true of
Cavalieri, the inventor of the
which a
of the
method
of indivisibles,*
was displaced by the
find a place here since
it
integral cal-
rendered
ser-
vice to geometry exclusively. Cavalieri enjoyed work-
ing with the geometry of the ancients.
he was the
For example,
to give a satisfactory proof of the so-
first
called Guldin's rule already stated by Pappus.

chief endeavor
was
His
to find a general process for the
determination of areas and volumes as well as centers

of gravity,
and
for this
purpose he remodelled the
*In French works MSthode des indivisibles, originally in the work Geocontinuorum nova quadam ratione proniota, Bologna,
tnetria indivisibilibus
1635.
GEOMETRY.
method
method,
exhaustions.
of
of
235
Inasmuch
Cavalieri's
as
which he was master as early as 1629, may
even to-day replace to advantage ordinary integration

in
elementary cases,
its
essential character
may be
set
forth in brief outline.*

If
y=/(^x)
the equation of a curve in rectangu-
is
lar co-ordinates,
bounded by the
and he wishes
determine the area
to
axis of x, a portion of the curve,
the ordinates corresponding to ô
divides the difference xi

/i
element of the surface
the whole surface
oo
we
is
n be taken very large.
then
= Ay z=
/i/ (^x^
and
let
Let
becomes
n
For
xi, Cavalieri
xq into n equal parts.
represent such a part and
An
and
and
/rf {xo
-\-
nh')
evidently get exactly
J f(^x) dx.
But
this is not the quantity
He
determine.
which Cavalieri seeks to
forms only the ratios of portions
of
x^s
the area sought, to the rectangle with base x\
and altitude
is
jjî,
so that the quantity to be determined
the following
n
n h 'f{x\)
nfi^xx)
Cavalieri applies this formula, which he derives in

* Marie.
236
complete generality from grounds of analogy, only

the case where /(^)
The extension
of the
is
Ax^ {ni^2, 3, 4).

was made by Rober
form
to further cases
and Pascal.
val, Wallis,
In the simplest cases the method of indivisibles gives the
For a parallelogram the
lowing results.*
element of surface
is
a parallel to the base
number
the
;
of indi-
hence we have
measure of the area of the parallelogram the product
measures of the base and

holds for the prism.
altitude.
fol-
indivisible quantity or
visible quantities is proportional to the altitude
as the
to
The corresponding
of the
conclusion
In order to compare the area of a triangle
with that of the parallelogram of the same base and altitude,
decompose each
The elements
2,
3,
by equidistant parallels
into elements
we
to the base.
of the triangle are then, beginning with the least,
those of the parallelogram, n, n,
n.
Hence
1,
the
ratio
^ 1 -[-2+
Triangle
Parallelogram
whence
we
for
00
we
4-y^
iy^
(w
+ 1) _
n^
'
get the value
\.
1 /^^
IV
2 V
For the corresponding
'
solids
get likewise
Pyramid
_ l2-}-22-|-.
Prism
.-\-n^
_ ^n (w + 1) (2w
-f-
1)
n^
n^
1
=i(^+^)(^+^)
After the lapse of a few decades this analytic-
geometric method of Cavalieri's was forced into the
background
b}'
the integral calculus, which could be
directly applied in all cases.

val,
known by
his
method
footsteps of Cavalieri.
* Marie.
At
first,
however, Rober-
of tangents,
trod in the
Wallis used the works of Des-
GEOMETRY.
237
and Cavalieri simultaneously, and considered
cartes
whose equations were
especially curves
y^=x*",
of the
form
integral or fractional, positive or negative.
His chief service consists
in this, that in his brilliant
work he put a proper estimate upon Descartes's

covery and rendered
it
more
dis-
In this work
accessible.
Wallis also defines the conies as curves of the second

degree,
never before done
a thing
in
this definite
manner.
Pascal proved to be a talented disciple of Cavalieri
and Desargues.
In his
now
about 1639 but

find
work on
conies,
composed
fragment),*
lost (save for a
we
Pascal's theorem of the inscribed hexagon or
Hexagranwia mysticum as he termed
it,
which Bessel
rediscovered in 1820 without being aware of Pascal's

earlier
if
work, f also the theorem due to Desargues that
a straight line cuts a conic in
and Q, and the
sides of an inscribed quadrilateral in A, B, C,
have the following equation
D, we
FA 'PC _QA'QC
PB-PD ~ QC'QD'
Pascal's last
work deals with
curve called by him
the roulette, by Roberval the trochoid, and generally
known later as the cycloid. Bouvelles (1503) already

knew the construction of this curve, as did Cardinal
von Cusa
in the
shown by
a letter to Torricelli in 1639,
Cantor,
II.,
preceding centur3\J
p. 622.
$
Cantor,
t
II.,
Galileo, as
had made (be
Bianco in Torino
pp. 186, 351.
is
Att.,
XXI.
238
ginning in 1590) an exhaustive study of rolling curves

in
connection with the construction of bridge arches.
The quadrature
of the
of the cycloid
and the determination
volume obtained by revolution about
had been
effected
was able
axis
by Roberval, and the construction
by Descartes.
of the tangent
its
In the year 1658 Pascal
to determine the length of
an arc of a cy-
cloidal segment, the center of gravity of this surface,
and the corresponding
Later the
solid of revolution.
cycloid appears in physics as the brachistochrone and
tautochrone, since
it
permits a body sliding upon
it
to
pass from one fixed point to another in the shortest

time, while
it
it
brings a material point oscillating upon
to its lowest position
always
in
the
same
time.
Jacob and John Bernoulli, among others, gave attention to isoperimetric
problems
but only the former
secured any results of value, by furnishing a rigid
method
for their solution
which received merely an
unimportant simplification from John Bernoulli. (See

pages 178-179.)
The decades
following Pascal's activity were in
large part devoted to the study of tangent problems
and the
allied
normal problems, but
the general theory of plane curves
developing.
Barrow gave
ing tangents, and
and indicated the

ture.
I
From
at the
same time
was constantly
new method
of determin
Huygens studied evolutes of curves

way of determining radii of curva
the consideration of caustics, Tschirn
hausen was led
to involutes
and Maclaurin constructed
GEOMETRY.
239
the circle of curvature at any point of an algebraic
The most important extension of this theory

was made in Newton's Enumeratio linearum tertii orcurve,
This treatise establishes the distinction
dinis (1706).
between algebraic and transcendental curves.
makes an exhaustive study

of the third order,
and thus
of the equation of a curve
finds
numerous such curves
which may be represented as ''shadows "

a result
then
It
of five types,
which involves an analytic theory
of perspec-
Newton knew how to construct conies from

tangents.
He came upon this discovery in his
deavor to investigate ''after the manner of the
tive.
five
en-
an-
Further he con-
cients" without analytic geometry.
sidered multiple points of a curve at a finite distance
and
at infinity,
and gave rules
for investigating the
course of a curve in the neighborhood of one of

points
("Newton's parallelogram"
or "analytic
its
tri-
angle"), as also for the determination of the order of
contact of two curves at one of their
common
points.
(Leibnitz and Jacob Bernoulli had also written upon

osculations
Pliicker (1831) called the situation
two curves have k consecutive points

/^-pointic contact"; in the
had spoken
of a
in
where
common "a
same case Lagrange (1779)
"contact of {k
l)th order. ")t
Additional work was done by Newton's disciples,
Cotes and Maclaurin, as well as by Waring.

laurin
made
interasting
investigations
upon
= Baltzer.
tCayley, A., Address
Maccorre-
240
spending points
of a
curve of the third order, and
thus showed that the theory of these curves was
more comprehensive than

wise entered upon these
much
Euler
that of conies.
like-
investigations in his paper
Sur une contradiction apparente dans

planes (Berlin, 1748), where
it is
la thiorie des courbes
shown
that by eight in-
tersections of two curves of the third order the ninth
is
completely determined. This theorem, which includes

Pascal's theorem for conies, introduced point groups,
or systems of points of intersection of two curves, into
This theorem
geometry.
of Euler's
was noticed
in
who gave
special attention to the sin-
gularities of curves in his
works upon the intersection
1750 by Cramer
of
of higher order
two algebraic curves
hence the
obvious contradiction between the number of points
determining a plane curve and the number of inde-
pendent intersections
bears the
diction
name
two curves
his
of the
same order
"Cramer's paradox." This contra-
was solved by Lam^
which bears
known
of
of
name.*
results of the
in
1818 by the principle
Partly in connection with
Greek geometry, and partly
in-
dependently, the properties of certain algebraic and

transcendental
which
is
curves were investigated.
formed
like the
curve
conchoid of Nicomedes,
replace the straight line by a circle,
we
is
if
called by
\.,
d^ Geometrie in ihrer fruheren undjetzigen Entwicklung. Deutsch von Sclffltte, 1888. For a more accurate account of Cramer's paradox, in which proper credit is given to Maclaurin's discovery, see Scott, C. A., " On the Intersections of Plane Curves,"
* Loria, G., Die hatiptslichlichsten Theorien
'Bull.
Am. Math.
Soc, March, 1898.
GEOMETRY.
Roberval the limaôn of Pascal.
eighteenth century
is
2;j.I
The
cardioid of the
a special case of this spiral.
If,
with reference to two fixed points A, B, a point
the condition that a linear function of the
satisfies
PA,
distances
locus oi
2l
PB
has a constant value, then
constant,
we have
Cassini's oval,
For
the
PA PB^=
which the astronomer
Louis XIV. wished to regard as the orbit
instead of Kepler's ellipse.
is
This curve was found by
Cartesian oval.
Descartes in his studies in dioptrics.
of
of a planet
In special cases Cassini's
oval contains a loop, and this form received from
Jacob Bernoulli (1694) the name lemniscate.

the investigation of the logarithmic curve
connected the study

noulli, Leibnitz,
With
= ^^ was
made by Jacob and John
Huygens, and
Ber-
others, of the curve of
equilibrium of an inextensible, flexible thread.
This
furnished the catenary {catenaria, 1691), the idea of
which had already occurred
to Galileo.*
The group
found by Archimedes was enlarged
of spirals
in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by the addition

of the hyperbolic, parabolic,
and Cotes's
lituus (1722).
and logarithmic
spirals,
In 1687 Tschirnhausen de-
fined a quadratrix, differing from that of the Greeks,

as the locus of a point P, lying at the
same time upon
LQ\\BO and upon MP\\OA {OAB is

where L moves over the quadrant and
radius
OB
uniformly.
Whole systems
surfaces were considered.

*
Cantor,
III., p. 211.
Here belong
a quadrant),
M over
the
of curves
and
the investiga-
242
and evolutes, envelopes
in general,
Huygens, Tschirnhausen, John
Bernoulli,
tions of involutes
due
to
Leibnitz, and others.

cil
of rays
The
through a point
consideration of the penin the plane,
and
of the
pencil of planes through a straight line in space, was
introduced by Desargues, 1639.*
The extension
to space of three
of
of the Cartesian co-ordinate
method
dimensions was effected by the labors
Van Schooten,
Parent, and Clairaut.'j'
Parent rep-
resented a surface by an equation involving the three

co-ordinates of a point in space, and Clairaut perfected this
by a
new procedure
classic
in a
most essential manner
work upon curves
of
double curvature.
Scarcely thirty years later Euler established the analytic
theory of the curvature of surfaces, and the clas-
sification
of
surfaces
in
accordance with theorems
He
analogous to those used in plane geometry.
gives
formulae of transformation of space co-ordinates and

a discussion of the general equation of surfaces of the
second order, with their

Euler's. names
Instead of
''elliptoid, elliptic-hyperbolic, hyper-
bolic-hyperbolic,
elliptic-parabolic,
bolic surface," the terms
boloid,
classification.
now
parabolic-hyper-
in use, ''ellipsoid,
hyper-
paraboloid," were naturalized by Biot and
Lacroix. J
Certain special investigations are worthy of mention.
In
1663 Wallis studied plane sections
and
effected the cubature, of a conoid with horizontal di*Baltzer.
tLoria.
|Baltzer.
recting plane
GEOMETRY.
243
whose generatrix
intersects a vertical
directing straight line and vertical directing

{cono-cuneus).
To Wren we owe an
circle
investigation of
the hyperboloid of revolution of two sheets (1669)
which he called ''cylindroid/' The domain

curves, of
of
of
gauche
which the Greeks knew the common helix
Archytas and the spherical spiral corresponding in
formation to the plane spiral of Archimedes, found an

extension in the line which cuts under a constant an-
Nunez
gle the meridians of a sphere.
(1546) had
recognized this curve as not plane, and Snellius (1624)
had given
lem
it
the
name
loxodrouiia sphaerica.
of the shortest line
face, leading to
The
prob-
between two points of a sur-
gauche curves which the nineteenth
century has termed ''geodetic lines," was stated by
John Bernoulli (1698) and taken

good
results.
in
hand by him with
In a work of Pitot in 1724 (printed in
1726)* upon the helix, we find for the
time the
first
expression ligne a double courbure, line of double curvature, for a
gauche curve.
gave theorems upon the tangent planes

faces,
its
Meusnier
In 1776 and 1780
and upon the curvature
to ruled sur-
of a surface at
one of
points, as a preparation for the powerful develop-
ment
of the theory of surfaces
There are
still
some minor
soon to begin.
investigations belong-
ing to this period deserving of mention.
The
alge-
braic expression for the distance between the centers

of the inscribed
*Cantor,
and circumscribed
III., p. 428.
circles of a triangle
t
Baltzer.
244
was determined by William Chappie (about 1746),

afterwards by
Landen
(1755) and Euler (1765).*
In
1769 Meister calculated the areas of polygons whose

sides, limited
by every two consecutive
vertices, inter-
number
sect so that the perimeter contains a certain

of
double points and the polygon breaks up into
cells
with simple or multiple positive or negative areas.
Upon
the areas of such singular polygons
Mobius pub-
lished later investigations (1827 and 1865).*
Saurin
considered the tangents of a curve at multiple points
and Ceva starting from
static
theorems studied the
transversals of geometric figures. Stewart
still
further
extended the theorems of Ceva, while Cotes deter-
mined the harmonic mean between the segments
of a
secant to a curve of the nth order reckoned from a

fixed point.
Carnot also extended the theory of trans-
Lhuilier solved the problem
versals.
In a circle to
inscribe a polygon of n sides passing through n fixed
Brianchon gave the theorem concerning the
points.
hexagon circumscribed about a conic

lated to Pascal's theorem
The
upon the inscribed hexagon.
application of these two theorems to the surface
of the
the
dualistically re-
sphere was effected by Hesse and Thieme.
work
of
Hesse
a Pascal
hexagon
the sphere by six points which
lie
is
In
formed upon
upon the
intersec-
tion of the sphere with a cone of the second order
having
its
vertex at the center of the sphere.
selects a right circular cone.

^ Fortschrittc, 1887, p. 32.
The
Thieme
material usually
t
Baltzer.
GEOMETRY,
245
taken for the elementary geometry of the schools has
among
other things received an
numerous theorems upon the
W. Feuerbach
triangle,
(1822),
extension through
named after K.
upon symmedian lines of a
circle
upon the Grebe point and the Brocard
fig-
ures (discovered in part by Crelle, 1816; again intro-
duced by Brocard, 1875).*
The theory
of regular
geometric figures received
most important extension
hands
of Gauss,
who discovered noteworthy theorems upon
the possi-
its
bility or impossibility of
regular polygons.
(See
at the
elementary constructions
of
Poinsot elaborated
p. 160.)
the theory of the regular polyhedra
by publishing
his
views on the five Platonic bodies and especially upon

the
viz.,
''
Kepler-Poinsot regular solids of higher class,"
the four star-polyhedra which are formed from
the icosahedron and dodecahedron.
These studies
were continued by Wiener, Hessel, and Hess, with

the removal of certain restrictions, so that a whole
series of solids,
which
regarded as regular,
above.
in
may be added
Corresponding studies
space have been undertaken
in
by
The boundaries
of the
Rudel,
Scheffler,
They have
such a space there exist
ures of which the simplest has as

tetrahedra.
to those
for four-dimensional
Stringham, Hoppe, and Schlegel.
mined that
may be
named
an extended sense
its
deter-
six regular fig-
boundary
remaining
* Lieber, Ueber die Gegenmittellinie, den Grebe'' schen Piinkt

card'schen Kreis, 1886-1888.
five
five fig-
und den Bro-
246
ures require 16 or 600 tetrahedra, 8 hexahedra, 24 oc-
120 dodecahedra.*
tahedra,
may be mentioned
It
further that in 1849 the prismatoid
by E. F. August, and that Schubert
into stereometry
and
was introduced
Stoll so generalised the Apollonian contact prob-
lem as
to
be able
to give the construction of the
six-
teen spheres tangent to four given spheres.

Projective geometry, called less precisely
geometry or geometry
of
position,
ometry
of Descartes, in
essentially a
is
The
creation of the nineteenth century.
modern
analytic ge-
connection with the higher
analysis created by Leibnitz and
Newton, had
regis-
tered a series of important discoveries in the domain

of the
geometry
of space,
but
had not succeeded
it
in
obtaining a satisfactory proof for theorems of pure
geometry.
Relations of a specific geometric character
had, however, been discovered in constructive draw-
Newton's establishment
ing.
of
his
five
principal
types of curves of the third order, of which the sixtyfour remaining types
had
may
be regarded as projections,
also given an impulse in the
same
direction. Still
more important were the preliminary works

which paved the way
for the
development
of Carnot,
of the
new
theory by Poncelet, Chasles, Steiner, and von Staudt.
They
of
it
was who discovered
''the overflowing spring
deep and elegant theorems which with astonishing
facility
united into an organic whole, into the graceful
edifice of projective geometry, which, especially with

*Serret, Essai d'une nouvelle niSthode,
etc., 1873.
GEOMETRY.
247
reference to the theory of curves of the second order,
maybe
regarded as the ideal of a scientific organism."*
Projective geometry found
French
soil in the
its earliest
Gdometrie descriptive of
unfolding on
Monge whose
astonishing power of imagination, supported by the
methods
of descriptive
geometry, discovered a host of
properties of surfaces and curves applicable to the

classification of figures in space.
''for
His work created
geometry the hitherto unknown idea
of
geomet-
and geometric elegance, "f and the imhis works is fundamental not only for the
ric generality
portance of
theory of projectivity but also for the theory of the
To
curvature of surfaces.
the introduction of the
imaginary into the considerations of pure geometry
Monge
likewise gave the
first
impulse, while his pupil
Gaultier extended these investigations by defining the

radical axis of two circles as a secant of the
same
passing through their intersections, whether real or

imaginary.
The
results of
Monge's school thus derived, which
were more closely related
to
pure geometry than to
the analytic geometry of Descartes, consisted chiefly

in a series of
new and
interesting theorems
faces of the second order,
same
field that
time by
Wren
upon
and thus belonged
sur-
to the
had been entered upon before Monge's

(1669), Parent
and Euler. That Monge
* Brill, A.. Antrittsrede in Tubingen, 1884.
tHankel, Die Elemente der projektivischen Geometrie in synthetischer Behandlung,
1875.
24-8
did not hold analytic methods in light esteem
by his Application de Palgebre a
is
shown
la geom^trie (1805) in
which, as Pliicker says, ''he introduced the equation

of the straight line into analytic geometry, thus laying
the foundation for the banishment of
from
it,
and gave
it
that
all
constructions
new form which rendered
further extension possible.'*
While Monge was working by preference
in the
space of three dimensions, Carnot was making a spestudy of ratios of magnitudes in figures cut by
cial
transversals,
tive,
tio7i
and thus, by the introduction
was laying the foundation
which, however,
der Lage of to-day.
is
is
for a geometrie de posi-
not identical with the Geometrie
Not the most important, but the
most noteworthy contribution

geometry
of the nega-
that of Carnot's
for
elementary school
upon the complete quadri-
and quadrangle.
lateral
Monge and Carnot having removed the obstacles

which stood in the way of a natural development of
geometry upon its own territory, these new ideas could
now be certain of a rapid development in well-prepared
soil.
His work,
Poncelet furnished the seed.
Traiti des propriitis projectives des figures, which ap-
peared
in 1822, investigates
which remain unchanged

variant properties.
as in
Monge, by
The
those properties of figures
in projection,
projection
not
e.,
their in-
made
here,
parallel rays in a given direction, but
by central projection, and so

spective.
is
i.
In this
after the
manner
way Poncelet came
to
of per-
introduce
GEOMETRY.
249
the axis of perspective and center of perspective (ac-
cording to Chasles, axis and center of homology) in

the consideration of plane figures for which Desargues
had already established the fundamental theorems.

In 1811 Servois had used the expression **pole of a
straight line,"
of a
and
in
1813 Gergonne the terms ''polar
point" and ''duality/' but in 1818 Poncelet de-
veloped some observations made by Lahire
upon the mutual correspondence

the case of conies, into a
of pole
method
in 1685.
and polar
in
of transforming fig-
Gergonne recog-
ures into their reciprocal polars.
nized in this theory of reciprocal polars a principle
whose beginnings were known
Lansberg,
to Vieta,
He
and Snellius, from spherical geometry.
the "principle of duality" (1826). In 1827
called
it
Gergonne
a-sociated dualistically with the notion of order of a
plane curve that of

order
when
its
when from
tangents can be drawn to
While
in
richest
its
development
in
a point in the plane
this
new theory found
the third decade of the
German
same time the three great
Pliicker,
in n
it.*
advancement,
nineteenth century upon

at the
it
France Chasles alone interested himself
thoroughly in
its
line is of the nth
a straight line of the plane cuts
points, of the ;^th class

91
The
class.
soil,
where almost
investigators, Mobius,
and Steiner entered the
field.
From
this
time on the synthetic and more constructive tendency

followed by Steiner, von Staudt, and Mobius divergesf
*Baltzer,
t Brill, A., Antrittsrede in Tubingen, 1884.
250
from the analytic side
of the
modern geometry which
Aronhold, and Clebsch had especially
Pliicker, Hesse,
developed.
The
Barycentrischer Calcill in the year 1827 fur-
nished the
first
example
of
homogeneous
and along with them a symmetry
co-ordinates,
in the
developed
formulae hitherto unknown to analytic geometry.

this calculus
In
Mobius started with the assumption that
every point in the plane of a triangle
ABC may be re-
garded as the center of gravity of the triangle.

this case there
In
belong to the points corresponding
weights which are exactly the homogeneous co-ordinates of the point
P with
the fundamental triangle
respect to the vertices of
ABC.
By means
of
this
algorism Mobius found by algebraic methods a series

of
geometric theorems, for example those expressing
invariant properties like the theorems on cross-ratios.
These theorems, found
analytically,
demonstrate geometrically
he introduced with
all
its
also,
and
Mobius sought
for this
to
purpose
consequences the *'law of
signs " which expresses that for A, B, C, points of a

straight line,
AB = BA, AB-^ BA = 0,
AB'\- BC
-^CA = 0.
Independently of Mobius, but starting from the same principles, Bellavitis
pollences.*
tion,
AB
= CD).
Two
came upon
his
new geometric method
equal and parallel lines drawn in the same direc-
and CD, are called equipollent
By
this
* Bellavitis, "
of equi-
(in Cayley's notation
assumption the whole theory
is
AB
reduced to the
Saggio di Applicazioni di un Nuovo Metodo di Geometria
Analitica (Calcolo delle Equipollenze)," in Ann. Lovib. Veneto,
t.
5, 1835.
GEOMETRY.
25
consideration of segments proceeding from a f'xed point.

it is
assumed
ments
a, b,
AB + BC^ A C (Addition).
that
with inclinations
d,
c,
a,
fi,
y,
_ be
equation a^^ must not only be a relation
must also show that
a
this
becomes a^^bc,
of the lengths
cation).
ity of
is
a=bc
EquipoUence
two
a=z(3-\-y 6
i.
and
is
e.,
Further
Finally for the seg-
6 to a fixed axis, the
between lengths but
d=l
For
(Proportion).
and
the product of the absolute values
at the
same time a^l3-{--y
(Multipli-
therefore only a special case of the equal-
objects, applied to segments.*
Mobius further introduced the consideration
of
The one-
correspondences of two geometric figures.
to-one correspondence, in which to every point of a
one and only one point
first
figure there corresponds
of a
second figure and to every point of the second
one and only one point

lineation.
of the
He
of the first,
Mobius
called col-
constructed not only a coUinear image
plane but also of ordinary space.
These new and fundamental ideas which Mobius

had
laid
for a
down
in the barycentric calculus
remained
long time almost unheeded and hence did not at
once enter into the formation of geometric conceptions.
The works
more favorable
soil.
of Pliicker
The
and Steiner found a
immediate geometric perception the

and the only object
recognized in
latter <<had
of his
sufficient
knowledge.
means
Plucker, on
the other hand,t sought his proofs in the identity of
the analytic operation and the geometric construc*Stolz, O., Vorlesu7tgefi uber allgemeine AritJimetik, 1885-1886.
f'Clebsch, Versuch einer Darlegung und Wiirdigung seiner wissenschaftlichen Leistungen von einigen seiner Freunde (Brill, Gordan, Klein, Liiroth,
A.
Mayer, Nother, Von der Miihll)," in Math. Ann., Bd.
7.
252
and regarded geometric truth only as one
tion,
many
conceivable antitypes of analytic relation."
At a
Mobius engaged
later period (1855)
lution of the
points
/;/th
which form two figures

2d, 3d,
first figure,
4th
wth points
invo-
degree consists of two groups each
A\, J2, ^b,
in the
Such an
tudy of involutions of higher degree.
of
of the
in
A^;
B\, B^, B^,
B^,^,
such a way that to the
1st,
one group, as points of the
of
there correspond in succession the 2d, 3d,
same group
1st points of the
as points of the
second figure, with the same determinate relation. Involutions of higher degree had been previously studied
He
by Poncelet (1843).
started from the theorem
given by Sturm (1826), that by the conic sections of

the surfaces of the second order u
(),
2^
0,
u-\-Xv
:=0, there are determined upon a straight line six

points. A, A', B, B'
C,
C in involution,
i.
e.,
so that
ABCA'B'C and A'B'C'ABC not only

B and B' C and C but also A' and A, B'
and C are corresponding point-pairs. This
in the
systems
and
A',
and B,
mutual correspondence
of three point-pairs of a line
Desargues had already
(in 1639)
designated by the
;rm "involution."*
Pliicker
is
the real founder of the
modern
analytic
tendency, and he attained this distinction by "formulating analytically the principle of duality
ing out
its
consequences, "t
sche Uniersuchungen
*Baltzer.
appeared
t Brill, A.,
and follow-
His Aimlytisch-geometriin 1828.
By
this
Antrittsrede in Tubingen, 1884.
work
GEOMETRY.
was created
and
tation
is
for
of
253
geometry the method
undetermined
of
symbolic no-
coefficients,
whereby one
freed from the necessity, in the consideration of the
mutual relations
system
'of
of
of referring to the
figures,
of co-ordinates, so that
figures themselves.
ftietrie
two
The
he can deal with the
Systein der analytischen Geo-
1835 furnishes, besides the abundant appli-
cation of the abbreviated notation, a complete classification of plane curves of the third order.
Theorie der algebraischen

to
Kurven
In the
of 1839, in addition
an investigation of plane curves of the fourth order
there appeared those analytic relations between the
ordinary singularities of plane curves which are generally
known
These
as ''Pliicker's equations."
Pliicker equations
which
at first are applied
only to the four dualistically corresponding singularities
(point of inflexion, double point, inflexional tan-
gent, double tangent)
were extended by Cayley
curves with higher singularities.
opments
in series
By
order,
is
how many
singu-
absorbed into a singular point of higher
and how the expression
the curve
the aid of devel-
he derived four ''equivalence num-
bers" which enable us to determine

larities are
to
modified thereby.
for the deficiency of
Cayley's results were
confirmed, extended, and completed as to proofs by

the works of Nother, Zeuthen, Halphen, and Smith.
The fundamental question

method of considering the
what change
of
arising from the Ca34ey

subject,
whether and by
parameters a curve with correspond-
254
ing elementary singularities can be derived from a
curve with higher singularity, for which the Pliicker
and deficiency equations

studied by A.
the
are
been
same, has
Brill.
Pliicker's greatest service consisted in the intro-
The
duction of the straight line as a space element.

principle of duality
had led him
to introduce, besides
the point in the plane, the straight line, and in space
the plane as a determining element.
used
in
Pliicker also
space the straight line for the systematic gen-
His
eration of geometric figures.
first
works
in this
direction were laid before the Royal Society in
don
Lon-
They contained theorems on complexes,

congruences, and ruled surfaces with some indications
of the method of proof.
The further development
in 1865.
appeared
griindet
element.
in
1868 as Neue Geotnetrie des Raumes, ge-
auf die Betrachtung der geraden Linie

Pliicker
als
had himself made a study
complexes but his completion
Raum-
of linear
of the theory of
com-
plexes of the second degree was interrupted by death.
Further extension of the theory of complexes was
made by F. Klein.
The results contained
thrown a flood
of light
in Pliicker's last
upon the
difference between
The curved
plane and solid geometry.
work have
line of the
plane appears as a simply infinite system either of

points or of straight lines
regarded as a simply
lines or planes
in
infinite
space the curve
may
be
system of points, straight
but from another point of view this
GEOMETRY.
may be
curve in space
surface of which
it is
255
replaced by the developable
the edge of regression.
Special
cases of the curve in space and the developable sur-
face are the plane curve and the cone.
space figure, the general surface,
doubly
infinite
further
on the one side a
is
system of points or planes, but on the
other, as a special case of a complex, a triply infinite
system of straight
the tangents to the surface.
lines,
As a special case we have the skew surface or ruled

surface.
Besides this the congruence appears as a
doubly, the complex as a triply, infinite system of

straight lines.
The geometry
of
space involves a num-
ber of theories to which plane geometry offers no analogy.
Here belong the
the surfaces which
relations of a space curve to
may be passed through
surface to the gauche curves lying

lines of curvature
upon
upon
a surface there
it,
it.
is
or of a
To
the
nothing
corresponding in the plane, and in contrast to the

consideration of the straight line as the shortest line
between two points
of a plane, there stand in space
two comprehensive and
difficult theories, that of
the
geodetic line upon a given surface and that of the
minimal surface with a given boundary.

tion of the analytic representation of a
The
ques-
gauche curve
involves peculiar difficulties, since such a figure can
be represented by two equations between the co-ordinates X, y,
tersection of
only
when
the curve
two surfaces.
is
the complete in-
In just this direction tend
256
modern investigations
the
of Nother,
Halphen, and
Valentiner.
Four years
after the Analytisch-geometrische Unter-
suchungen of Pliicker, in the year 1832, Steiner published his Systematische Entwicklung der AbhdngigJzeit
geometrischer Gestalten.
Steiner found the whole the-
ory of conic sections concentrated in the single theo-
rem (with
dualistic analogue) that a curve of the
its
second order
is
produced as the intersection
two
of
coUinear or projective pencils, and hence the theory
and surfaces
of curves
tially
of the
second order was essen-
completed by him, so that attention could be
turned to algebraic curves and surfaces of higher
or-
Steiner himself followed this course with good
der.
This
results.
is
shown by the
by a paper which appeared

Abhafidlungen.
''Steiner surface," and
in
1848 in the Ber lifter
In this the theory of the polar of a
point with respect to a curved line was treated ex-
haustively and thus a
more geometric theory
of plane
curves developed, which was further extended by the

labors of Grassmann, Chasles, Jonquieres, and Cre-
mona.*
The names
tion with a
of Steiner
problem which
tary geometry, but in

It is the Malfatti
problem:
which
shall
From
shall
its
and Pliicker are also united
in
connec-
form belongs
to
elemen-
in its simplest
generalization passes into higher
fields.
Problem, f In 1803 Malfatti gave out the following

a right triangular prism to cut out three cylinders
have the same altitude as the prism, whose volumes
be the greatest possible, and consequently the mass remain-
*Loria.
Wittstein, Geschichte des Malfatti' schen Problems, 1871.
GEOMETRY.
ing after their removal shall be a
duced
to
what
is
now
generally
257
minimum.
known
This problem he
as Malfatti's
problem
re-
In a
given triangle to inscribe three circles so that each circle shall be
He
tangent to two sides of the triangle and to the other two circles.
calculates the radii
x^^,
x^, x^ of the circles sought in terms of the
semi-perimeter 5 of the triangle, the radius p of the inscribed
cir-
the distances a^, aj, a^; b^, b^, b^ of the vertices of the
tri-
cle,
angle from the center of the inscribed circle and
gency
to the sides,
and gets
+ i P 2 3).
^1
X2
= ~{s-â^p a^ a^),
(5
without giving the calculation in

struction.
full
but he adds a simple con-
Steiner also studied this problem.
proof) a construction,
points of tan-
its
showed
He
gave (without
that there are thirty-two solutions
and generalized the problem, replacing the three straight

three circles.
Pliicker also considered this
But besides this Steiner studied the
same
same problem
lines
by
generalization.
for space
In
connection with three given conies upon a surface of the second

order to determine three others which shall each touch two of the
given conies and two of the required.
This general problem
ceived an analytic solution from Schellbach
and Cayley, and
from Clebsch with the aid of the addition theorem of

tions,
re-
also
elliptic func-
while the more simple problem in the plane was attacked in
the greatest variety of

Scheffler,
solution)
ways by Gergonne, Lehmus,
Crelle, Grunert,
Schellbach (who gave a specially elegant trigonometric
and Zorer.
ner's construction
The
first
perfectly satisfactory proof of Stei-
was given by Binder.*
After Steiner
came von Staudt and Chasles who
rendered excellent service in the development of pro* Programm Schonthal, 1868.
258
jective geometry.
In 1837 Michel Chasles published
his Aperg,u historiqiie sur Vorigine et

des mdthodes en giomitrie, a
work
in
diveloppement
which both ancient
and modern methods are employed
many
le
in the derivation
which several
of the
most important, among them the introduction
of the
of
interesting results, of
cross-ratio (Chasles's
reciprocal
''anharmonic ratio") and the
and collinear relation (Chasles's ''duality"
and ''homography"), are
be assigned in part to
to
Steiner and in part to Mobius.
Von
Staudt's Geometric der Lage appeared in 1847,
his Beitrdge zur Geometrie der Lage, 1856-1860.
works form a marked contrast to those
who
Chasles
and
of
"making
von Staudt seeks
and
to solve the
the geometry of position an in-
dependent science not standing

ment."
of Steiner
deal continually with metric relations
cross-ratios, while
problem
These
in
need
of
measure-
Starting from relations of position purely,
von Staudt develops
all
theorems that do not deal
immediately with the magnitude of geometric forms,

completely solving, for example, the problem of the
introduction of the imaginary into geometry.
earlier
to
works
Poncelet, Chasles, and others had,
be sure, made use of complex elements but had
defined the
for
of
The
same
in a
manner more
or less vague and,
example, had not separated conjugate complex
elements from each other.
Von Staudt determined
the complex elements as double elements of involution-relations.
Each double element
is
characterized
GEOMETRY.
by the sense inVhich, by
259
we pass from
this relation,
the one to the other. This suggestion of
however, did not become generally
was reserved
for later
and
fruitful,
make
it
it
more widely
of the originally
narrow con-
works
known by the extension
von Staudt's,
to
ception.
In the Beitrdge von Staudt has also shown
how
the cross-ratios of any four elements of a prime form

of the first class
derive absolute
With
(von Staudt's Wiirfe)
may be used
numbers from pure geometry.*
the projective geometry
most closely con-
is
nected the modern descriptive geometry.

in its
to
development drew
its
first
The former
strength from the
considerations of perspective, the latter enriches itself

later
with the fruits matured by the cultivation of pro-
jective geometry.
The
perspective of the Renaissance f was devel-
oped especially by French mathematicians,

Desargues who used co-ordinates
resentation of objects in such a
in the picture plane,
The
to this plane.
results of
results
determined by
by
its
trace
its
in his pictorial rep-
way
that two axes lay
Desargues were more
theory than
for
practice.
were secured by Taylor with a
''linear perspective" (1715).

is
In this a straight line
trace and vanishing point, a plane
and vanishing
line.
This method was
*Stolz, O., Vorlesungen uber allgemeine Arithmetik, 1885-1886.

t
Wiener.
by
while the third axis was normal
important, however, for
More valuable
first
26o
used by Lambert in an ingenious manner for different

CDnstructions, so that by the middle of the eighteenth
century even space-forms in general position could be

pictured in perspective.
Out
of the perspective of the eighteenth century
grew ''descriptive geometry,"

zier's,
first in
work
of Fr^-
which besides practical methods contained a
special theoretical section furnishing proofs for
Even
cases of the graphic methods considered.
all
in
the ''description," or representation, Fr^zier replaces
the central projection by the perpendicular parallelprojection,

of
ink."*
called the
"which maybe
The
illustrated
by
drops
falling
picture of the plane of projection
is
ground plane or elevation according as the
picture plane
is
horizontal or vertical.
With
the aid
of this "description" Fr^zier represents planes, poly-
hedra, surfaces of the second degree as well as intersections
and developments.
Since the time of
Monge
descriptive geometry has
taken rank as a distinct science.
The Lemons
de geo-
mitrie descriptive (1795) form the foundation-pillars of
descriptive geometry, since they introduce horizontal
and vertical planes with the ground-line and show
how
to represent points
jections,
and straight
and planes by two
in the Lemons
tersection, contact
This
traces.
by the great number
lines
of
by two prois
followed
problems
and penetration which
arise
of in-
from
combinations of planes with polyhedra and surface^

* wiener.
GEOMETRY.
Mongers successors, Lacroix,
second order.
of the
261
Hachette, Olivier, and
J.
de
Gournerie applied
la
these methods to surfaces of the second order, ruled

surfaces,
and the relations of curvature of curves and
surfaces.
Just at this time,
etry in
when
France had borne
the development of descriptive geom-
its first
remarkable
results, the technical
high schools came into existence. In the year 1794 was established
in Paris the
Ecole CeJitrale des
Travaux
Publics from which in
1795 the Ecolc Polytechnique was an outgrowth.

cal schools,
which
were founded
in course of
Prague
in
in 1806, in
1820, in Karlsruhe in 1825, in

in
Hanover
in
Braunschweig
1831,
in 1862, in
Munich
Stuttgart
in
Further techni-
time attained to university rank,
Darmstadt
Vienna
in 1815, in Berlin in
in 1827, in
1832, in
in 1869,
Dresden
in 1828,
Zurich in 1860, in
and
in Aix-la-Chapelle
In these institutions the results of projective geometry
in 1870.
were used
to the greatest
advantage
in the
advancement
of descrip-
tive geometry, and were set forth in the most logical manner by
Fiedler,
whose text-books and manuals,
in part original
and
in
part translations from the English, take a conspicuous place in the

literature of the science.
With
the technical significance of descriptive geometry there
has been closely related for some years an artistic

this especially
which has marked an advance
etry (Weisbach,
1844),
relief-perspective,
in
side,
and
it is
works on axonom-
photogrammetry, and
theory of lighting.
The second quarter of our century marks the time

when developments in form-theory in connection with
geometric constructions have led to the discovery of
of
new and important
side
results.
Stimulated on the one
by Jacobi, on the other by Poncelet and Steiner,
262
Hesse (1837-1842) by an application
of the transfor-
mation of homogeneous forms treated the theory
of
surfaces of the second order and constructed their
By him
principal axes.*
angles" and
**
the notions of
*'
polar
tri-
polar tetrahedra" and of ''systems of
conjugate points" were introduced as the geometric

expression of analytic relations.
To
these were added
the linear construction of the eighth intersection of

three surfaces of the second degree,
them
are given,
and also by the use
when seven
of
of Steiner's theo-
rems, the linear construction of a surface of the sec-
ond degree from nine given
points.
Clebsch, follow-
ing the English mathematicians, Sylvester, Cayley,
and Salmon, went

Hesse.
in his
works essentially further than
His vast contributions
to the theory of in-
variants, his introduction of the notion of the defi-
ciency of a curve, his applications of the theory of

elliptic
and Abelian functions
to
geometry and to the
study of rational and elliptic curves, secure for him a
pre-eminent place among those
who have advanced
As an
algebraic instrument
the science of extension.
Clebsch, like Hesse, had a fondness for the theorem
upon the multiplication
of determinants in its appli-
cation to bordered determinants.
His worksf upon
the general theory of algebraic curves and surfaces

*Nother, "Otto Hesse," Schldmilch's Zeitschrift, Bd.
20,
HI. A.
Clebsch, Versuch einer Darlegung und Wiirdigung seiner wissenschaftlichen Leistungen von einigen seiner Freunde " (Brill, Gordan, Klein,
Liiroth, A. Mayer, Nother, Von der Miihll) Math. Ann., Bd. 7.
+ "
GEOMETRY.
began with the determination
263
of those points
upon an
algebraic surface at which a straight line has four-
point contact, a problem also treated by Salmon but
While now the theory
not so thoroughly.
of the third order
straight lines
with their systems of twenty-seven
was making headway on English
Clebsch undertook
ciency"
of surfaces
fruitful for
to
render the notion of
''defi-
This notion, whose
geometry.
analytic properties were not
soil,
unknown
to Abel, is
found
in
Riemann's Theorie der AbeVschen Funktionen
(1857).
Clebsch speaks also of the deficiency of an
first
d double points
algebraic curve of the th order with
and r points of
p=::^{n
inflexion,
and determines the number
V){n 2) d
r.
To one
or gauche curves characterized
by a
class of plane
definite value of
p belong all those that can be made to pass over into

one another by a rational transformation or which
possess the property that any two have a one-to-one
correspondence. Hence follows the theorem that only

those curves that possess the same 3/
3 parameters
(for
curves of the third order, the same one parame-
ter)
can be rationally transformed into one another.
The
difficult
theory of gauche curves* owes
general results to Cayley,
who
obtained formulae cor-
responding to Plucker's equations
Works on gauche
its first
for plane curves.
curves of the third and fourth orders
had already been published by Mobius, Chasles, and
Von
Staudt.
* Loria.
General observations on gauche curves
264
in
are found in theorems of Nother
more recent times
and Halphen.
The foundations of enumerative geometry"^ are

found in Chasles's method of characteristics (1864).
Chasles determined for rational configurations of one
dimension a correspondence-formula which

simplest case
of points i?i
may be
and R^
stated as follows
lie
upon
If
in
the
two ranges
a straight line so that to
every point x of Ei there correspond in general a

points
jj^
in E<i,
and again
always correspond
fS
to every point
of
E^ there
points x in Ri, the configuration
formed from Ri and R2 has
{a-\-
p) coincidences or
there are (a-j-^) times in which a point
with a corresponding point
x coincides
The Chasles
y.
corre-
spondence-principle was extended inductively by Cayley in 1866 to point-systems of
was proved by
deficiency and this extension
Important extensions
a curve of higher
of these
Brill, f
enumerative formulae
(correspondence-formulae), relating to general algebraic curves, have been given by Brill, Zeuthen, and
Hurwitz, and set forth in elegant form by the introduction of the notion of deficiency.
An
extended
treatment of the fundamental problem of enumerative
geometry, to determine
how many
geometric config-
urations of given definition satisfy a sufiicient

of conditions, is
number
contained in the Kalkul der abzdhlen-
den Geometrie by H. Schubert (1879).
The
simplest cases of one-to-one correspondence

*Loria.
Mathetn. Annalen,Vl.
GEOMETRY.
265
or uniform representation, are furnished by two planes
superimposed one upon the other.

similarity studied
treated by Mobius,
These are the
by Poncelet and the collineation
Magnus, and Chasles.*
In both
cases to a point corresponds a point, to a straight line

a straight line.
Poncelet,
From
Pliicker,
Magnus, Steiner passed
quadratic where they
respondences
these linear transformations
first
the
to
investigated one-to-one cor-
between two
separate
planes.
The
employed two planes î

and E^ together with two straight lines î and g^ not
''Steiner projection" (1832)
co-planar.
or
E^ the
as gi,
If
we draw through
a point
straight line x\ or xi
P\ or P^
which cuts
of
E\
î as well
and determines the intersection X^ or X\, with
^2 or E\^ then are P\ and

sponding points.
In this
X^,
and P^ and X\ corre-
manner
to every straight
line of the
one plane corresponds a conic section
the other.
In 1847 Pliicker had determined a point
upon the hyperboloid

in the plane,
of
in
one sheet, like fixing a point
by the segments cut
off
upon the two
generators passing through the point by two fixed

generators.
This was an example of a uniform rep-
resentation of a surface of the second order
upon the
plane.
The one-to-one
relation of an arbitrary surface of
the second order to the plane
was investigated by
Chasles in 1863, and this work marks the beginning

of the
proper theory of surface representation which
* Loria.
266
found
its
further development
when Clebsch and
Cre-
mona independently succeeded
in the representation
of surfaces of the third order.
Cremona's important
results
were extended by Cayley, Clebsch, Rosanes,
and Nother,
to the last of
tant theorem that every

as such is uniform
the impor-
Cremona transformation which
forward and backward can be
by the repetition
effected
whom we owe
number
of a
of quadratic
the aggregate
transformations.
In the plane only
of all rational or
Cremona transformations known
development
of this theory
has been made.*
specially important case of
spondence
surface
is
one-to-one corre-
that of a conformal representation of a
upon the plane, because here
similarity in the
smallest parts exists between original and image.
simplest case, the stereographic projection, was
The
Hipparchus and Ptolemy.
to
merely a beginning
for the space of three dimensions,

of the
is
The
known
representation by
reciprocal radii characterized by the fact that any two
corresponding points P\ and P^

the fixed point
conformal.
lie
so that 0P\' (9^2
Here every sphere
in
upon
a ray through
= constant,
space
is
is
also
in general
transformed into a sphere. This transformation, studied
by Bellavitis 1836 and Stubbs 1843,
is
especially
useful in dealing with questions of mathematical phys-
Wm. Thomson
ics.
Sir
tric
images."
* Klein, F.,
ungen, 1872.
The
calls
it
''the principle of elec-
investigations
upon representa-
Vergleichende Betrachtungen uber netiere geotnetrische Forsch-
GEOMETRY.
267
made by Lambert and Lagrange, but more
tions,
especially those
by Gauss, lead
to the theory of curva-
ture.
further branch of geometry, the differential ge-
ometry (theory
general not
of curvature of surfaces), considers in
the surface in
first
same
properties of the
in the
its
totality but the
neighborhood
of
an
or-
dinary point of the surface, and with the aid of the

differential calculus seeks to characterize
lytic
by ana-
it
formulae.
The
first
attempts to enter this domain were made
by Lagrange (1761), Euler (1766), and Meusnier(1776).
The former determined

minimal surfaces
theorems upon
But
ters.
of
the differential equation of
the two latter discovered certain
radii of curvature
and surfaces
fundamental importance for
main have been the investigations

and especially
lyse
d,
of Gauss.
la giomitrie
of
of cen-
this rich do-
Monge, Dupin,
In the Application de
(1795),
Monge
V ana-
discusses families
and
of surfaces (cylindrical surfaces, conical surfaces,
surfaces of revolution,
tions of characteristic
envelopes with
and edge
the
of regression)
new
no-
and de-
termines the partial differential equations distinguishing each. In the year 1813 appeared the Diveloppements
de gioviitrie
by Dupin.
It
introduced the indicatrix
at a point of a surface, as well as extensions of the
theory of lines of curvature (introduced by
and
of
Monge)
asymptotic curves.
Gauss devoted
to differential
geometry three
trea-
268
tises
the most celebrated, Disquisitiones generates circa
Untersuchungen
in
the other two
1827,
ilber Gegeiistdnde der
were published
tiones, to
appeared
curvas,
superficies
hoheren Geoddsie
1843 and 1846.
in
In the Disquisi-
the preparation of which he was led by his
own astronomical and
geodetic investigations,* the
spherical representation of a surface
is
introduced.
The one-to-one correspondence between
the surface
and the sphere
established by regarding as corre-
is
sponding points the

obviously
we must
the given surface,
feet of parallel normals,
restrict
if
ourselves to a portion of
the correspondence
is
Thence follows the introduction
tained.
where
linear co-ordinates of a surface,
to
be main-
of the curvi-
and the definition
of
the measure of curvature as the reciprocal of the pro-
duct of the two radii of principal curvature at the

point under consideration.
is first
determined
Of the
of curvature
in ordinary rectangular co-ordinates
and afterwards also

surface.
The measure
in curvilinear co-ordinates of the
latter expression
it is
shown
that
it is
not changed by any bending of the surface without

stretching or folding (that
ture).
it
is
an invariant of curva-
Here belong the consideration
lines, the definition
of
geodetic
and a fundamental theorem upon
the total curvature {curvatura integral of a triangle
bounded by geodetic
The broad views

1827 sent out
lines.
set forth in the Disquisitiones of
fruitful
suggestions in the most vari-
* Brill, A., Antrittsrede in Tubingen, 1884.
GEOMETRY*
ous directions.
269
Jacobi determined the geodetic lines
of the general ellipsoid.
With
the aid of elliptic co-
ordinates (the parameters of three surfaces of a sys-
tem
of confocal surfaces of the
second order passing
through the point to be determined) he succeeded
in
integrating the partial differential equation so that the
equation of the geodetic line appeared as a relation
between two Abelian
integrals.
The
properties of the
geodetic lines of the ellipsoid are derived with especial
ease from the elegant formulae given by Liou-
ville.
of
By Lam6
the theory of curvilinear co-ordinates,
which he had investigated a special case
was developed
in
in 1837,
1859 into a theory for space in his
Lemons sur la theorie des coordonnês curvilignes.
The expression
for the
Gaussian measure
of curva-
ture as a function of curvilinear co-ordinates has given
an impetus to the study of the so-called differential
These are
invariants or differential parameters.
cer-
tain functions of the partial derivatives of the coeffi-
cients in the expression for the square of the line-ele-
ment which
in the transformation of variables
like the invariants of
Jacobi, C.
tions,
modern
algebra.
Neumann, and Halphen
laid
behave
Here Sauce,
the founda-
and a general theory has been developed by
Beltrami.*
This theory, as well as the contact-trans-
formations of Lie, moves along the border line be-
tween geometry and the theory of
differential equa-
tions-t
* Mem. di Bologna, Vlll.
tLoria.
270
With problems
of the mathematical theory of light are con-
nected certain investigations upon systems of rays and the properties of infinitely thin
bundles of rays, as
carried on
first
Mains, Ch. Sturm, Bertrand, Transon, and Hamilton.
pin,
Kummer
celebrated works of
results
upon bundles
of rays
of a system of rays and
ities
and the
lens
and consider the number

its
An
focal surface.
bundles of normals of the
ellipsoid,
Non- Euclidean Geometry.

which century
after century
of singular-
interesting ap-
founded on the study of the
retina,
The
(1857 and 1866) perfect Hamilton's
between the
plication to the investigation of the bundles of rays
of
by Du-
infinitely thin
was given by O. Boklen.*
Though
had paid
the
respect
to the Elements
Euclid was unbounded, yet mathematical acuteness
had discovered
a vulnerable point;
and
this point
fofms the eleventh axiom (according to Hankel, reck-
oned by Euclid himself among the postulates) which

affirms that
two straight
a transversal
is
less
last
lines intersect
on which the sum
on that side
of the interior angles
Toward the end
than two right angles.
of
of the
century Legendre had tried to do away with this
axiom by making
his conclusions
its
were
was an indication
geometry
free
proof depend upon the others, but

invalid.
of the search
the
first
not be proved.
now beginning
Here
who recognized
also
after a
Gauss was
that this axiom could
Although from his correspondence
with Wolfgang Bolyai and Schumacher

*Kronecker's Journal, Band
t Loria.
Legendre's
effort of
from contradictions, a hyper-Euclidean
geometry or pangeometry.
among
This
46.
Fortschritte, 1884.
it
can easily
GEOMETRY.
27
be seen that he had obtained some definite results in

this field at
an early period, he was unable to decide
The
upon any further publication.
real pioneers in
the Non-Euclidean geometry were Lobachevski and

the two Bolyais.
Lobachevski
Reports
first
appeared
the investigations of
of
in the Courier of
Kasan,
1829-1830, then in the transactions of the University of
Kasan, 1835-1839, and
finally as
Geometrische
Untersuchungen uber die Theorie der Farallellinien, 1840,
By Wolfgang
in Berlin.
Bolyai was published (1832-
1833*) a two-volume work, Tentamen Juventutem

diosam in elementa Matheseos ptcrae,
stu-
Both works
etc.
were for the mathematical world a long time as good

as non-existent
till first
Riemann, and then
(in 1866)
R. Baltzer in his Elemenie, referred to Bolyai. Almost

at
the
same time there followed a sudden mighty ad-
vance toward the exploration of
this
''new world" by
Riemann, Helmholtz, and Beltrami.
It
was recog-
nized that of the twelve Euclidean axioms f nine are

of essentially arithmetic
character and therefore hold
kind of geometry
for every
applicable the tenth axiom

right angles.
or
The
also to every
upon the
geometry
equality of
is
all
twelfth axiom (two straight lines,
more generally two geodetic
lines,
include no
space) does not hold for geometry on the sphere.
The eleventh
axiom (two straight
lines,
geodetic
*Schmidt, "Aus dem Leben zweier ungarischen Mathematiker," Grunert

Arch., Bd. 48.
t Brill, A.,
Ueber das
elfte
Axiom
des Euclid, 1883.
272
lines, intersect
less
when
sum
the
of the interior angles
is
than two right angles) does not hold for geometry
on a pseudo-sphere, but only
Riemann,
in his
for that in the plane.
paper ''Ueber die Hypothesen,
welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen,"* seeks
to
penetrate the subject by forming the notion of a multiply
extended manifoldness
and according
to these
investigations the essential characteristics of an ^^-ply
extended manifoldness of constant measure of curvature are the following
''Every point in
1.
it
may be determined by
variable magnitudes (co-ordinates).
''The length
2.
tion
of a line is
and direction, so that
independent of posi-
everj^ line
is
measurable
by every other.
3.
"To
investigate the measure-relations in such
a manifoldness,
we must
for every point represent the
line-elements proceeding from
it
This
differentials of the co-ordinates.

of the hypothesis that the
is
by the corresponding
is
done by virtue
length-element of the line
equal to the square root of a homogeneous function
of the
second degree of the differentials of the co-
ordinates."
At the same time Helmholtzf published
in the
"Thatsachen, welche der Geometrie zu Grunde

gen," the following postulates
* Gottinger
Abkandlungen, XIII.,
^Fortsckritte, 1868.
1868.
Forischrzite, 1868.
lie
GEOMETRY.
1.
273
''A point of an -tuple manifoldness
is
deter-
mined by n co-ordinates.
2.
''Between the In co-ordinates of a point-pair
there exists an equation, independent of the move-
ment
which
of the latter,
is
the
same
for all
congruent
point-pairs.
assumed.
3.
''Perfect mobility of rigid bodies
4.
"If a rigid body of n dimensions revolves about
fixed points, then revolution without reversal
will bring
Here
it
back
spatial
to its original position."
geometry has satisfactory foundations
development
for a
assumed
ther
is
free
from contradictions,
if it
that space has three dimensions
is fur-
and
is
of unlimited extent.
One
most surprising
of the
results of
modern geo-
metric investigations was the proof of the applicability of
the non-Euclidean geometry to pseudo-spheres
or surfaces of constant negative curvature.*
pseudo-sphere, for example,

line
it is
On
true that a geodetic
(corresponding to the straight line in the plane,
the great circle on the sphere) has two separate points

at infinity; that
through a point P, to a given geodetic
line g, there are
two
parallel geodetic lines, of which,
however, only one branch beginning at

finity
while the other branch does not meet
that the
less
P cuts g
sum
at inat all
of the angles of a geodetic triangle
than two right angles.
Thus we have
geometry
upon the pseudo-sphere which with the spherical

* Cayley,
Address
to the
British Association,
etc., 1883.
is
ge-
274
ometry has a common limiting case
These three geometries have
or Euclidean geometry.
this in
common
that they hold for surfaces of constant
According as the constant value of the
curvature.
\:urvature
in the ordinary-
is
positive, zero, or negative,
we have
to
do
with spherical, Euclidean, or pseudo-spherical geometry.
A new
F. Klein.
presentation of the
same theory
After projective geometry had
in projection or linear
properties and also
transformation
some metric
all
remain invariant
a preparatory
shown
of
to
that
descriptive
made
to find
an expression which should
after a linear transformation.
work
due
relations of the fig-
ures remain unaltered, the endeavor was

for the metric properties
is
After
Laguerre which made the ''no-
tion of the angle projective," Cayley, in 1859,
found the
general solution of this problem by considering ''every
metric property of a plane figure as contained in a

projective
relation
between
it
and a
fixed
conic."
Starting from the Cayley theory, on the basis of the
consideration of measurements in space, Klein suc-
ceeded
in
showing that from the projective geometry
with special determination of measurements in the

plane there could be derived an
or hyperbolic geometry,* the
elliptic,
parabolic,
same fundamentally
as
the spherical, Euclidean, or pseudo-spherical geometry respectively.
The need
of the greatest possible generalization
* Fortschritte, 1871.
GEOMETRY.
and the continued perfection
275
of the analytic
apparatus
have led to the attempt to build up a geometry of n

dimensions;
in this,
however, only individual relations
have been considered. Lagrange* observes that ''me-
may
chanics
be regarded as a geometry of four dimen-
Pliicker endeavored to clothe the notion of
sions."
arbitrarily
extended space
He showed
in a
form easily understood.
that for the point, the straight line or the
sphere, the surface of the second order, as a space
element, the space chosen must have three, four, or

nine dimensions respectively.
The
first
investigation,
giving a different conception from Pliicker's and ''considering the element of the arbitrarily extended mani-
foldness as an analogue of the point of space,"
foundf
in
is
H. Grassmann's principal work. Die Wissen-
schaft der extensiven Gross e oder die lineale Ausdehnungslehre
(1844),
which remained almost wholly unno-
ticed, as did his
Geometrische Analyse (1847).
Then
followed Riemann's studies in multiply extended manifoldnesses in his paper Ueber die Hypothesen, etc., and
they again furnished the starting point for a series of
modern works by Veronese, H. Schubert, F. Meyer,

Segre, Castelnuovo, etc.
Geometria situs in the broader sense was created
by Gauss,
more than
'
certain
name; but
of
it
scarcely
Analysis
*Loria.
t F. Klein,
we know
experimental truths. J The
at least in
Vergleichende Betrachtungeu uber neuere geometrische For-
htingen, 1872.
? Brill, A.,
Antrittsrede in Tubingen, 1884.
276
situs,
suggested by Riemann, seeks what remains fixed
combination of
after transformations consisting of the
This aids
infinitesimal distortions.*
of
problems
in the solution
The
in the theory of functions.
contact
transformations already considered by Jacobi have
been developed by Lie.
contact-transformation
is
defined analytically by every substitution which ex-
presses the values of the co-ordinates x, y, z, and the

dz
dz
^
,
partial derivatives -j- =p,
=^, in terms of quan,
tities
of the
same
kind, x\ f,
z',
p\
q'.
In such a
transformation contacts of two figures are replaced by

similar contacts.
Also a ''geometric theory of probability" has been
Woolhouse ;}" Crofton uses
created by Sylvester and

it
for the theory of lines
drawn
at
random
in space.
In a history of elementary mathematics there possibly calls for attention a related field,
which certainly
cannot be regarded as a branch of science, but yet
which
to a certain extent reflects the
development
of
geometric science, the history of geometric illustrative

material. J
Good diagrams
or
models
of
systems
of
space-elements assist in teaching and have frequently

led to the rapid spread of
geometric works
of Euler,
found numerous plates

*F. Klein.
new
of
ideas.
In fact in the
Newton, and Cramer are

figures.
Interest in
the
^ Fortschritte, 1868.
Ueber die Modellsammlung des inaihematischen Seminars der

Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche MittheiUniversitdt Tubingen, 1886.
lungen von O. Boklen. 1887.
t Brill, A.,
GEOMETRY.
277
construction of models seems to have been manifested

first in
France
tivity of
in
consequence
Monge.
of the
example and
ac-
In the year 1830 the Conservatoire
possessed a whole series of
des arts et metiers in Paris
thread models of surfaces of the second degree, con.
oids and screw surfaces.
He
by Bardin (1855).
els
further advance
was made
had plaster and thread mod-
constructed for the explanation of stone-cutting,
toothed gears and other matters.

considerably enlarged by
His collection was
These works
Muret.
French technologists met with
little
of
acceptance from
the mathematicians of that country, but, on the contrary, in
tion in
England Cayley and Henrici put on
London
exhibi-
1876 independently constructed
in
models together with other
scientific
apparatus of the
London and Cambridge.

In Germany the construction of models experienced an advance from the time when the methods of
universities of
projective geometry were introduced into descriptive
geometry.
Pliicker,
the third order
had
lations of form,
who
in
in his
1835 showed his interest
brought together
large collection of models.

of
drawings of curves
complex surfaces
in
of
in re
1868 the
first
This consisted of models
of the fourth order
siderably enlarged by Klein in the
and was con-
same
field.
special surface of the fourth order, the wave-surface

for optical bi-axial crystals
by Magnus
in Berlin,
was constructed
and by Soleil
year 1868 appeared the
first
model
in Paris.
in
1840
In the
of a surface of the
278
third order with
Chr. Wiener.
models
its
twenty-seven straight
Kummer
In the sixties,
of surfaces of the fourth order
by
constructed
and
of certain
His pupil Schwarz likewise constructed
focal surfaces.
a series of models,
among them minimal
the surfaces of centers of the ellipsoid.

of
lines,
mathematicians
in
surfaces and
At
meeting
Gottingen there was made a
notable exhibition of models which stimulated further
work
in this direction.
In wider circles the works suggested by A.

F. Klein, and
of the
W. Dyck
in the
mathematical seminar
Munich polytechnic school have found

There appeared from 1877
tion.
Brill,
to
recogni-
1890 over a hun-
dred models of the most various kinds, of value not

only in mathematical teaching but also
in lectures
on
perspective, mechanics and mathematical physics.
In other directions also has illustrative material of

this sort
been multiplied, such as surfaces of the third
order by Rodenberg, thread models of surfaces and
gauche curves of the fourth order by Rohn, H.Wiener,
and others.
*
*
If
one considers geometric science as a whole,
cannot be denied that in
its
field
no essential
it
differ-
ence between modern analytic and modern synthetic
geometry any longer

the
ally
methods
exists.
of proof in
The subject-matter and
both directions have gradu-
taken almost the same form.
synthetic
method make use
of
Not only does the

space intuition; the
GEOMETRY.
279
analytic representations also are nothing less than a
And
clear expression of space relations.
properties of figures
the
same
may be regarded
fundamental form
to a
to the great circle at infinity,
of the
since metric
as relations of
second order,
and thus can be brought
into the aggregate of projective properties, instead of
analytic
and synthetic geometry, we have only
geometry which takes the
jective
a pro-
place in the
first
science of space.*
The last decades, especially of the development of

German mathematics, have secured for the science a
In general two groups of allied works
leading place.
may be
dency
recognized, f
In the treatises of the one ten-
''after the fashion of a
the inquiry
is
Gauss or
a Dirichlet,
concentrated upon the exactest possible
limitation of the fundamental notions" in the theory

of functions,
physics.
as
is
theory of numbers, and mathematical
The
investigations of the other tendency,
to be seen in Jacobi
and Clebsch,
start ''from a
small circle of already recognized fundamental concepts and aim at the relations and consequences which
spring from them," so as to serve
modern algebra and
geometry.
On
the whole, then,
we may say
that J
"mathe-
matics have steadily advanced from the time of the
Greek geometers. The achievements
of Euclid, Archi-
medes, and Apollonius are as admirable now as they

* F. Klein.
JCayley,
A.,
Address
Clebsch.

28o
were
in their
ordinates
is
own
days.
Descartes's method of co-
a possession forever.
But mathematics
have never been cultivated more zealously and
dili-
gently, or with greater success, than in this century

in the last half of
it,
or at the present time
vances made have been enormous, the actual

boundless, the future
is full
of
hope."
the adfield is
TRIGONOMETRY.
V.
A.
GENERAL SURVEY.
^RIGONOMETRY was developed by the ancients

-*-
for
number
purposes of astronomy.
of
fundamental formulae
established,
though not
in
and Arabs, and employed
In the
first
period a
of trigonometry
were
modern form, by the Greeks

in calculations.
The second
period,
which extends from the time
of the gradual
rise of
mathematical sciences in the
earliest
Ages
to the
Middle
middle of the seventeenth century, estab-
lishes the science of calculation with angular functions
and produces tables
division
a great
is
in
which the sexagesimal
replaced by decimal fractions, which marks
advance
for the purely
numerical calculation.
During the third period, plane and spherical
trigo-
nometry develop, especially polygonometry and polyhedrometry which are almost wholly new additions
the general whole.
tive
to
Further additions are the projec-
formulae which have furnished a series
of inter-
esting results in the closest relation to projective ge-
ometry.
282
FIRST PERIOD.
B.
FROM THE MOST ANCIENT TIMES TO THE ARABS.
The Papyrus
Ahmes* speaks
of
quotient
After observing that the great p5^ramids
called seqt.
all
of
possess approximately equal angles of inclination,
the assumption
rendered probable that this
is
identical with the cosine of the angle

of the
base.
seqt is
which the edge
pyramid forms with the diagonal of the square

This angle
is
In the Egyptian
usually 52.
monuments which have steeper
sides,
the seqt ap-
pears to be equal to the trigonometric tangent of the

angle of inclination of one of the faces to the base.
Trigonometric investigations proper appear
among
the Greeks.
first
Hypsicles gives the division of
the circumference into three hundred sixty degrees,
which, indeed,
is
of
Babylonian origin but was
turned to advantage by the Greeks.

duction of this division of the
first
After the intro-
circle,
sexagesimal
fractions were to be found in all the astronomical cal-
culations of antiquity (with the single exception of
Heron),
till
finally
Peurbach and Regiomontanus pre-
pared the way for the decimal reckoning. Hipparchus
was the
first to
we have
*
Cantor,
left
I.,
complete a table of chords, but of
only the knowledge of
p. 58.
its
former
this
exist-
TRIGONOMETRY.
Heron
In
ence.
283
are found actual trigonometric for-
mulae with numerical
ratios for the calculation of the
areas of regular polygons and in fact

cot(
n^S,
for
4,
all
the values of
11, 12 are actually
computed.*
Menelaus wrote
six
books on the calculation
of chords,
but these, like the tables of Hipparchus, are
lost.
On
the contrary, three books of the Spherics of Menelaus

are
known
in
Arabic and
Hebrew
These
translations.
contain theorems on transversals and on the congru-
ence of spherical as well as plane triangles, and for

the spherical triangle the theorem that a-\- b-\-
a+;S + y>2i?.
The most important work
of
c <^ 4i?,
Ptolemy consists
in
the introduction of a formal spherical trigonometry

for astronomical purposes.
The
thirteen books of the
Great Collection which contain the Ptolemaic astron-
omy and
trigonometry were translated into Arabic,
then into Latin, and in the latter by a blending of the
Arabic article al with a Greek word arose the word

Almagest^
now
generally applied to the great work of
Like Hypsicles, Ptolemy
Ptolemy.
also,
after
the
ancient Babylonian fashion, divides the circumfer-
ence into three hundred sixty degrees, but he,

dition to this, bisects every degree.
new we
of the
find in
Ptolemy the division
circle into
in ad-
As something
of the
diameter
one hundred twenty equal parts,
from which were formed after the sexagesimal fashion

Tannery
in
Mem.
Bord., 1881.
284
two classes
In the later Latin trans-
of subdivisions.
and second kind
lations these sixtieths of the first
were called respectively partes minutae primae and
Hence came
partes minutae secundae.
''minutes" and ''seconds."
rem upon the inscribed

lates the
also
Starting from his theo-
Ptolemy
quadrilateral,
chords of arcs
But he develops
the later terms
calcu-
at intervals of half a degree.
some theorems
and
of plane
especially of spherical trigonometry, as for
example
theorems regarding the right angled spherical
tri-
angle.
A
etry
further not unimportant advance in trigonom-
is
to
be noted
in the
works
of the
The
Hindus.
same
division of the circumference
is
the Babylonians and Greeks
but beyond that there
is
an essential deviation.
The
the
radius
is
as that of
not divided
sexagesimally after the Greek fashion, but the arc of

the
utes
same length
;
of the
as the radius
thus for the Hindus r
whole chords
expressed
is
= 3438 minutes.
{Jiva), the half
are put into relation with the arc.
in
min-
Instead
chords {ardhajya)
In this relation of
we must recognize the most

trigonometry among the Hindus.
the half-chord to the arc
important advance of
In accordance with this notion they were therefore

familiar with
what we now
call the sine of
an angle.
Besides this they calculated the ratios corresponding

to the versed sine
cial
and the cosine and gave them spe-
names, calling the versed sine
cosine kotijya.
They
also
knew
titkra7?iajya,
the formula
the
SAiiâ
TRIGONOMETRY.
-^
They
cosâ^l.
did
285
however,
not,
apply their
trigonometric knowledge to the solution of plane
them trigonometry was inseparably
angles, but with
connected
As
wîth
astronomical calculations.
mathematical science, so
in the rest of
onometry, were the Arabs pupils
more
still
tri-
of the
in trig-
Hindus, and
Greeks, but not without important
of the
To Al
devices of their own.
Battani
it
was well known
that the introduction of half chords instead of
whole
chords, as these latter appear in the Abtiagest, and

therefore reckoning with the sine of an angle,
essential advantage in the applications.
is
of
In addition
the formulae found in the Almagest, Al Battani
to
gives the relation,
cos
= cos/^cosr
tion
of
-(-
true
for
the
spherical
In the considera-
sin/^sinrcosa.
right-angled
triangles
triangle,
in
connection with
shadow-measuring, we find the quotients

--.
sma
and
^^^"^
cos a
.
These were reckoned
for
each degreee by Al
Battani and arranged in a small table.
Here we
find
the beginnings of calculation with tangents and co-
These names, however, were introduced
tangents.
much
later.
Al Battani.
The
origin of the term ''sine"
His work upon the motion
was translated
into Latin
translation contains
In
Hindu
by Plato
is
due to
of the stars*
of Tivoli,
and
this
the word sinus for half chord.
the half chord was called ardhajya or also
jiva (which was used originally only for the whole
Cantor,
I.,
p. 693,
where
this
account
is
considered somewhat doubtfuh
286
chord); the latter word the Arabs adopted, simply
by reason of
this
its
word, which in Arabic has no meaning of
own, might be read
y^//^
= bosom,
of
its
and
or incision,
which apparently was naturalized
this pronunciation,
The consonants
sound, as jiba.
comparatively soon by the Arabs, Plato of Tivoli
enough
translated properly
troduced the
of the
first
Thus was
into sinus.
modern names
in-
of the trigo-
nometric functions.
Of astronomical tables there was no lack

time.
Abul Wafa, by
whom
at that
was
the ratio
called
cos a
the ''shadow" belonging to the angle a, calculated a
table of sines at intervals of half a degree
table of tangents,
and
also a
which however was used only
determining the altitude of the sun.
for
About the same
time appeared the hakimitic table of sines which Ibn
Yunus
of Cairo
of the
Egyptian
Among
the
omer Jabir ibn
was required
ruler Al
to construct
Hakim.*
Western Arabs the celebrated
this
after a
method
work, rigorous throughout in
was published
in the
by Gerhard
Cremona.
of
lection of formulae
its
of his
proofs,
Latin edition of his Astronomy
This work contains a
col-
upon the right-angled spherical
In the plane trigonometry he does not go
triangle.
* Cantor,
astron-
Aflah, or Geber, wrote a complete trigo-
nometry (principally spherical)

own, and
by direction
I.,
p. 743.
TRIGONOMETRY.
287
beyond the Almagest, and hence he here deals
onl}'
with whole chords, just as Ptolemy had taught.
C.
SECOND PERIOD.
FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVEN-
TEENTH CENTURY.
Of the mathematicians outside
period, Vieta
made
of
Germany
in this
most important advance by
his
introduction of the reciprocal triangle of a spherical

In
triangle.
Germany
Regiomontanus and
such
skill
the science was advanced by
in its
elements was presented with
and thorough knowledge that the plan
laid
out by him has remained in great part up to the present day.
Peurbach had already formed the plan
was prevented by death.
writing a trigonometry but
Regiomontanus was able

by writing
etry.
of
to carry out
Feurbach's idea
complete plane and spherical trigonom-
After a brief geometric introduction Regiomon-
tanus's trigonometry begins with the right-angled

angle, the formulae
needed
for its
tri-
computation being
derived in terms of the sine alone and illustrated by
numerical examples.
The theorems on
the right-
angled triangle are used for the calculation of the

equilateral and isosceles triangles.
Then follow
the
principal cases of the oblique-angled triangle of which
the
first (a
from
a, b, c) is
treated with
The second book contains
much
detail.
the sine theorem and a
288
series of
fourth,
and
fifth
books bring
many resemblances
with
The
problems relating to triangles.
to
in spherical
trigonometry
Menelaus
in particular
the angles are found from the sides.
plane triangle (a from
third,
a, b, c),
The
case of the
treated with consider
able prolixity by Regiomontanus, received a shorter
treatment from Rhaeticus,
who
mula cotAa=
where
is
established the forthe radius of the in-
scribed circle.
In this period were also published Napier's equations, or analogies.
the
sum
They express
a relation
between
or difference of two sides (angles) and the
third side (angle)
and the sum or difference
of the
two
opposite angles (sides).
Of modern terms, as already stated, the word

''sine"
is
the oldest.
About the end
of the sixteenth
century, or the beginning of the seventeenth, the abbreviation cosine for compleinenti sinus
was introduced
The terms
used by Thomas Finck
by the Englishman Gunter (died 1626).

tangent and secant were
first
(1583); the term versed sine was used
By some
still
writers of the sixteenth century,
earlier.*
e. g.,
by
Apian, sinus rectus secundus was written instead of cosine.
Rhaeticus and Vieta have perpendiculum and
and cosine. f The natural values

cosine, whose logarithms were called by Kepler
basis for sine
*Baltzer, R., Die Elemente der Mathematik, 1885.

tPfleiderer, Trigonometrie, 1802.
of the
**anti-
TRIGONOMETRY.
logarithms," are
nometry
The
of
289
found calculated
first
in the trigo-
Copernicus as published by Rhaeticus.*
increasing skill in practical computation, and
more accurate values
the need of
for astronomical
purposes, led in the sixteenth century to a
strife after
the most complete trigonom.etric tables possible.
The
preparation of these tables, inasmuch as the calculations
were made without logarithms, was very tedious.
Rhaeticus alone had to employ for this purpose a
number
of
computers
for
twelve years and spent
thereby thousands of gulden, f
The
first
Peurbach.
computed
some
of
He
Ptolemy r
at intervals of 10' (in
the Arabs r
other,
10 000 000.
of
origin
last
for
to
with
= 150).
Regiomontanus com-
of sines,
one for
which no remains are
r=6
000 000,
for
left,
Besides these we have from Regiomon-
= 100 000.
two tables evidently show a transition from
the sexagesimal system to the decimal.

sines
due
= QO,
tanus a table of tangents for every degree, r
The
is
put the radius equal to 600 000 and
puted two new tables

the
German
table of sines of
every minute, with r
= 100 000,
table of
was pre-
pared by Apian.
In this field should also be mentioned the indefatigable perseverance of Joachim Rhaeticus.
not
associate the
He
did
trigonometric functions with the
arcs of circles, but started with the right-angled

*
M. Curtze, in Schlomilch' s Zeitschrift Bd. XX.
Gerhardt, Geschichte der Matheniatik in Deutschland
1877.
tri-
290
angle and used the terms perpendiculum for sine, basis
He
for cosine.
by the help
calculated (partly himself and partly
of others) the first table of secants
later,
tables of sines, tangents, and secants for every 10",

for radius
^10
000 millions, and later
After his death the whole
10^^.
by Valentin Otho
in the
still,
for r
work was published
year 1596 in a volume of 1468
pages.*
To
the calculation of natural trigonometric func
Bartholomaeus Pitiscus also devoted himself.
tions
Tn the second book of his Trigonometry he sets forth

his views on
computations
of this kind.
His tables
contain values of the sines, tangents, and secants on

the
left,
and
and secants
gents,
of the
complements
of the sines, tangents
he designated the cosines, cotan-
(for so
and cosecants) on the
right.
and even
There are added
proportional parts for
1',
whole calculation
assumed equal
work
is
for 10".
to 10^^.
In the
The
Pitiscus appeared at the beginning of the
of
seventeenth century.
The
tables of the numerical values of the trigono-
metric functions had
now
attained a high degree of
accuracy, but their real significance and usefulness
were
first
shown by
Napier
is
the introduction of logarithms.
usually regarded as the inventor of log-
arithms, although Cantor's review of the evidencef

leaves no
room
dent discoverer.
*
Gerhardt.
for
doubt that Biirgi was an indepen-
His Progress Tabulen, computed be+ Cantor, H., pp. 662 et seq.
TRIGONOMETRY.
29
tween 1603 and 1611 but not published

really a table of antilogarithms.
until 1620
more gen-
Biirgi's
He
view should also be mentioned.
eral point of
sired to simplify
calculations by
all
is
means
de-
of loga-
rithms while Napier used only the logarithms of the

trigonometric functions.
Biirgi
was
comparison
4, 8,
... or
of the
two
20, 21, 22,
series
0,
it
procedure by
of
1, 2, 3,
He
23,...
purposes of calculation
lect 10 as the
method
led to this
and
1, 2,
observed that for
was most convenient
to se-
base of the second series, and from this
standpoint he computed the logarithms of ordinary
numbers, though he
first
decided on publication when
Napier's renown began to spread in
Germany by
son of Kepler's favorable reports.
Biirgi's Geometri-
sche Progiêss Tabulen
appeared
and contained the logarithms

10^
by
tens.
of
at
way
in
in 1620,*
numbers from
Biirgi did not use the
but by reason of the
Prague
rea-
10^ to
term logarithmus,
which they were printed
he called the logarithms ''red numbers," the numbers

corresponding, "black numbers."
Napier started with the observation that

circle
with two perpendicular radii
= l),
if
in a
OAq and OAi
OAi moves from O
to
Aq
intervals forming an arithmetic progression,
its
value
{r
the sine SqSi
\\
decreases in geometrical progression.
at
The segment
OSq, Napier originally called numerus artificialis and

later the direction
* Gerhardt.
number
or logarithmus.
The
first
292
publication of this
new method
r=:10^, log sin60<^
0,
of calculation, in
0^=
log sin
00,
which
so that the log-
arithms increased as the sines decreased, appeared
1614 and produced a great sensation.
in
Henry Briggs
had studied Napier's work thoroughly and made the

important observation that
for
computation
the logarithms were allowed to
if
He
crease with the numbers.
0,
log 10
1,
would be more suitable
it
and Napier gave
bles of logarithms calculated

of this
1 to
proposed change,
to
put log
his assent.
The
ta-
by Briggs, on the basis
for the natural
numbers from
20 000 and from 90 000 to 100 000 were reckoned
to 14 decimal places.
the
proposed
in-
The remaining gap was
Dutch bookseller Adrian Vlacq.
appeared
in the year
numbers from
filled
His tables which
1628 contained the logarithms
100 000 to 10 decimal places.
1 to
these tables, under the
name
by
of his friend
De
of
In
Decker,
Vlacq introduced logarithms upon the continent. Assisted
by Vlacq and Gellibrand, Briggs computed a
table of sines to fourteen places and a table of tan-
gents and secants to ten places, at intervals of 36".
These tables appeared
in 1633.
Towards the
close of
the seventeenth century Claas Vooght published a

table of sines, tangents, and secants with their loga-
rithms,
and, what was especially remarkable,
they
were engraved on copper.

Thus was produced
putation valuable for
a collection of tables for logarithmic com-
all
time.
This was extended by the
duction of the addition and subtraction logarithms always
intro-
named
TRIGONOMETRY.
after Gauss,
mony,
is
293
but whose inventor, according to Gauss's own
The
Leonelli.
with fourteen decimals

calculated for his
own
latter
had proposed calculating a table
Gauss thought
testi
this impracticable,
and
use a table with five decimals.*
In the year 1875 there were in existence 553 logarithmic tables

with decimal places ranging in
number from
Arranged
3 to 102.
according to frequency, the 7-place tables stand at the head, then

follow those with 5-places, 6-places, 4-places, and 10-places.
only table with 102 places
is
New
[Astronomical Tables,
found
The
work by H. M. Parkhurst
in a
York, 1871).
Investigations of the errors occurring in logarithmic tables
have been made by
J.
W.
L. Glaisher.f
It
was there shown
that
every complete table had been transcribed, directly or indirectly
more or
after a
less careful revision,
from the table published
in
1628 which contains the results of Briggs's Arithmetica logarith-
mica
first
of 1624 for
numbers from
100000 to ten places.
In the
seven places Glaisher found 171 errors of which 48 occur in
the interval from 1 to 10000.
Newton
(1658), 19 in
Callet (1855), 2 in
Sang
These
Gardiner
(1871).
(1857).
tions to the rapid calculation of
latter is
(1851)
Vega
(1797), 2 in
those of Bremiker
viz.,
and Bruhns
common
(1870).
Contribu-
logarithms have been
and R. Hoppe (1876)
the work of the
based upon the theorem that every positive number
be transformed into an
Gauss, Werke,
infinite product,:}:
III., p. 244.
Porro in
Botic. Bull.,
XVIII.
\ Fortschritte, 1873.
X Stolz,
have
appear
Of the tables tested by Glaisher,
(1860), Callet (1862),
made by Koralek
to Vlacq,
in Vlacq, 98 still
(1742), 5 in
four turned out to be free from error,
Schron
due
errors,
Of the mistakes
gradually disappeared.
in
1 to
Vorlesungen uber allgeineine Arithmetik, 1885-1885.
may
294
THIRD PERIOD.
D.
FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

TO THE PRESENT.
After Regiomontanus had laid the foundations of
plane and spherical trigonometry, and his successors
had made
easier the
work
of
computation by the com-
putation of the numerical values of the trigonometfunctions and the creation of a serviceable sys-
ric
tem
of logarithms, the inner structure of the science
was ready
improved
in details
during this third
Important innovations are especially due to
period.
Euler,
to be
who
derived the whole of spherical trigonom-
etry from a few simple theorems.
Euler defined the
trigonometric functions as mere numbers, so as to be

able to substitute
them
for series in
whose terms ap-
pear arcs of circles from which the trigonometric functions proceed according to definite laws.
we have
number
entirely new,
and
From him
of trigonometric formulae, in part

in part
These were made especially

the elements of the triangle
perfected
in
expression.
when Euler denoted

by a, b, c, a, /3, y. Then
clear
such expressions as sin a, tana could be introduced
where formerly special
letters
had been used
same purpose.* Lagrange and Gauss
for the
restricted them-
selves to a single theorem in the derivation of spherical trigonometry.
The system
of equations
*Baltzer, R., Die Eleinente der Mathematik, 1885.

TRIGONOMETRY.
a
sm-r.
sm
.a
=sm
~ 2
-\-
295
with the corresponding relations,
cos
is
'
2'
ordinarily ascribed
Gauss, though the equations were
to
published
first
by Delambre in 1807 (by Mollweide 1808, by Gauss

1809).*
The
case of the Pothenot problem
is
similar:
was discussed by Snellius 1614, by Pothenot 1692,

by Lambert 1765.t
it
The
principal
theorems of
polygonometry and
polyhedrometry were established in the eighteenth
To Euler we owe
century.
of the
orthogonal projection of a plane figure upon
another plane
jection
the theorem on the area
of
to Lexell the
polygonal
line.
theorem upon the proLagrange, Legendre,
Carnot and others stated trigonometric theorems for

polyhedra (especially the tetrahedra). Gauss for the
spherical quadrilateral.
The nineteenth century has given to trigonometry

series of new formulae, the so-called projective for-
mulae.
Besides Poncelet, Steiner, and Gudermann,
Mobius deserves special mention
for
having devised
a generalization of spherical trigonometry, such that
sides or angles of a triangle
may exceed
180.
The im-
portant improvements which in modern times trigono-
metric developments have contributed to other mathematical sciences,

their
may be indicated
in this
one sentence:
extended description would considerably en-
croach upon the province of other branches of science.

*
Hammer, Lehrbuch der ebenen und sph'drischen
tBaltzer, R., Die Elemente der Mathematik, 1885.
Trigonomeirie, 1897.
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.*
Abel,
Niels Henrik.
died April
Born
1829.
6,
at Findoe, Norway, August 5, 1802

Studied in Christiania, and for a short
;
time in Berlin and Paris.
Proved the impossibility of the
algebraic solution of the quintic equation
ory of
elliptic
functions
elaborated the the-
founded the theory of Abelian func-
tions.
Abul Jud, Mohammed ibn
al Lait al Shanni.
Lived about 1050.
Devoted much attention to geometric problems not soluble
with compasses and straight edge alone,
Abul Wafa
Born
Buzjan, Persia, June 10, 940;

Arab astronomer. Translated
works of several Greek mathematicians improved trigonometry and computed some tables interested in geometric conal
Buzjani.
died at Bagdad, July
i,
at
998.
structions requiring a single opening of the compasses.
Adelard. About 1120. English monk who journeyed through Asia

Minor, Spain, Egypt, and Arabia. Made the first translation
Translated part of Al
of Euclid from Arabic into Latin.
Khowarazmi's works.
Al Battani (Albategnius).
Abdallah
al
Battani.
died in Damascus, 929.
Mohammed
ibn Jabir ibn Sinan
Born in Battan, Mesopotamia,

Arab prince, governor of Syria
c.
;
Abu
850;
great-
*The translators feel that these notes will be of greater value to the
reader by being arranged alphabetically than, as in the original, by periods,
especially as this latter arrangement is already given in the body of the
work. They also feel that they will make the book more serviceable by
changing the notes as set forth in the original, occasionally eliminating matter of little consequence, and frequently adding to the meagre information
given. They have, for this purpose, freely used such standard works as Cantor, Hankel, Giinther, Zeuthen, et al., and especially the valuable little Zeittafeln zur Geschichte der Mathematik, Physik und Astronomie bis zum Jahre
1500, by Felix Miiller, Leipzig, 1892. Dates are A. D., except when prefixed
by the negative sign.
298
est
Arab astronomer and mathematician. Improved trigonomand computed the first table of cotangents.
etry
Alherti,
Leo
Albertus Magnus.
Architect, painter, sculptor.
1404-1472.
Battista.
Count Albrecht von
Born
Bollstadt.
at
Lau-
ingen in Bavaria, 1193 or 1205; died at Cologne, Nov.
15,
Celebrated theologian, chemist, physicist, and mathe-
1280.
matician.
Mohammed
Al Biruni, Abul Rihan

valley of the Indus
in India
died 1038.
From
Ahmed.
ibn
Birun,
Arab, but lived and travelled
and wrote on Hindu mathematics.
Promoted spheri-
cal trigonometry.
Alcuin.
Born
804.
At
assisted
at
first
York, 736; died at Hersfeld, Hesse, May 19

a teacher in the cloister school at York then
;
Charlemagne
in his efforts to establish
schools in
France.
Alhazen, Ibn
al
Haitam.
Born
at Bassora,
The most important Arab
1038.
950
Al Kalsadi, Abul Hasan AH ibn Mohammed.
From
Andalusia or Granada.
died at Cairo
writer on optics.
Died i486 or 1477.
Arithmetician.
Al Karkhi, Abu Bekr Mohammed ibn al Hosain. Lived about

Wrote on arithmetic,
loio. Arab mathematician at Bagdad.
algebra and geometry.
Al Khojandi, Abu Mohammed. From Khojand,
was living in 992. Arab astronomer.
Al KhotvarazTui, Abu Jafar

ninth century.
Mohammed
Native of
matician and astronomer.

to algebra.
ibn Musa.
Khwarazm
The title of
(Khiva).
his
Khorassan
in
First part of
Arab mathe-
work gave the name
Translated certain Greek works.
Born c. 813; died

Al Kindi, Jacob ibn Ishak, Abu Yusuf
Arab philosopher, physician, astronomer and astrologer.
873.
Al Kuhi, Vaijan ibn Rustam Abu Sahl. Lived about

astronomer and geometrician at Bagdad.
975.
Arab
Al Nasazvi, Abul Hasan Ali ibn Ahmed. Lived about 1000

From Nasa in Khorassan. Arithmetician.
Al Saganz.
turlabi.
omer
Ahmed ibn Mohammed al

From Sagan, Khorassan
Sagani
Abu Hamid
died 990.
Bagdad
al
Us-
astron-
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Anaxagoras.
Born
at Clazomene, Ionia,
499 died at LampLast and most famous philosopher of the Ionian
Taught at Athens. Teacher of Euripides and Pe-
428.
sacus,
299
school.
ricles.
Aîanus (Apian), Petrus. Born at Leisnig, Saxony, 1495

Wrote on arithmetic and trigonometry.
1552.
died in
Apollonius of Perga, in Pamphylia.
Taught at Alexandria between

200, in the reign of Ptolemy Philopator.
250 and
His eight books on conies gave him the name of " the great
geometer." Wrote numerous other works. Solved the general quadratic with the help of conies.
Arhogast, Louis Fran9ois Antoine. Born at Mutzig, 1759; died

Writer on calculus of derivations, series, gamma func1803.
tion, differential equations.
Born
Archimedes.
soldiers
in
at
Syracuse,
212.
287(?);
killed there
by Roman
Engineer, architect, geometer, physicist.
Spent some time in Spain and Egypt.
Friend of King Hiero.
Greatly developed the knowledge of mensuration of geometric

solids
and of certain curvilinear areas. In physics he is known

and screw,
for his w'ork in center of gravity, levers, pulley

specific gravity, etc.
Archytas. Born at Tarentum

365. Friend of Plato,
430; died
Pythagorean,
a
statesman
and
a
general.
a
Wrote on propor-
and irrational numbers,

and mechanics.
tion, rational
tions,
tore surfaces
and
sec-
Argand, Jean Robert. Born at Geneva, 1768 died c. 1825. Private life unknown. One of the inventors of the present method
of geometrically representing complex numbers (1806).
;
Born
Aristotle.
322.
Euboea,
phy
at Stageira,
Macedonia,
Founder
teacher of Alexander the Great.
quantities
geodesy
by
letters
384;
died at Chalcis,
of the peripatetic school of philoso-
Represented unknown
distinguished between geometry and
wrote on physics
suggested the theory of combina-
tions.
Aryahhatta. Born at Pataliputra on the Upper Ganges, 476.

Hindu mathematician. Wrote chiefly on algebra, including
quadratic equations, permutations, indeterminate equations,
and magic squares.
300
August, Ernst Ferdinand.
Born at Prenzlau, 1795 died 1870

Realgymnasium in Berlin.
as
director of the Kolnisch
Autolykus of Pitane, Asia Minor. Lived about

330.
astronomer author of the oldest work on spherics.
Greek
Abu
Avicenna.
and
works
died at
Born
Hosain ibn Sina.
Ali
Bokhara, 978
Hamadam,
at
Charmatin, near
in Persia, 1036.
Arab phy-
Edited several mathematical and phys-
sician
naturalist.
ical
of Aristotle, Euclid, etc.
Wrote on arithmetic and
geometry.
Babhage, Charles.
don, Oct.
at Totnes, Dec. 26, 1792

died at LonLucasian professor of mathematics at
Popularly known for his calculating machine.
Cambridge.
Did much
Bachet.
Born
to raise the
standard of mathematics in England.
See Meziriac.
Bacon, Roger.
Born
at Ilchester,
Oxford, June
11, 1294.
sor at Oxford
Balbus.
1871.
18,
Somersetshire, 1214; died at
Studied at Oxford and Paris; profes-
mathematician and physicist.
Lived about
Roman
100.
surveyor.
Bernardino.
Born at Urbino, 1553 died there, 1617.
Mathematician and general scholar. Contributed to the his-
Baldi,
tory of mathematics.
Baltzer, Heinrich Richard.
Giessen in 1887.
Born
at
Meissen
in
1818; died at
Professor of mathematics at Giessen.
Barlaam, Bernard.
Beginning of fourteenth century.
A monk
who wrote on astronomy and geometry,

Barozzi, Francesco.
1537-1604.
at London, 1630; died at Cambridge, May

Professor of Greek and mathematics at Cambridge.
Barrozu, Isaac.
4,
Italian mathematician.
1677.
Born
Scholar, mathematician, scientist, preacher.
Newton was
his
pupil and successor.
Beda, the Venerable.
Born
at
Monkton, near Yarrow, NorthumMay 26, 735. Wrote on chro-
berland, in 672; died at Yarrow,
nology and arithmetic.

Bellavitis, Giusto.
died Nov.
etry
and
Born
6, 1880.
his
method
at
Bassano, near Padua, Nov. 22, 1803;
Known
for his
work
of equipollences.
in projective
geom-
30I
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Pupil of Gerbert at Paris. Wrote
Lived about 1020.
Berticlhius.
on arithmetic.
Famous mathematical
Bernoulli.
Jacob
family.
by the English), born
(often called James,
27, 1654; died there Aug.
at Basel, Dec.
Among the first to recogHis De Arte Conjectandi is a
16, 1705.
nize the value of the calculus.
on probabilities. Prominent in the study of curves, the

logarithmic spiral being engraved on his monument at Basel.
John (Johann), his brother; born at Basel, Aug. 7, 1667; died
Made the first attempt to construct an
there Jan, i, 1748.
Also prominent as a
integral and an exponential calculus.
classic
physicist, but his abilities
Nicholas (Nikolaus),
his
were chiefly as a teacher.

born at Basel, Oct.
nephew
died there Nov. 29, 1759.
10,
1687
Professor at St. Petersburg, Basel,
and Padua. Contributed to the study of differential equations.

born at Groningen, Feb. 9, 1700 died at
Daniel, son of John
Basel in 1782. Professor of mathematics at St. Petersburg.
His chief work was on hydrodynamics.
;
ybAw
the younger, son of John.
tions
Nemours
1730 died at Paris in

Algebraist, prominent in the study of symmetric func-
Bezout, Etienne.
1783.
Professor at Basel.
1710-1790.
Born
at
in
and determinants.
Bhaskara Acharya.
Born
Author
astronomer.
Hindu mathematician and
in 1114.
and the Vijaga7iita, conand algebra. One of the
of the Lilavati
taining the elements of arithmetic
most prominent mathematicians of his time.

Biot, Jean Baptiste.
place Feb.
tronomy.
3,
died same
at Paris, Apr. 21, 1774
Professor of physics, mathematics, as-
Born
1862.
Voluminous
writer.
Boeihius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus. Born at Rome,

480 executed at Pavia, 524. Founder of medieval scholasti
;
cism.
Translated and revised
many Greek
ematics, mechanics, and physics.

in prison
Bolyai:
writings on matharithmetic.
While
he composed his Consolations of Philosophy.
Wolfgang Bolyai de Bolya.
in 1856.
Wrote on
Born
at
Bolya, 1775
died
Friend of Gauss.
Johann Bolyai de
Bolya, his son.
died at Maros-Vasarhely, i860.
Born
One
at
Klausenburg, 1802
of the discoverers (see
Lobachevsky) of the so-called non-Euclidean geometry.
302
Bernhard.
Bolzano,
Contributed
1781-1848.
the study of
to
series.
Bomhelli, Rafaele.
summarized
Born
Italian.
His algebra (1572)
1530.
c.
known on
then
all
Contributed
the subject.
to
the study of the cubic.
Boncom;pagni, Baldassare. Wealthy Italian prince. Born
May
of
1821
10,
died at
same
place, April 12, 1894.
at
Rome.
Publisher
Boncompagni's Bulletino.
Born
Boole, George.
at Lincoln,
1815
died at Cork, 1864.
Pro-
mathematics in Queen's College, Cork. The theory

invariants
of
and covariants may be said to start with his confessor of
tributions (1841).
Booth, James.
Clergyman and writer on
1806-1878.
elliptic in-
tegrals.
Born
Borchardt, Karl Wilhelm.
1817; died at Berlin, 1880.
in
Professor at Berlin.
Boschi, Pietro.
at
Born
at
Rome, 1833
died in 1887.
Professor
Bologna.
Bouquet, Jean Claude.
Born
at
Morteau
in
1819; died at Paris,
1885.
Bour, Jacques Edmond Emile. Born
in 1832; died at Paris, 1866.
Professor in the Ecole Polytechnique.
Bradwardine, Thomas
1290
at
Born
de.
at Hardfield,
died at Lambeth, Aug. 26, 1349.
Oxford and
later
near Chichester,
Professor of theolog\
Wrote upon
Archbishop of Canterbury.
arithmetic and geometry.
Born in 598. Hindu mathematician.

geometry and trigonometry.
Brahmagtifta.
uted to
1802-1868.
Brasseur, Jean Baptiste.
Professor at Liege.
May
Bretschneider Carl Anton. Born at Schneeberg,

died at Gotha, November 6, 1878.
,
Brianchon, Charles
Julien.
Born
at Sevres,
Celebrated for his reciprocal (1806)
Contrib
1785
to Pascal's
27, 1808
died in 1864.
mystic hexa-
gram
Born
Briggs, Henry.
Feb. 1560-1
at
Warley Wood, near Halifax, Yorkshire,
died at Oxford Jan. 26, 1630-1.
Savilian Pro-
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Among
fessor of geometry at Oxford.
the value of logarithms
303
the
first
to recognize
those with decimal base bear his
name.
Briot, Charles August Albert.
died in 1882.
Born
Broimcker, William, Lord. Born

First president of the
1684.
at Sainte-Hippolyte, 1817;
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris.
1620
in
(?)
died at Westminster,
Royal Society.
Contributed to
the theory of series.
Born at Florence, 1379; died there April

Noted Italian architect.
Bj'unelleschi, Filippo.
16, 1446.
Biirgi, Joost (Jobst).
1552
Born
at Lichtensteig, St. Gall, Switzerland,
One
died at Cassel in 1632.
system of logarithms. The

ing the second
member
first to
of the first to suggest a
recognize the value of mak-
of an equation zero.
Born at Perugia, 1855 died at Naples, 1886.

Professor of mathematics and writer on geometry.
Caforali, Ettore.
Cardan^ Jerome (Hieronymus, Girolamo). Born at Pavia, 1501

died at Rome, 1576. Professor of mathematics at Bologna and
;
Padua.
Mathematician, physician, astrologer.
Chief contri-
butions to algebra and theory of epicycloids.

Carfiot,
Lazare Nicolas Marguerite.
Born
1753 died in exile at Magdeburg, 1823.

ern geometry.
;
Casst?ii,
Giovanni Domenico. Born

of the family
Cote d'Or,
Contributed to mod-
at Perinaldo,
near Nice, 1625;
Professor of astronomy at Bologna, and
died at Paris, 1712.

first
at Nolay,
which
for four generations held the post of
director of the observatory at Paris.
CastigUano Carlo Alberto.
1847-1884.
Catalan, Eugene Charles.

1814
Born
died Feb. 14, 1894.
at
Italian engineer.
Bruges, Belgium,
May
30,
Professor of mathematics at Paris
and Liege.
'âtaldi, Pietro
Antonio.
at Bologna,
1626.
died
Italian mathematician, born 1548
Professor of mathematics at Florence,
Perugia and Bologna.
Pioneer in the use of continued frac-
tions.
Cattaneo, Francesco.
1811-1875.
Professor of physics and me-
chanics in the University of Pavia.
304
Born at Paris, 1789

Professor of mathematics at Paris.
Caiichy, Augustin Louis,

1857.
prominent mathematicians of his time.
died at Sceaux,
One
most
of the
Contributed to the
theory of functions, determinants, differential equations, theory of residues, elliptic functions, convergent series,
Born at Milan, 1598 died at Bologna,

Paved the way for the differential calculus by his
Cavalieri, Bonaventura.
1647.
method
of indivisibles (1629).
Born
Cayley, Arthur.
at
etc.
at
Cambridge, Jan.
Richmond, Surrey, Aug.
1821
16,
died
Sadlerian professor of mathe-
26, 1895.
matics, University of Cambridge.
on mathe-
Prolific writer
matics.
Ceva, Giovanni.
1648-c. 1737. Contributed to the theory of trans-
versals.
Chasles, Michel.
Dec.
Born
at Chartres, Nov. 15, 1793

died at Paris,
Contributed extensively to the theory of mod-
12, 1880.
ern geometry.
Chelini,
Domevnco. Born 1802; died Nov. 16, 1878. Italian mathecontributed to analytic geometry and mechanics.
matician
From Lyons
Chuqiiet, Nicolas.
and contributed
to
died about 1500. Lived in Paris
algebra and arithmetic.
Born
Clairaiit, Alexis Claude.
at Paris, 1713
Physicist, astronomer, mathematician.
died there, 1765.
Prominent
in the study
of curves.
Clmisherg, Christlieb von.

hagen, 1751.
Born
at
Danzig, 1689
died at Copen-
Clebsch, Rudolf Friedrich Alfred.
Born January 19, 1833 died

Nov, 7, 1872. Professor of mathematics at Carlsruhe, Giessen
and Gottingen.
;
Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas. Born at Ribemont, near

St. Quentin, Aisne, 1743
died at Bourg-la Reine, 1794. Sec;
retary of the Academic des Sciences.
Contributed
to the the-
ory of probabilities.
Cotes, Roger.
Born
at
Burbage, near Leicester, July 10, 1682

Professor of astronomy at
5, 1716.
;
died at Cambridge, June
Cambridge.
His name attaches
geometry, algebra and analysis.
to a number of theorems in
Newton remarked, If Cotes
had lived we should have learnt something."
'
'
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Cramer, Gabriel.
Added
to the
Born at Geneva, 1704 died at Bagnols, 1752.

theory of equations and revived the study of de;
Wrote a
terminants (begun by Leibnitz).

Crelle,
305
treatise
on curves.
August Leopold. Born
1780
at Eichwerder (Wriezen a. d, Oder).

Founder of the Journal filr reine und
died in 1855.
angeivandte Mathematik
D' Alemhert Jean
,
Physicist,
le
(1826).
Rond. Born
at Paris, 1717
died there, 1783.
astronomer.
Contributed to the
mathematician,
theory of equations.
Dc Beaune, Florimond.
1601-1652.
Commentator on Descartes's
Geometry.
Dc
la Gournerie, Jules Antoine
Rene
Contributed
Del Monte, Guidobaldo.
Maillard.
Born
to descriptive
in 1814
geometry.
Wrote on mechanics and
545-1607.
perspective.
Deynocritus. Born at Abdera, Thrace,
460
died
Egypt and Persia. Wrote on the theory
ied in
on geometry.
c.
of
370.
Stud-
numbers and
Suggested the idea of the infinitesimal.
De Moivre, Abraham.
Born
at Vitry,
London, 1754. Contributed

bers and of probabilities
Champagne, 1667 died at

theory of complex numI
to the
De Mo7-gan, Augustus. Born at Madura, Madras, June 1806

First professor of mathematics in Unidied March 18, 1871.
versity of London (1828).
Celebrated teacher, but also con;
tributed to algebra and the theory of probabilities.
Desargues, Gerard. Born at Lyons, 1593

the founders of modern geometry.
died in 1662.
One
of
at La Haye, Touraine, 1596;

Discoverer of analytic geometry.
Born
Descartes, Rene, du Perron.

died at Stockholm, 1650.
Contributed extensively to algebra.
Lived about
Greek geometer. Brother of
335.
Menaechmus. His name is connected with the quadratrix.
Dinostratus.
Diodes.
Lived about
180.
Greek geometer. Discovered the
which he used in solving the Delian problem.
cissoid
Dwfhantus
Greek
of Alexandria.
algebraists,
equations.
Lived about 275. Most prominent of
contributing especially to indeterminate
306
Born
Dirichlet, Peter Gustav Lejeune.
at Diiren, 1805
Succeeded Gauss as professor

Prominent contributor to the theory of numbers.
Gottingen, 1859.
at
died
at
Gottingen
Dodson, James. Died Nov. 23, 1757. Great grandfather of De

Morgan. Known chiefly for his extensive table of anti-logarithms (1742).
Donatella, 1386-1468.
Italian sculptor.
Dii Bois-Reymond, Paul David Gustav.

1831
died at Freiburg, April
7,
Born
at Berlin, Dec.
2,
Professor of mathe-
1889.
matics in Heidelberg, Freiburg, and Tubingen.
Duhamel, Jean Marie Constant,

at Paris, 1872.
One
of the
Born
first to
at Saint-Malo, 1797
died
write upon method in math;
ematics.
Duîn, Francois Pierre Charles.
Born
at
Varzy, 1784
died at
Paris, 1873.
Durer, Albrecht.
Famous
artist.
Born
One
at
Nuremberg, 1471
of the founders of the
died there,
1528.
modern theory
of
curves.
Eisenstein, Ferdinand Gotthold Max.
One
there, 1852.
Born
at Berlin, 1823
died
of the earliest workers in the field of invari
ants and covariants.
En7ieêr, Alfred.
1830-1885.
Professor at Gottingen.
Lived about 200.
Efa^hroditus.
Roman
surveyor.
Wrote on
surveying, theory of numbers, and mensuration.
Eratosthenes.
dria,
Born
194.
at
Cyrene, Africa,
276
died at Alexan-
Known
Prominent geographer.
for his "sieve
"
for finding primes.
Lived about
300.
Taught at Alexandria in the reign
of Ptolemy Soter. The author or compiler of the most famous
text-book of Geometry ever written, the Elements, in thirteen
Euclid.
books.
Eudoxus
Pupil of Archytas and Plato.

of Cnidus.
408,
355.
Prominent geometer, contributing especially to the theories of
proportion, similarity, and "the golden section."
Euler, Leonhard.
1783.
One
Born
at
Basel, 1707
died at
St.
Petersburg,
and math
voluminous
of the greatest physicists, astronomers
ematicians of the i8th century.
"In
his

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
307
writings will be found a perfect storehouse of investigations
on every branch of algebraical and mechanical science."

Kelland.
Born at Ascalon, 480. Geometer. Wrote commenon the works of Archimedes, Apollonius, and Ptolemy.
Eutocius.
taries
Fagnano, Giulio
in 1766.
Count
Carlo,
Born
de.
at Sinigaglia, 1682
him with the
first
work
Fazdhaber, Johann.
died
Euler credits
Contributed to the study of curves.

in elliptic functions.
Contributed to the theory of
1580-1635.
series.
Beaumont-de-Lomagne, near Mon12, 1665. One of the most

his work on the theory
versatile mathematicians of his time
of numbers has never been equalled.
Fermal, Pierre
Born
de.
tauban, 1601
at
died at Castres, Jan.
Born
Ferrari, Ludovico.
at
Bologna, 1522
died in 1562. Solved
the biquadratic.
Ferro, Scipione
Born
del.
at
died between
c. 1465
Professor of mathematics at Bo-
Bologna,
Oct. 29
and Nov.
logna.
Investigated the geometry based on a single setting of
16, 1526.
was the
the compasses, and
x^
to solve the special cubic
first
-\-;px = q.
Feuerbach, Karl Wilhelm.
Born
at
Jena,
1800
died in 1834.
Contributed to modern elementary geometry.

Fibonacci.
See Leonardo of Pisa.
Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron. Born at Auxerre, 1768

ContribPhysicist and mathematician.
;
uted to the theories of equations and of
Bernard Frenicle de Bessy.

Fermat.
Freiiicle.
Frezier,
Amedee
Brest, 1773.
Fran5ois.
One
Born
series.
1605-1675.
Friend of
Chambery, 1682
at
died at
of the founders of descriptive geometry.
Friedlein, Johann Gottfried.
Born
Regensburg, 1828
at
died in
1875-
Frontinus, Sextus Julius.

Galois, Evariste.
Born
40-103.
Roman
at Paris, 1811
of the theory of groups.
surveyor and engineer.
died there, 1832. Founder
308
Gauss, Karl Friedrich.
The
tingen, 1855.
Born
Brunswick, 1777; died at Gotgreatest mathematician of modern times.

at
Prominent as a physicist and astronomer. The theories of

numbers, of functions, of equations, of determinants, of complex numbers, of hyperbolic geometry, are all largely indebted
to his great genius.
Jabir ben Aflah.
Geber.
ville
Astronomer
Lived about 1085.
at Se-
wrote on spherical trigonometry.
Gelh7?rand, Henry. 1597-1637. Professorof astronomy at Gresham

College.
Geminus. Born at Rhodes,

Wrote
40.
100 died at Rome,
on astronomy and (probably) on the history of pre-Euclidean
;
mathematics.
Pope Sylvester II. Born at Auvergne, 940 died

Rome, May 13, 1003. Celebrated teacher elected pope
Wrote upon arithmetic.
999.
Gerbert,
at
in
Gerhard of Cremona. From Cremona (or, according to others,

Carmona in Andalusia). Born in 1114 died at Toledo in
;
Physician, mathematician, and astrologer.
1187.
several works of the
Translated
Greek and Arab mathematicians from
Arabic into Latin.
Germain, Sophie.
1776-183 1.
Girard, Albert,
1590-1633.
tions,
Gof)el,
c.
Wrote on
elastic surfaces.
Contributed to the theory of equa-
general polygons, and symbolism,
Gustav Adolf.
1812-1847.
Known
for his researches on
hyperelliptic functions.
Grammateus, Henricus. (German name, Heinrich

Born at Erfurt, c. 1476. Arithmetician.
Grassmann, Hermann
Giinther.
Born
died there Sept. 26, 1877. Chiefly
lehre (1844).
Schreiber.)
at Stettin, April 15, iSog
known
for his
Ansdehnun^s-
Also wrote on arithmetic, trigonometry, and
physics.
Grebe, Ernst Wilhelm.
1804
Born near Marbach, Oberhesse, Aug. 30,

Contributed to modern
14, 1874.
disd at Cassel, Jan.
elementary geometry.
Gregory, James. Born at Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, Nov. 1638

died at Edinburgh, 1675. Professor of mathematics at St. An-
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
drews and Edinburgh.
309
Proved the incommensurability
of
tt
contributed to the theory of series.
Grunert, Johann August. Born
at Halle a. S., 1797; died in 1872

Professor at Greifswalde, and editor of Grunert's Archiv.
Gua.
Jean Paul de
Gua
died at Paris, June
Born at Carcassonne, 1713

Gave the first rigid proof of Des-
de Malves.
1785.
2,
cartes's rule of signs.
Gudermann, Christoph.
Born
at
Winneburg, March
died at Munster, Sept. 25, 1852.
To him
Habakkuk
1643.
Known
pilfered
Born
(Paul).
analysis.
solid of revolution,
from Pappus.
Hachette, Jean Nicolas Pierre.

Paris, 1834.
Ilalley,
1798
due the
at St. Gall, 1577; died at Gratz,
theorem on a
chiefly for his
28,
largely
modern
introduction of hyperbolic functions into

Gtildin,
is
Edmund.
Born
at M^zieres,
1769
died at
Algebraist and geometer.
Born
at Haggerston,
near London, Nov.
8,
died at Greenwich, Jan,
Chiefly known for

X656
14, 1742.
contributions
to
valuable
physics
and
his
astronomy.
;
Born at Rouen, Oct. 30, 1844 died at

Professor in the Ecole Polytechnique at
Hal;phen, George Henri.
Versailles in 1889.
Paris.
and of
Contributed
to the theories of differential equations
elliptic functions.
Hamilton, Sir William Rowan.
Born at Dublin, Aug. 3-4, 1805

Professor
of astronomy at Dublin.
2,
extensively
to
the
theory
Contributed
of light and to dynamics,
died there, Sept.
1865.
but known generally for his discovery of quaternions.
Hankel, Hermann. Born

berg, Aug. 29, 1873.
plex
numbers and
at Halle, Feb. 14, 1839 died at SchramContributed chiefly to the theory of comJ
to the history of
mathematics.
Axel. Born at Dorpat, 1851; died at DresProfessor in the polytechnic school at Dresden.
Harnack, Karl Gustav

den
in 1888.
Harriot, Thomas.
Born
near Isleworth, July
at Oxford, 1560
2,
1621.
died at Sion House,
The most
celebrated English
algebraist of his time.

//<?;-cw
of Alexandria.
and mechanician.
Lived about
Contributed
no.
to
Celebrated surveyor
mensuration.
3IO
Born
Hesse, Ludwig Otto.
Konigsberg, April
at
181 1
22,
died
at Munich, Aug. 4,
and of determinants.
1874. Contributed to the theories of curves
Hipparchus.
125.
Born
180
at Nicaea, Bithynia,
One
Celebrated astronomer.
died at Rhodes,
of the earliest writers
on spherical trigonometry.
Hij>;pias of
Elis.
Born
natural scientist.
460.
c.
Mathematician,
astronomer,
Discovered the quadratrix.
Lived about
Hippocrates of Chios.
440.
Wrote the
first
Greek
elementary text-book on mathematics.
Horner, William George.

1837.
Chiefly
known
Born
for his
in 1786
method
of
died at Bath, Sept. 22,
approximating the real
roots of a numerical equation {18 19).
Hrdbanus Maurus.
788-856.
Teacher of mathematics.
Arch
bishop of Mainz.
Born at Amsterdam, 1633 died there, 1704.

Contributed to the theories of equations and of series.
Hudde, Johann.
Honein ibn Ishak. Died in 873.

several Greek scientific works.
Arab physician.
Huygens, Christiaan, van Zuylichem.

died there, 1695.
Famous
Translated
Born at the Hague, 1629

and astronomer. In math;
physicist
ematics he contributed to the study of curves.
Lived about
Hyginus.
Roman
100.
surveyor.
Hypatia, daughter of Theon of Alexandria. 375-415. Composed

several mathematical works. See Charles Kingsley's Hypatia.
Wrote on solid
190.
Hypsicles of Alexandria. Lived about
numbers,
theory
of
and
solved
certain indeterand
geometry
minate equations.
lamhlichus Lived about 325.

branches of mathematics.
.
From
Chalcis.
Wrote on various
Ibn al Banna. Abul Abbas Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Otman

Azdi al Marrakushi ibn al Banna Algarnati. Born 1252
1257 in Morocco. West Arab algebraist; prolific writer.
Thn
Abul Hasan Ali ibn Abi Said Abderrahman. 960

Arab astronomer prepared the Hakimitic Tables.
Yzinus,
1008.
al
or
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Isidorus Hisfalensis.
Born
Bishop of Seville.
on mathematics.
636.
at Carthagena, 570
died at Seville,
His O^'igines contained dissertations
;
Born at Dundee, 1765 died

known as a physicist.
Ivory, James.
3 II
at
London, Sept.
21,
Chiefly
1842.
Jacobi, Karl Gustav Jacob.

died at Berlin, Feb.
Born
18, 1851.
at Potsdam, Dec. 10, 1804

Important contributor to the
theory of elliptic and theta functions and to that of functional

determinants.
Jamin, Jules
Born
C^lestin.
in 1818; died at Paris, 1886.
Pro-
fessor of physics.
Joannes de Praga (Johannes Schindel). Born

or 1375
died at Prag
c.
at Koniggratz, 1370
Astronomer and mathema-
1450.
tician.
Johannes
of Seville (Johannes von Luna, Johannes Hispalensis).

Lived about 1140. A Spanish Jew; wrote on arithmetic and
algebra.
Johann von Gmiinden. Born

1375 and 1385
at
Gmiinden am Traunsee, between
died at Vienna, Feb. 23, 1442.
mathematics and astronomy at Vienna the

of mathematics in a Teutonic university.
;
Kdstner, Abraham Gotthelf.
Wrote on the
tingen, 1800.
Keller, Johann.
Born
Born
in
Professor of
first full
professor
at Leipzig, 1719; died at
G6t-
history of mathematics.
Wurtemberg, near
Stuttgart, 1571
died
Regensburg, 1630. Astronomer (assistant of Tycho Brahe,

as a young man); "may be said to have constructed the ediProctor. Prominent in introducing the
fice of the universe,"
at
use of logarithms.
Laid down the "principle
of continuity"
(1604); helped to lay the foundation of the infinitesimal cal-
culus.
Kliayyam, Omar. Died
at
Nishapur, 1123. Astronomer, geometer,
Popularly known for his famous collection of

algebraist.
quatrains, the Rubaiyat.
K'dbel,
Born at Heidelberg, 1470 died at Oppenheim,

Prominent writer on arithmetic (15141 1520).
Jacob.
1533.
Lacroix, Sylvestre Francois.
May
25, 1843.
Born
at Paris,
1765
in
died there,
Author of an elaborate course of mathematics.
312
Laguerre, Edmond Nicolas.
Born
at Bar-le-Duc, April g, 1834

Contributed to higher analysis.
died there Aug. 14, 1886.
Lagrange, Joseph Louis, Comte.

died at Paris, April
One
1813.
10,
maticians of his time.
Born
at Turin, Jan. 25, 1736;
of the foremost
mathe-
Contributed extensively to the calculus
numbers, determinants,
of variations, theory of
differential
equations, calculus of finite differences, theory of equations,
and
Author of the Mecaiiique analytique.
elliptic functions.
Also celebrated as an astronomer.
Lahire, Philippe de.

April 21, 1718.
Born
March
1640 died there

Contributed to the study of curves and magic
at Paris,
18,
squares.
Born
Laloubere, Antoine de.

louse, 1664.
in
Languedoc, 1600; died
Tou-
at
Contributed to the study of curves.
Born at Mulhausen, Upper Alsace,

Founder of the hyperbolic trigo-
Lambert, Johann Heinrich.
1728 died at Berlin, 1777.

nometry.
;
Lame, Gabriel. Born at Tours, 1795 died

on elasticity, and orthogonal surfaces.
;
Born
Landen, John.
at Milton, 1790.
and Lagrange
at Peakirk,
at Paris, 1870.
near Peterborough, 1719
theorem of his (1755) suggested
died
Euler
to
their study of elliptic integrals.
La;place, Pierre Simon,
Normandy, March
Marquis
23,
de.
Born
at
Beaumont-en-Auge,
1749; died at Paris,
March
Celebrated astronomer, physicist, and mathematician.

to the
Writer
1827.
5,
Added
theories of least squares, determinants, equations, se-
ries, probabilities,
and
Legendre, Adrien Marie.
differential equations.
Born
at Toulouse, Sept. 18, 1752

died
Celebrated mathematician, contribut-
at Paris, Jan. 10, 1833.
ing especially to the theory of elliptic functions, theory of
numbers,
least squares,
and geometry. Discovered the "lav;

"the gem of arithmetic" (Gauss).
of quadratic reciprocity,"
Leibnitz,
Gottfried Wilhelm.
Hanover
in
1716.
One
Born
at
Leipzig,
1646; died at
of the broadest scholars of
modern
times; equally eminent as a philosopher and mathematician.
One
of the discoverers of the infinitesimal calculus,
inventor of
its
accepted symbolism.
and the
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Leojiardo of Pisa, Fibonacci
Born
313
Bonacii, son of Bonacius).
(filius
at Pisa, 1180; died in 1250.
Travelled extensively and

knowledge of the Hindu numerals and
the general learning of the Arabs, which he set forth in his
Liber Abaci, Practica g-eometriae, and Flos.
brought back
Guillaume
L' Hospital,
Mesme.
first to
to Italy a
Born
Marquis de
de,
died there 1704.
One
St.
of the
recognise the value of the infinitesimal calculus.
Simon Antoine
Lhuilier,
Born
Jean.
Geneva, 1750; died
at
in
Geometer.
1840.
Sommaja, Guglielmo Brutus
Libri, Carucci dalla
Born
at Florence, Jan.
28, 1869.
Lie,
Fran9ois Antoine
at Paris, 1661
1803
2,
Wrote on the
Icilius
Timoleon.
died at Villa Fiesole, Sept.
history of mathematics in Italy.
Marius Sophus. Born Dec. 12, 1842 died Feb. 18, 1899.
Professor of mathematics in Christiania and Leipzig. Spe;
cially celebrated for his theory of
continuous groups of trans-
formations as applied to differential equations.

Liouville, Joseph.
Born
at St.
Omer, 1809
name.
died in 1882. Founder
of the journal that bears his
Lobachevsky, Nicolai Ivanovich. Born at Makarief, 1793 died

One of the founders of the soat Kasan, Feb. 12-24, 1856.
called non-Euclidean geometry.
;
Ludolph van Ceulen.
See Van Ceulen.
MacCullagh, James.
Born near Strabane, 1809
died at Dublin,
Professor of mathematics and physics in Trinity Col-
1846.
Dublin.
lege,
Maclaurin, Colin.
York, June
Born
14, 1746.
at
Kilmodan, Argyllshire, 1698; died
at
Professor of mathematics at Edinburgh.
Contributed to the study of conies and series

Malfatti, Giovanni Francesco Giuseppe.
1731
ric
died at Ferrara, Oct.
9,
1807.
Born
Known
at Ala, Sept. 26,
for the geomet-
problem which bears his name,
Malus, 6tienne Louis.

Feb.
24, 1812.
Masfheroni, Lorenzo.
r8oo.
(1795)-
First
Born
at Paris,
June
23, 1775; died there,
Physicist.
Born
at Castagneta, 1750; died at Paris,
to elaborate the
geometry of the compasses only
314
Born
Maurolico, Francesco.
at Messina,
Sept. 16,
July 21, 1575. The leading geometer of his time.

on trigonometry.
Maximus
Diophantus
Menaeckmus.
also
From Nicomedia. Greek
Lived about 1330.
Fla7iudes.
mathematician
1494; died
Wrote
at Constantinople.
commentary on
rote a
also on arithmetic.
350.
Lived about
Pupil of Plato.
Discoverer
of the conic sections.
Me7ielaus of Alexandria.
Lived about
Greek mathematician
100.
Wrote on geometry and trigonometry.
and astronomer.
Mercator, Gerhard. Born at Rupelraonde, Flanders, 1512

at Duisburg, 1594.
Geographer.
Mercator, Nicholas.
Cismar, Holstein,
died
(German name Kaufmann.)
Born near
1620; died at Paris, 1687.
Discovered
c.
the series for log {l-\-x).
Melius, Adriaan. Born at Alkmaar, 1571
Suggested an approximation for
Meusnier de
la Place,
Paris, 1754
tt,
died at Franeker, 1635
really
due
to his father.
Jean Baptiste Marie Charles. Born at

Contributed a theorem on
died at Cassel, 1793.
the curvature of surfaces.
M^zh'iac, Claude Gaspard Bachet de.

1581
(1624)
died in 1638.
and
Known
for his
his translation of Diophantus.
Mohius, August Ferdinand.
Born
at Schulpforta,
'died at Leipzig, Sept. 26, 1868.
geometry.
Mohammed
Moivre.
Born at Bourg-en-Bresse,
Frobfemes plaisafits, etc.
One
Nov.
Author oi Der Barycentrische CalcUl
ibn Musa.
1790
17,
of the leaders in
modern
{i2>2'j)
See Al Khowarazmi.
See DeMoivre.
Mollzueide, Karl Brandan.
died at Leipzig,
March
Born
at Wolfenbiittel,
10, 1825.
Feb.
3,
1774
Wrote on astronomy and
mathematics.
Born at Beaune, 1746 died

Discoverer of descriptive geometry; contrib-
Mange, Gaspard, Comte de Peluse.

at Paris, 1818.
uted to the study of curves and surfaces, and to differential

equations.
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
315
Montmort, Pierre Remond
de.
Born at Paris, 1678 died there,
Contributed to the theory of probabilities and to the
1719.
summation
of series.
Moscho;pulus, Manuel.
Known
cian.
Lived about 1300. Byzantine mathematiwork on magic squares.
for his
Born at Paris, 1585 died there

French treatise on conies.
Afydorg-e, Claude.
of the first
Born
Nafiier, John.
at
Merchiston, then a suburb of Edinburgh,
Inventor of logarithms.
1550 died there in 1617.

uted to trigonometry.
;
Newton^
Born
Sir Isaac.
Author
in 1647.
at
Contrib-
Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, Dec. 25,

March 20, 1727. Succeeded
1642, O. S.; died at Kensington,
Barrow
(1669).
as Lucasian professor of mathematics at
The
Cambridge
world's greatest mathematical physicist. Invented
fluxional calculus
Contributed extensively to the
1666).
(c.
theories of series, equations, curves, and, in general,
to all
branches of mathematics then known.
Born
Nicole, Frangois.
treatise
on
Nicomachus
at Paris, 1683
died there, 1758.
First
finite differences.
of Gerasa, Arabia.
Lived
Wrote upon
100.
arith-
metic.
Nicomedes of Gerasa. Lived

which bears his name.
180.
Discovered the conchoid
Nicolaus von Cusa. Born at Cuss on the Mosel, 1401 died at

Theologian, physicist, astronomer, geTodi, Aug. II, 1464.
;
ometer.
Odo
Born
of Cluny.
Wrote on
place Aug.
5,
Oresme, Nicole.
465.
Lived
died at Cluny, 942 or 943.
1853.
Born
Studied in Egypt.
in
at
Normandy,
c.
1320
in
same
died at Lisieux,
Wrote on arithmetic and geometry.
Born at Eton, 1574 died

Writer on arithmetic and trigonometry.
Oiightred, William.
Pacioli,
Geometer.
Lyons, Jan. 21, 1793 died

Writer on descriptive geometry.
Born
Theodore.
1382.
arithmetic.
Oetioptdes of Chios.
Olivier-,
at Tours, 879
Luca.
Fra Luca
di
Borgo
Borgo San Sepolcro, Tuscany,
at Albury, 1660.
di Santi Sepulchri.
c.
1445
Born
at
died at Florence,
3l6
c.
Taught
1509.
in several
Arithmetica, Geometria,
ical
work published
His
Italian cities.
etc.,
was the
Summa
de
great mathemat-
first
(1494).
Pa^;pus of Alexandria.
Compiled a work con
Lived about 300.
taining the mathematical knowledge of his time.
Born
Parent, Antoine.
at Paris, 1666
Born
Pascal, Blaise.
Physicist,
at Clermont,
philosopher,
Fiist
died there in 1716.
to refer a surface to three co-ordinate
planes (1700).
1623; died at Paris, 1662
Contributed to the
mathematician.
theory of numbers, probabilities, and geometry.
Born
Peirce, Charles S.
Writer on
Pell,
1839.
10,
Born
John.
in Sussex, March 1, 1610; died at London, Dec

Translated Rahn's algebra.
10, 1685.
Perseus.
Cambridge, Mass., Sept.
at
logic.
Lived
150.
Greek geometer
Peuerhach, Georg von.
Born
at
studied spiric lines.
Peuerbach, Upper Austria,
May
1423 died at Vienna, April 8, 1461. Prominent teacher

and writer on arithmetic, trigonometry, and astronomy.
30,
Born
Pfaff, Johann Friedrich.
at Stuttgart,
1765
died at Halle
Astronomer and mathematician,
in 1825.
Born Aug. 24, 1561 died at HeidelWrote on trigonometry, and first used the
Pitiscus, Bartholomaeus.
berg, July
2,
1613.
present decimal point (1612).
Plana, Giovanni Antonio Amedeo.

1781; died at Turin, Jan.
and
1864.
2,
at Voghera, Nov. 8,
Mathematical astronomer
physicist.
Planudes.
See Maximus Planudes.
Plateau, Joseph Antoine Ferdinand.

1801
Born
died at Ghent, Sept.
Born
15, 1883.
at Brussels, Oct. 14,
Professor of physics at
Ghent.
Born
Academy.
Plato.
at Athens,
Plato of Tivoli.
etry
429;
died in
348.
Founder
of the
Contributed to the philosophy of mathematics.
Lived 1120.
and other works.
PlUcker, Johann.
Born
May
22, 1868.
One
of the foremost
Translated Al Battani's trigonom-
at Elberfeld, July 16, 1801
Professor of mathematics at
died at Bonn,
Bonn and
geometers of the century.
Halle.
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Born
Simeon Denis.
Poz'sson,
at Paris, 1840.
at
known
Chiefly
to the study of definite integrals
One
Born
Jean Victor.
Po7icelct,
317
Pithiviers, Loiret. 1781
as a physicist.
and
died
Contributed
of series.
at Metz, 1788
of the founders of projective geometry.
Died at Paris in 1732. Professor of mathethe College Royale de France.
Pothenot, Laurent.
matics in
Born at Byzantium, 412; died in 485. Wrote a commentary on Euclid. Studied higher plane curves.
Proclus.
Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus Claudius).
One
Alexandria, 165.
Born
at Ptolemais, 87; died at
of the greatest
Greek astronomers.
Pythagoras. Born at Samos,

501.
580; died at Megapontum,
Studied in Egypt and the East. Founded the Pythagorean
Beginning of the theory of
school at Croton, Southern Italy.
numbers. Celebrated geometrician.
Born
Lambert Adolph Jacques.
Qiietelet,
at
Ghent, Feb.
22,
1796 died at Brussels, Feb. 7, 1874. Director of the royal

observatory of Belgium. Contributed to geometry, astronomy,
;
and
statistics.
Ramus, Peter
murdered
24-25,
(Pierre de la Ramee).
Born at Cuth, Picardy, 1515

Bartholomew, Paris, August
;
at the
1572.
massacre of
St.
Philosopher, but also a prominent writer on
mathematics.
Recorde, Robert.
at
Born
London, 1558.
at
Tenby, Wales, 1510
Introduced the sign
Oxford.
Regiomontanus
died in prison,
Professor of mathematics and rhetoric at
Johannes
= for equality.
Miiller.
Born near Konigsberg, June
1436 died at Rome, July 6, 1476. Mathematician, astronomer, geographer. Translator of Greek mathematics. Author
6,
of first text-book of trigonometry.
Remigius
of Auxerre.
Died about 908.
Pupil of Alcuin's. Wrote
on arithmetic.
Georg Joachim. Born at Feldkirch, 1514 died at

Kaschau, 1576. Professor of mathematics at Wittenberg puContributed to
pil of Copernicus and editor of his works.
Rhaeticus,
trigonometry.
3l8
Born
Count Jacopo Francesco.
Riccati,
Contributed
Treves, 1754.
at Venice,
1676
died at
physics and differential equa-
to
tions.
Richelot,
died
Born
Friedrich Julius.
March
Konigsberg, Nov.
at
1875 in same place.
31,
Wrote on
6,
1808
elliptic
and
Abelian functions.
Born
Riemann, George Friedrich Bernhard.

17,
1826
died at Selasca, July 20, 1866.
at Breselenz, Sept.
Contributed to the
theory of functions and to the study of surfaces.

Riese,
at
Adam.
Born
near Lichtenfels, 1492 died

Most influential teacher of and writer on
at Staffelstein,
Annaberg, 1559.
arithmetic in the i6th century.
Born
Roberval, Giles Persone de.

of tangents
Nov.
8,
Roberval,
1602
died at
Geometry
and the cycloid.
Born
Rolle, Michel.
at
Professor of mathematics at Paris.
Paris, 1675.
at
Ambert, April
22,
1652
died at Paris,
Discovered the theorem which bears his name,
1719.
in the theory of equations.
Lived in
Rudolff^ Christofif.
German
first
part of the sixteenth century.
algebraist.
Sacro-Bosco, Johannes de.
Born
at
shire, i20o(?); died at Paris, 1256.
and astronomy
at Paris.
Holywood
(Halifax), York-
Professor of mathematics
Wrote on arithmetic and trigonom-
etry.
Saint-Venant, Adhemar Jean Claude Barre de. Born in 1797

Writer on elasticity and torsion.
died in Vendome, 1886.
Saint-Vincent, Gregoire de. Born at Bruges, 1584 died at Ghent,

Known for his vain attempts at circle squaring.
1667.
;
Saurin, Joseph.
Geometry
Scheeffer,
1885.
Born
at Courtaison, 1659; died at Paris, 1737.
of tangents.
Ludwig. Born at Konigsberg, 1859; died

Writer on theory of functions.
Schindel, Johannes.
at
Munich,
See Joannes de Praga.
Born at Nuremberg, 1585

died in 1636.
Professor of oriental languages and of mathematics at Altdorf
Schwenter, Daniel.
Serenus of Antissa.
Lived about 350,
Geometer.
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Serret,
Born
Joseph Alfred.
March
at
Paris,
319
Aug.
30,
1819
died at
Author of well-known text-books

on algebra and the differential and integral calculus.
Versailles,
1885.
2,
Scxtus Jtdius Africayius.

tory of mathematics.
Born
Sim;pson, Thomas.
May
Woolwich,
Wrote on
Lived about 220.
Bosworth, Aug.
at
20,
1710
the his-
died at
Author of text-books on algebra,

geometry, trigonometry, and fluxions.
Sluze,
14, 1761.
Rene Frangois Walter
died at Liege in 1685.

culus,
and
Born
de.
at Vise
on the Maas, 1622
Contributed to the notation of the cal-
to geometry.
Smith, Henry John Stephen.
Born at Dublin, 1826 died at OxLeading English writer on theory of num-
ford, Feb. 9, 18S3.
bers.
S}iell,
Willebrord, van Roijen.
Born at Leyden, 1591 died there,

and contributor to trigonometry.
;
1626. Physicist, astronomer,
Born in London, Jan. 11, 1825 died

President of the Royal Society. Writer
Spottiszvoode, William.
there,
June
27, 1883.
on algebra and geometry.
Born
Standi, Karl Georg Christian von.
Tauber, Jan.
Rothenburg a. d.
i, 1867. Prommodern geometry, Geometric der Lage.
1798
24,
inent contributor to
Steiner,
Born
Jacob.
Bern, April
i,
Born
Stevin, Simon.
Utzendorf,
at
Famous
1863.
at Bruges,
Stezuart, Matthew.
Born
Michael.
Born
Chiefly
1855.
1796
died at
1548
died at Leyden (or the
Rothsay, Isle of Bute, 1717; died at

Succeeded Maclaurin as professor of math-
Contributed
to
modern elementary
at Esslingen, i486 or 1487; died at Jena,
known
for his
Arithmetica integra
Sturm, Jacques Charles Francois.

in
18,
at
Edinburgh, 1785.
ematics at Edinburgh.
geometry.
1567.
March
geometrician.
Physicist and arithmetician.
Hague), 1620.
Stifel,
at
died at Erlangen, June
Professor
in
Born
in
(1544).
Geneva, 1803
died
the :cole Poly technique at Paris.
" Sturm's theorem."
James Joseph. Born in London, Sept. 3, 1814 died

same place, March 15, 1897. Savilian professor of pure
Sylvester,
in
320
geometry
Writer on algebra,
in the University of Oxford.
especially the theory of invariants
and covariants.
Born at Harran in Mesopotamia, 833 died at

Bagdad, 902. Mathematician and astronomer. Translated
works of the Greek mathematicians, and wrote on the theory
of numbers.
Tdbit ibn Kurra.
Tartaglia, Nicolo.
Real name, Ni-
(Nicholas the Stammerer.
Born at Brescia, c. 1500; died

Physicist and arithmetician best known
colo Fontana.)
at Venice,
1557.
for his
c.
work
on cubic equations.
Taylor, Brook.
Born
Edmonton, 1685
at
died at London, 1731.
Known
Physicist and mathematician.
chiefly for his
work
in
series.
Born at Miletus,
One of
548.
640 died at Athens,
the " seven wise men " of Greece founded the Ionian School.
Thales.
Traveled in Egypt and there learned astronomy and geomFirst scientific geometry in Greece.
etry.
Lived
Theaetetus of Heraclea.
Wrote on
Theodorus
irrational
of Cyrene.
Wrote on
teacher.
in
390.
Pupil of Socrates.
numbers and on geometry.

Lived
in
410.
mathematical
Plato's
numbers.
irrational
Theon of Alexandria.
Lived in 370. Teacher

Edited works of Greek mathematicians.
at
Alexandria.
Theon of Smyrna
Lived in 130. Platonic philosopher. Wrote

on arithmetic, geometry, mathematical history, and astronomy.
Tkyman'das
oiTPa.Tos.
Lived in
390.
Pythagorean; wrote on
arithmetic and equations.

Tor7'icelli,
Evangelista.
Famous
Tortolini, Barnaba.
24, 1874.
Born
at
Faenza,
1608
died in 1647.
physicist.
Born
at
Rome, Nov.
19,
1808
died August
Editor of the Annali which bear his name.
Trembley, Jean. Born at Geneva, 1749; died in 181 1.

on differential equations.
Born at KiessFounded the theory
Tschiriihausen, Ehrenfried Walter, Graf von.

lingswalde, 1651; died at Dresden, 1708.
of catacaustics.
Wrote
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
See Del Monte.
Ubaldi, Guido.
Unger, Ephraim Solomon.

Ursinus, Benjamin.
computed
321
1587
Born
Coswig, 1788
at
1633.
died in 1870.
Wrote on trigonometry and
tables.
Born
Vaji Ceule7i, Ludolph.
at
Hildesheim, Jan. 18 (or 28), 1540

Known for his computations
;
died in Holland, Dec. 31, 1610.

of
TT.
Vandermonde, Charles Auguste.
Born at Paris, in 1735 died

Director of the Conservatoire pour les arts et
there, 1796.
metiers.
Van Eyck,
Van
1385-1440.
Jan.
Dutch
painter.
Schooten, Franciscus (the younger).

1660.
ViHe
Born
in 1615
died in
Editor of Descartes and Vieta.
(Vieta), Fran9ois,
Seigneur de
Born
la Bigotiere.
at Fonte-
The foremost
algenay-le-Comte, 1540; died at Paris, 1603.

geometry.
braist of his time. Also wrote on trigonometry and
Vincent.
See Saint- Vincent.
Vitruvius. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio. Lived in

tect.
15.
Roman
archi-
Wrote upon applied mathematics.

Born at Florence, 1622 died there, 1703.
Contributed to elementary
Galileo and Torricelli.
Viviani, Vincenzo.
Pupil of
geometry.
Born
Wallace, William.
mathematics
Wallis, John.
at
in
died in 1843.
1768;
Professor of
Edinburgh.
Born
at Ashford,
1616
died at Oxford, 1703.
Sa-
Published many
vilian professor of geometry
modern graphic
the
mathematical works. Suggested (1685)
interpretation of the imaginary.
at
Weierstrass, Karl Theodor Wilhelm.

31, 1815
died at Berlin, Feb.
19,
Oxford.
Born
1897.
at Ostenfelde, Oct.
of the ablest
mathematicians of the century.
Werner, Johann. Born at Nuremberg, 1468 died in 1528. Wrote

on mathematics, geography, and astronomy.
;
Widmann, Johann, von Eger. Lived in 1489. Lectured on algebra at Leipzig. The originator of German algebra. Wrote
also
on arithmetic and geometry.
322
Witt, Jan de.
Born
Friend and helper of
in 1625, died in 1672.
Descartes.
Born at Breslau, 1679 died at

Professor of mathematics and physics at Halle,
Wolf, Johann Christian von.

Halle, 1754.
and Marburg.
Woej)cke, Franz.
March
Text-book writer.
Born
at
Dessau,
May
6,
1826
died at Paris,
25, 1864. ^Studied the history of the development of
mathematical sciences among the Arabs.
Wren,
Sir Christopher.
don, in 1723.
Born
at
East Knoyle, 1632
Professor of astronomy at
Savilian professor at Oxford
Known, however,
died at Lon-
Gresham College
president of the Royal Society.
entirely for his great
work as an architect
INDEX.*
Abacists,
Abacus,
Abel,
Arabs,
39, 41.
3, 15, 20,
62, 154, i55> 163, 181-188,
Abscissa, 229.
116.
Adelard (^thelhard)
of Bath, 74, 218.
68-71, 78, 81-83, IQO, 199,
204, 205, 208, 210, 212.
Archytas,
69, 82, 204, 207, 211.
Ahmes,
19, 31. 32, 34> 17^ 78, 192, 282.
Argand, 124, 125.

Aristophanes, 25.
Alcuin,
41.
Aristotle, 64, 70.
Africanus, S. Jul., 202.
Arithmetic,
76, 90.
61,
88; first
77,
107;
96,
etymology,
German work, no.
Algorism, 75.
Al Kalsadi, 30, 31,
Al Karkhi, 75, 93.
Al Khojandi, 76.
Al Khowarazmi,
75, 76, 89, 90, 92.
33- 74. 75, 88, 89,
29,
91. 217.
Al Kuhi, 217.
Almagest, 283.
Al Nasawi, 30,
Al Sagani, 217.
34.
Amicable numbers,
189
re-
Arithmetical triangle, 118.

Aronhold, 146, 250.
Aryabhatta, 12, 72, 74, 215, 216.
Aryans, 12.
Associative law, 119.
Assurance, 56-60.
Astronomy, 18.
August, 246.
Ausdehnungslehre 127.
Austrian subtraction, 28,
Avicenna, 76.
Axioms, 197.
Babylonians,
35.
195, 213.
Angle, trisection
of, 196, 197, 207, 208,
Bachet,
Ball,
14,
19,
24,
25, 63,
106, 134, 137.
W. W.
R., i72.
Baltzer, i67, 224^.
56, 148.
Anton, I79.
Apian, 108, 288, 289.
Apices, 15, 27, 37, 39Apollonius, 80, 152,
Bamberger arithmetic,
Banna.
Bardin,
190, 200-209, 228,
Barrow,
See Ibn
al
51.
Banna.
277.
169, 238.
Bartl, 167.
229, 231.
Approximations in square
*The numbers
9, 10,
48.
64, 190, 192, 193.
217.
Annuities,
of,
Alligation, 34.
Anaxagoras,
18, 24, 36, 49, 51, 64, 95.
Arithmetic, foundations
quired, 43.
Alberti, 227.
Algebra,
88,
Arbitration of exchange, 55.

Arcerianus, Codex, 214, 218,
Archimedes,
Abul Wafa, 225, 286.

Academies founded,
Al Banna, Ibn, 30,

Al Battani, 285.
76,
35, 39, 53, 74,
89, 191, 214, 285.
15, 25, 26, 37.
root, 70.
Barycentrische7- Calcul, 129, 250.
refer to pages, the small italic 's to footnotes.
324
Burgerschulen,
Baumgart, i37.
Beaune. See DeBeaune.
Bede, 36, 37, 40.
23.
Biirgi, 4, 50, 98, 115, 116, 290.
Busche,
139,
Bellavitis, 250, 266.
Beltrami,
Beman,
Calculating machines,
Calculus, differential,
148, 269, 271.
i24., i25., izgn.
Beman and
Benedictis, 225.
178;
Bernecker, 109.
Bernelinus, 37, 40.
Bernoulli family, 58
179.
of logic,
Cantor, G.,
Jacob,
148, 150,
152, 171, i75> 178, 179-238,239;
152, 166, 173, 175.
John,
178, 179. 238, 242,
120,
123; Cantor, M., 7.
Cardan, 101-103,
109, 112, 113, 150, 155,
225.
Betti, 165.
Castelnuovo,
Beutel, 22.
Cataldi, 131.
122, 155, 270.
Bianchi,
problem of Archimedes, 83.

Cauchy, 62, 119, 124, 125, 138, 139, 143.
147.
153, 154, 164,
103
binomial
26, 27, 37. 215-
Bois-Reymond,
Boklen, iGjn.,
155, 189.
270.
Bolyai, 270, 271.
Bombelli,
loi, 102, 112.
Boncompagni,
Bonnet,
Boole, 131, 146.
131, 143, 146,
139.
Bouvelles, 237.
Boys, 166.
Ceulen, 222.
Ceva, 244.
Chain rule, 52, 55.

Chance. See Probabilities.
244.
method
of,
Chasles, 290^., 246, 249, 256-258, 263265.
Chessboard problem,
Brachistochrone,
178, 238.
52, 216.
244.
Chinese,
135.
8, 14, 19, 28, 74,
7, 214, 216.
Christoffel, ^47^
Chuquet,
47, 95.
Briggs, 292.
Church schools,
Brill, I42W., i75-f i8ow,, 189, 254, 264,
Circle, division of, 24
3, 36, 37, 94.

;
squaring,
195,
197, 207, 215, 221.
276., 278.
Cissoid, 211.
165.
Brioschi, 143, 144, 146.
Cistern problems,
Brocard, 245.
Brouncker, 134.
Brune, 59.
Clairaut, 117, 242.
Brunelleschi, 227.
Clebsch,
Burckhardt,
168.
264.
Bouniakowsky,
Bring,
188.
178, 253, 257, 263, 264, 266, 274, 277.
Characteristics, Chasles's
Brahmagupta,
181,
237-
Chappie,
75.
155-
Brianchon,
174,
Caustics, 238.
Cavalieri, 168, 173, 224, 229, 234, 235
Cayley, i26., i29.,
Biot, 242.
Boethius,
167, 168,
189.
257.
Binomial coefficients,
theorem, 118.
275.
Cattle
73, 74, 85, 86, 216.
Bianco, 237.
Bierens de Haan, 222.
Binder,
248.
Catenary, 241.
143, 159, 160, 167.
Bhaskara,
171,
Capelli, 165.
Bessel, 237.
Bezout,
170,
of variations,
131;
Cardioid, 241.
Carnot, 174, 244, 246,
Cassini's oval, 241.
243; Daniel, 166, 175.
Bertrand,
168,
178; directional, 127; integral, 174.
Smith, 207.
48.
134, 141, 147.
Clausberg,
34.
55.
Clavius, III.
146, 147, 176,
257, 262, 266, 279.
177, 250, 251W.,
INDEX.
325
Church schools.
Codex Arcerianus, 214.
CoeflScients and roots, 115, 156.
Curvature, measure of, 268.

Curves, classification of, 233,
Cohen, lyzn.
double curvature), 243,

with higher singularities,
Cusa, 237.
Cloister schools. See
deficiency
Cole, i62.
Combinations,
70, 74, T50, 151.
Commercial arithmetic,
Commutative law, 119.
Cycloid,
22, 51, 60.
Compasses, single opening,
theory
254.
Compound
interest, 52.
Computus,
37, 39.
81, 202,
204-208, 228, 230, 239,
256.
Congruences, theory of, 131.

Conon, 210.
Conrad, H., 109.
Conrad of Megenberg, 219.
Contact transformations, 178, 269, 276.
Continued fractions, 131-133, 168.
Convergency, 152-155, 189. See Series.
Coordinates, Cartesian, 231
curvi-
linear, 268, 269; elliptic, 269.
Copernicus, 289.
Correspondence, one-to-one,
251, 264,
symbol of differentiation, 170-172;

symbol of differentiation, 180.
D'Alembert, 175, 180.
5,
Dante,
94,
50.
Definite integrals, 174.
Degrees (circle),
De Lagny, 157.
De
la
Gournerie,
Delambre,
De
24.
261.
295.
I'Hospital, 173, 178, 179.
Delian problem, 82, 104, 204,

Democritus, 213.
De Moivre, 124, 152, 160.
De Morgan, 143, 155.
Desargues, 205, 237, 242, 259.
207.
Descartes,
124,
4,
108,
117,
119,
Descriptive geometry, 247, 259, 260.

Determinants, 133, 144, 145, 167, 168,
DeWitt,
107, 109, III.
57, 148.
Cotes, 174, 239. 241, 244.
Dialytic method, 144, 145.
Counting, 6.
Cousin, 227.
Covariants, 146.
Diametral numbers,
See also Forms,
In-
132. 167, 240;
paradox,
240.
256, 266.
Cross ratio, 258, 259.

Cube, duplication of,
multiplication
Dimensions,
Diodes, 211.
Diophantus,
82, 104, 204, 207;
of, 207, 211.
geometry,
., 275.
65, 70, 77,
81,
9.
84, 85, 90,
93. 133. 134-
Dirichlet, 62, 125, 126, 133, 139, 140,

153. 174. '^77, 181, 189, 279.
72.
Cuneiform inscriptions,
Cunynghame, 166.
Curtze, 289.
Dini, 155, 189.

Dinostratus, 197, 210.
Crofton, 276.
Culvasutras,
equations, 174-178, 269

267.
Crelle, 141, 245, 257.
Cremona,
105.
Differenti,al calculus, 168, 170, 171,178;
variants.
Cramer,
136,
262.
288.
Coss, 96-99,
253.
140, 156, 191, 228, 230-233, 238.
266, 268.
Cosine,
(of
263
Decker, 292.
Dedekind, 120-122, 126, 127, 189.
Defective numbers, 35.
Deficiency of curves, 262, 263.
Conchoid, 211.
Condorcet, 149.
Conies,
255,
178, 237, 238.
DeBeaune, 156.
Decimal fractions,
of.
Complexes,
239, 246;
gauche
d,
225.
Complementary division, 38.

Complex numbers, 73, loi, 123, 126,
182. Complex variable. See Functions,
of, 262, 263;
Discount, 54.
Discriminant, 145.
Distributive law, 119,
130.
326
Divani numerals,
Eudoxus,
15.
Divisibility tests, 35.

Division, 38, 42, 44, 48, 49.
Dodson,
Euler,
79, 199, 204, 2X0, 212, 223.

62,
58,
118,
138, 140, 143,
58.
175.
Donatello, 227.
Duality, 249.
124,
132,
136'
135
152-154, 158, 160, 173,
180-182, 240, 244, 247, 167,
179.
294, 295.
Evolutes, 238, 242.
DuBois-Reymond, 155,
Duhamel, 155.
Duodecimal fractions,
Exchange,
189.
19.
Dupin, 267, 270.

Duplication of the cube,
82, 104, 204,
52, 55.
Exhaustions, 199, 225.

Exponents. See Symbols.
Eyck, 226.
Eycke, 222.
207.
Diirer, 221, 224-227.
Dyck,
Fagnano,
278.
Farr,
e,
Faulhaber,
irrationality of, 133.
Easter,
Ecole polytechnique,
Fermat,
261.
8, 10, 18, 24,
31,
63, 77,
35,
igo, 192, 282.
245.
See Leonardo.
Finger reckoning,
See Functions.
Elliptic integrals, classed, 183, 186,
Fischer,
25, 36, 43.
59.
Fluxions, 171, 173.
Forms, theory
187.
of, 131, 142-147.
Fourier, 153.
Ellis, 131.
Enneper, i8i.
Enumerative geometry, 264.
Envelopes, 242.
Equations, approximate roots,
Abelian,
Fourth dimension,
cyclotomic,
differential,
15G,
160-163,
funda-
174-178;
higher, 92,
163;
115. 155-160, 164-166;
indeterminate,
83, 84, 86, 93,
135,
77i 78, 87, 90;
limits of roots, 156,
137, 139; linear,
Diophantine,93,
135, 137;
274.
Fractional exponents, 102.

Fractions, 31, 40, 49; continued,
163; cubic, 81, 82, 92, 93,
155;
mental theorem,
166;
112.
Fibonacci.
Finck, 288.
Ellipsoid, 242.
Elliptic functions.
207;
Ferrari, 112, 155, 225.
Ferro,
Feuerbach,
Eisenstein, 126, 127, 138.

Elimination, theory of, 142, 143.
Ellipse, 81, 205.
111-113,
;'
57, 118, 134, 135, 137, 140,
168, 173, 229, 234.
Eccentricity, 224.
166;
96.
Felkel, 141.
41.
Egyptians,
180, i8i.
59.
quad-
131-
133, 168;
sexagesimal, 282-284; duo-
decimal,
19.
Franfais, 125.
Frenicle, 106.
Frezier, 260.
Frobenius, 177, 178, 189.

Fuchs, 177, 178, 181.
Functional determinants, 168.
Functions, Abelian, 180, 186, 188, 189;
ratic, 79-81, 85, 91, 109, 155; quartic,
elliptic, 165, 180-182; periodicity of,
111-113; quintic,
184
solutions, 166;
mechanical
modular, 164; nega165;
tive roots, 234.
Equipolent, 96.
Eratosthenes, 141,
Erchinger, 162.
Eschenbach,
Euclid,
symmetric,
142, 143
theory
of,
177, 180, 181, 188; theta, 182, 188, 189
Fundamental laws
of number, 119,
131. 189.
190, 208.
Galileo, 237, 241.

Galois, 164.
151,
35, 65-69, 79, 80,
100,
190, i95i i97-i99> 212, 213.
119,
133,
Gauss,
4,
142, 143,
124-128, 133, i35.,

145,
149,
150,
136-140,
153, 154, 156-
INDEX.
160-163, 167, 174, 181, 188, 207,
245,
Gunter,
288.
Giinther, i6., lojn., 133, 168, a20
267, 270, 275, 279, 294, 295.
Geber,
327
286.
Gellibrand, 292.
Haan,
Geminus,
Hachette,
211.
Genocchi,
Hahn,
139.
Geometric means,
103
78,
models,
276.
Geometry,
66, 190, 214;
205, 230,
232,
analytic, 191,
246; descriptive, 247,
259, 260; differential, 267;
enumera-
metrical, 190, 192, 193

tive, 264
projective, 191, 246, 247, 258; nonEuclidean, 270; of position, 190, 246,
;
248, 258; of space,
211,
242; three
algebra, 96, 107; universi-
ties, 95.
124.
9.
Glaisher,
295.
6., 124, 247.
Harmonic means,
Harpedonaptae,
78, 79.
193, 194,
Harriot, loi, 117, 156.
Hebrews,
10.
120, 123, 133, 189.
271, 272.
Heptagon, 226.
Hermite, 133, 146, 147, 165.
Herodotus, 24.
Herodianus, 11,
Heron, 64, 70, 78, 81, 84, 201,
164, 168,
212, 283.
176, 244, 250,
262.
142.
Gmunden, 95.
Gnomon, 66, 92,
Goepel,
Hankel,
Hess, 245.
Hesse, 143-145,
Girls' schools, 21.
Gizeh,
Hammer,
264, 269.
Henrici, 277.
40, 286.
Giesing, io6.
Girard,
57, 58, 166, 203, 204.
Halphen, 147, 253, 256,

Hamilton, 127, 270.
Helmholtz,
Gerhardt, 47.
German
Halley,
Helix, 211, 243.
15, 37, 40, 61, 218.
Gergonne, 249, 257.

Gerhard of Cremona,
261.
48.
Heine,
classes of, 274.
Gerbert,
222,
Hessel,
188.
Golden rule, 51.

Golden section, 195, 222,
Gordan, 144, 146, 147.
245,
Heteromecic numbers,
Hexagram, mystic, 237,
Heyn, 59.
195, 215.
Hieratic symbols,
223.
67.
244.
g.
Hilbert, 147, 148.
Gournerie, 261.
Goursat, 178.
Hindenburg,
Gow, 7.
Grammateus,
fractions, 33; geometry, 214;

mathematics, 2, 12 following.
Hipparchus, 213, 266. 282, 283.
Grassmann,
Graunt,
Grebe
Greek
Hindu
72;
45, 49, 98, 99, 108, 109.
127-129, 131, 256, 275.
Hippias, 196,
Hippocrates,
Holder, 189.
57.
point, 245.
fractions, 32.
Greeks,
2, 8, 10, 14, 19,
20,
25,
64,
-j"],
190, 193, 282.
Gregory, 151.
Groups, theory of, 164, 177; point, 240
Grube, 23.
Grunert, '28, 257.
Gubar numerals, 15, 17, 31.
Gudermann,
132, 150.
algebra, 84; arithmetic, 34,71,
183.
Guilds,
56,
Guldin,
213, 224, 234.
210.
65, 82, 197, 204, 213.
Homology, 249.
Hoppe, 167, I73-.
Hospital,
245.
173, 178, 179.
Horner,
166.
Hudde,
108, 148, 156.
Hugel, 107.
Hurwitz, 264.
Huygens, 131,' 148, 222,
Hyperbola, 81, 205.
Hyperboloid, 242.
238, 242.
328
Hyperdeterminants,
146.
Hyperelliptic integrals,
Hypergeometric
Hypsicles,
Krafft, 135.
Kronecker,
187.
series, 153.
Krumbiegel and Amthor,
84, 200, 212.
Kummer,
/ for
yi,
166.
Indivisibles, 234, 236.
151,
159
176,
179,
180.
182, 239, 267, 294, 295.
274.
Lahire, 106, 249.
244.
Lansberg, 249.
Laplace, 150, 151, 167, 175.
Latin schools, 21, 43.
Least squares, 149.
Lebesgue, 139.
Legendre, 133, 136, 138-140,
Integral calculus, 174, 178.

Interest, 54.
Invariants, 145-148, 262, 274.

Involutes, 238, 241.
Involutions, 252.
Irrational numbers, 68, 69, 100, 119,
122, 123, 133, 189.
Irreducible case of cubics,
124, 133, 141, 260, 267, 295.
Lam^, 240, 269.

Landen, 180, 182,
Insurance, 56-58.
112.
Lehmus,
179, 200.
Jacobi, 62, 138, 139, 143,
144, 165,
4, 48, 54, 58, 62, 117,
168,
Leonardo da Vinci,
225; of Pisa (Fi

bonacci), 40, 41, 45, 95, loi, 107, lor
Ill, 218.
95.
Lexell, 295.
L' Hospital, 173, 178, 179.
Lhuilier, 244.
See Al Kalsadi.
56, 59.
48.
Lie, 147, 177, 269, 276.

222-224,
245, 288.
Lieber, 245^.
Light, theory of, 270.
Khayyam,
75, 89, 92, 93.
Limapon,
Khojandi,
76.
Limits of roots,
241.
156, 160, 166.
Khowarazmi. See Al Khovvaiazmi.
Lindemann,
Klein, 147, 165, 177, 178, 207., 254, 274,
Liouville, 139, 181, 269.

Lipschitz, 147.
277, 278.
Knilling, 23.
Konigsberger,
Kossak, i20.
**
Leseur, 158.
Lessing, 83.
Letters used for quantities,
Jonqui^res, 256.
Jordan, 165.
4, 50, 61, 169, 173, 191,
133, 189, 207.
Lituus, 241.
180.
150-15^
178, 229, 239, 242.
Lemniscate, 241.
Lencker, 227.
174-177, 181-187, 269, 276, 279.
Johann von Gmunden,
16C,
257.
156, 167, 170-173,
Isoperimetric problems,
Italian algebra, 90.
149,
174, 180-184, 187, 270, 295,
Leibnitz,
Isidorus, 36.
Kepler,
143,
175,
Lambert,
See Series.
Infinitesimals, 169, 170, 173, 174.

Insertions, 208, 211.
Kastner,
138,
160, 166, 167, 173,
Lalanne, 167.
Laloubtre, 158.
tions.
Karup,
Lagny, De, 157.

Lagrange, 62, 136,
Laguerre,
quantities, 69.
Indeterminate equations. See Equa-
Kalsadi.
136, 217.
Lacroix, 242, 261.
90.
Ideal numbers, 126.

Imaginaries. See Complex numbers.
Incommensurable
83.
126, 138, i39., 155, 270, 27S.
Kurra, Tabit ibn,
124.
lamblichus, 136.
Ibn al Banna, 30, 76,
Ibn Kurra, 136, 217.
Icosahedron theory,
Infinite, 173.
139, 165.
Kriiger, 141.
Lobachevsky,
271.
Loci, 209, 210, 232.
64.
INDEX.
Logarithmic series,
Logarithms, 290.
Logic, calculus
151; curve, 241.
57, 148.
106.
Muir, i67.
Miiller, 47.
Loxodrome,
Multiplication,
243.
Liiroth, i68.
152, 156, 174, 180, 238, 239.

36.
Magic squares, 54,

Magnus, 265, 277.
45, 46.
Muret, 277.
Mystic hexagram, 237, 244.
Mysticism. See Numbers.
Luca Pacioli. See Pacioli.

Lunes of Hippocrates, 197.
105-107.
Majer, 2io.
Nachreiner, 168.
Napier, 47, 172, 288, 290.
Nasawi, 30, 34.
Negative numbers and roots,
70, 72,
80, 91, loi, 109, iig.
Malfatti, 159, 256.
Neo-Platonists,
Malus, 270.
Marie, 230W.
Marre, 96;^.
-Pythagoreans,
68;
68.
Netto, i62.
Neumann, C,
Mathematica,
64,
Newton,
Matthiessen, yyn.,iyn., io8.
4,
62,
269; K., 57.

117-119, 152, 156,
166.
170-175, 178, 234, 239.
Maxima, 169, 179, 180, 203.

Mean-value theorems, 189.
Means, geometric and harmonic,
New Zealanders,
78,
79-
7.
Nicomachus, 78.
Nicomedes, 210.
Nines, casting out, 35, 46, 76.
Noether, 144^., 165, i8o., 189,
167,
Meister, 244.
253,
256, 264, 266.
Menaechmus,
82, 204-207.
Menelaus, 283.
Menher, in.
Mercator, 151.
Merchants' rule, 51.
Merriman, i49.
Method, 23.
Meusnier, 243, 267.
Meyer, F.,275; W.
Non-Euclidean geometry,
Normal
schools,
270.
23.
Numbers, amicable,
136; classes of,
67; concept of, 118, 120; ideal, 126;

irrational, 68, 69, 100, 119, 122, 123,
I33> 189;
ture
F., 147;
-Hirsch,
143-
Meziriac, 106, 134, 137Middle Ages, 3, 20, 44,
Minima,
59.
Moschopulus,
of, 131.
Loria, 240.
Mehmke,
Morgan,
Mortality tables,
Logistic, 64.
Maclaurin,
Macrobius,
329
51, 56, 106, 151.
169, 179, 180, 203.
Minus. See Symbols.

Mbbius, 128, 129, 133. 244,
of,
mysticism
118, 120;
of, 37, 106;
negative,
na-
70, loi,
109; perfect, 35, 68; polygonal, 71;
prime, 67, 68, 136, 141, 161, 162; pyramidal, 71; plane and solid, 66;
systems of, 6; theory of, 133-140.
Numerals, 6.
Nunez, in, 243.
Nuremberg, 21.
249, 250-252,
258, 263, 265, 295-
Models, geometric,
Mohammedans,
Moivre, 124, 152,
Mollweide, io5.
Mommsen,
Monge,
Monks.
3.
276.
See Arabs.
160.
11.
176, 178, 247, 248, 267, 277.
See Church schools.
Montucla, 69.
Oddo, 39.
Oekinghaus, 167.
Oenopides, 195.
Olivier, 261.
Omar Khayyam,
75, 89, 92, 93.
One-to-one correspondence,
266, 268.
Ordinate, 229.
251, 264,
330
Oresme,
95, 102, 229,
Osculations, 239.
Oughtred,
117, 156.
Poincare, 165,
Poinsot, 245.
177.
Point groups,
240.
Poisson, 143, 173.

Polar, 249, 256.
n,
nature
of, 133, 207;
values
of,
192,
iQSi i99> 201, 215-218, 222.
Pacioli, 42, 45-47, 52, 95, 96, loi.
Page numbers,
Pappus,
16.
65, 179, 202, 203, 208, 209,
212,
234-
Parabola, 81; area, 68; name,

Paraboloid, 242.
205.
205.
Parent, 242, 247.

Partition of perigon, 160-162.
Partnership,
Pascal, 48,
118, 148,
150, 169,
Pringsheim, i54.,
Prismatoid, 246.
173,
174, 234, 236-238.
Pascal's triangle, 118, 150.
Pauker,
118.
68,
136, 141, 161,
155, 161.
155, 189.
Probabilities, 148, 149, 276.

Proclus, 219.
Projection, 213, 214.

Proportion, 79, 109.
See Geometry.
Peirce, 131.
Ptolemy,
201, 214, 266, 283.
Peletier, iii.
Puzzles,
54.
Pencils, 242.
Pythagoras, 68, 179, 190, 194,

Pythagoreans, 35, 66, 67, 78,
Pepin,
139.
Perfect numbers, 35. 68.

Periodicity of functions,
Permutations, 74.
Pestalozzi, 23.
139.
Petty, 573, 42, 45,
103, 289.
Pfaif, 151, 153. 175. 176.
Philolaus,
Quetelet,
59.
8, 10.
Raabe,
Piazzi, 149.
Pincherle,
Quadratic equations. See Equations.

Quadratic reciprocity, 137, 138; remainders, 76.
Quadratrix, 196, 241.
Quadrature of circle. See Circle.
Quadrivium, 94.
Quaternions, 127, 129.
78.
Phoenicians,
136, 194,
184.
Pessl, 107.
Peuerbach,
195, 214.
195, 198.
Perspective, 226, 227, 259.
Petersen,
265.
162.
34.
57,
56.
Polygons, star, 218, 219, 224.

Polytechnic schools, 261.
Poncelet, 246, 248, 249, 252, 258,
Position arithmetic, 17.
Pothenot, 295.
Power series, 103.

Powers of binomial,
Prime numbers, 67,
Parallel postulate, 201, 270.
Parameter,
Pole, 249.
Political arithmetic,
Pitiscus, son.,
155,
Radicals,
189.
29a
Ramus,
Pitot, 243.
Plane numbers,
66.
100.
Rahn, g6n.
98, iii, 133.
Raphson,
166.
Plato, 67, 82, 197, 207; of Tivoli, 285.
Realschulen,
Platonic bodies, 212.
Reciprocity, quadratic, 137, 138;

mite's law of, 146.
Pliny, 26.
Plucker,
144, 239. 249-252, 254, 256, 257,
265, 275, 277.
Pliicker's equations, 253.

Plus.
See Symbols.
Poetius, 141.
23.
Reciprocal polars,
249.
Reckoning schools, 4.
Redundant numbers, 35.
Rees,
55.
Regeldetri,
34, 51.
Her
INDEX.
Rep;iomontanus,
287, 289, 294.
107,
42,
3,
108,
219,
'
Regulae, various,
34, 41, 51, 52, 54, 90,
USRegular polygons,
225, 226, 237, 245
221,
223,
solids, 212.
75.
Resolvents,
159.
Resultant, 143-145.
Reuschle,
142, 167.
Reymers, 96,
Rhabda, 25.
98, 107, 108, 115.
Rhaeticus, 288.
Riccati, 175.
Riemann,
62,
153,
Saurin, 244.
Scalar, 130.
Scheeffer, 189.
Scheffler, 59, 127, X30, 245, 257.
161, 162,
Reiff, i5i., i78.
Reinaud,
331
I54., 181, 188, i8g,
Schellbach, 257.
Sobering, 139.
Scheubel, 98, iii.
Schlegel, i27., 245.
Schlesinger, 174 .
Schooten, Van, 136, 141,
Schottky, 189.
Schroder, 131.
Schubert, 246, 264, 275.
Schwarz, 178, 278.

Schwenter, 131, 226.
Scipione del Ferro,
Riese, 97, 99, 106, no, 113, 114, 120.

Right angle, construction of, 219.
Roberval, 169, 173, 229, 234, 236, 238.
Rodenberg, 278.
Seidel, 154.
Rohn,
Semitic,
278.
fractions, 33; numerals, 11,
mathematics,
2, 8, 19, 214.
Roots, and coefficients, 115, 156; cube,

73, 103; negative, 234; real and imaginary,
see
124,
also
complex; square, 69,

See also Equations.
Rope
stretchers, 193
Numbers,
70,
73,
103.
stretching, 215.
Segre,
Series, 34, 67, 71, 74, 76^ 103, 151-154.

189.
Serret, 165, 246.
Servois, 249.
Sexagesimal system,
Sieve of Eratosthenes,
Signs. See Symbols.
Solid numbers,
97-100, 109-111, 113-
34, 51.
See Regulae.
of integration, 170, 172.

151.
Salignac, in.
143, 263.
Sand-reckoner,
Sauce,
12, 13.
269.
66.
3.
Archimedes,
Spirals, 241; of
Squares, least,
Squaring
Sanskrit,
Beman and
Sonnenburg, 223^.
Spain,
115.
Ruffini, 163.
Saint-Vincent,
67.
Soleil, 277.
4, 50, 53,
Rule of three.
24, 25, 34, 64, 70,
282-284.
Snellius, 222, 243, 295.
Rothe, 132, 151.

Rudel, 245.
Rudio, 222.
Salmon,
9.
Skew determinants, 168.

Smith, D. E., i78. See
Smith. H. J. S., 253.
96, 106.
r symbol
\ifin.
275.
Sine,
Rosier, 120W.
Rudolff,
Seelhoff, i36.,
Simpson, 166.
name, 285.
Roriczer, 220.
Rosanes, 266.
Rosenhain, 188.
Roth,
Secant, c88.
Seqt, 282.
Rolle, 158.
36, 37;
112.
Scott, 240.
271, 272, 275, 276.
Roman
156, 242.
71.
210.
149.
circle.
See Circle.
Stahl, 189.
Star polygons, 218, 219, 224.

Steiner, 225, 246, 249, 251, 256-258, 265.
Stereographic projection, 266.
Stereometry,
211, 224.
Stern, 133, 139,

Stevin, 50, 228.
332
Stewart, 244.
Thompson,
Stifel, 4, 49, 52, 53. 97. 99-105, 109-111,
Timaeus,
Tonti, 56.
113, 115, 118, 220, 221, 224.
Stokes,
Tontines,
154.
57.
Torricelli, 237.
Stoll, 246.
Torus, 213.
Transformations of contact,
Stolz, I20.
Stringham,
245.
Stubbs, 266.
Sturm,
107, 266.
212.
Transon,
48, 270.
270.
Substitutions, groups, 164, 165.
Transversals,
Sun
Trenchant,
tse, 87.
Surfaces, families of, 267; models of,

277; of negative curvature, 273;
second order, 213, 262; third order,

263; skew, 255; Steiner, 256; ruled,
255-
Surveying,
178, 269
276.
144, 248.
47.
Treutlein, 52., 67, g6u., gyn.
Trigonometry,
Trisection.
281.
See Angle.
Trivium, 94.
Tschirnhausen,
'
157, 159, 165, 178, 238,
241, 242.
18, 71.
Tylor, 6.
Suter, 94.
Swan
pan, 28.
Sylow, 165.
Ubaldi, 228.
Ulpian, 56.
Sylvester, 143-147, 276.
Pope,
Sylvester
II.,
Symbols,
47, 63, 65, 71, 76, 88, 89, 95-
15.
Unger, i6n.
97 99 102, 108, 109, 117, 170, 171, 183,
Universities, rise of, 94.
Unverzagt, i29., i30,
197.
Symmedians, 245,
Symmetric determinants,
168
func-
tions, 142, 143.
Valentiner, 256.
Van Ceulen, 222.
Van der Eycke,

Tabit ibn Kurra, 136, 217.
Tables, astronomical, 286;
factor,
282;
142;
sines,
chords,
mortality,
148:
symmetric functions,
286 theory of numbers,
primes, 141
143
141;
289,
174.
Tanck, 23.
Tangent. 288.
Tannery, 33, 70,
136, 141, 156, 242.
Variations.
See Calculus
Vector, 130.
Vedas, 25.
Veronese, 275.
Versed sine, 288.
Victorius,
27.
Vieta, 107, 108, 115, 117, 119, 134, 156,

191, 222, 229, 249, 287, 288.
120.
3, 49, 51. 52, 112,
115,
155,
Vincent,
St., 151.
Vitruvius, 215.
225.
Tatstha, 29.
Taylor, B., 152, 166, 259;
Thales, 194.
Theaetetus, 212.
Theodorus,
Theon
Van Eyck, 226.

Van Schooten,
290, 293-
Tartaglia,
118, 159, 167.
trigonometric, 282, 286,
Tacquet,
222.
Vandermonde,
177.
224.
Voigt, 139.
Von Staudt, 162, 246, 249, 257-259, 263
Vooght,
34, 70.
Wafa,
292.
225, 286.
Wallis,
244.
Thirty years' war,
Thom6,
C,
-,
292.
69.
of Alexandria,
Thieme,
Vlacq,
22.
117, 125, 131, 135, 154, 173, 234.
236, 237, 242.
Waring,
143, 159, 239.
INDEX.
Weber,
189.
Weierstrass, 62, 120, 147, 178, 181,

Welsh counting, 8; practice, 53.
Wessel, 125.
Widmann,
47, 51, 220.
Wiener, 226., 245,

Witt, De, 57, 148.
Wittstein,
Wolf,
59, 2$6n.
Wordsworth, i2.
Wren, 243, 247.
X, the symbol, 97.
Year, length
i78.
VVoolhouse, zjQn.
of, 24.
278.
Zangemeister,
iio
Zeller, 139.
Zenodorus,
47, 48.
Woodhouse,
if
333
Zero,
200.
12, 16, 39, 40, 74.
Zeuthen,
68., 253, 264.
i!
It
Date Due
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Library Bureau Cat. no. 1137
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QA21.P49
3 5002 00009
4289
Fink, Karl
brief history of
mathematics;
QA
21
F49
AUTHOR
Fink.
TITLE
53299
Brief history of
mathpmflt.-i^P,
DATE DUE
BORROWER
NAME
DELL2-J3Zîi:Vi^
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V^'
X.F
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Math.
QA
F49
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3EASEHEZI
5"3 2.S^

Brief History of Ma 00 Fink

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A BRIEF

KARL FINK'S GESCHICHTE DER

WOOSTER WOODRUFF BEMAN

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

DAVID EUGENE SMITH

The Open Court Publishing

translators feel that

necessary for any rea-

encourage the study of the history of mathe-

clearer view of the science thus afforded the teacher,

the inspiration to improve his methods of presenting

creased interest in the class-work, the tendency of the subject to

these are a few of the reasons for

approving the present renaissance of the study.

which Montucla brought

must be confessed rather by

and which writers

his literary style than

Chasles in France, Quetelet in Belgium, Hankel and Baltzer in

Germany, and Boncompagni

encouraged as the century

on, is seeing a great revival in our day.

This new movement

headed by such scholars as Giinther, Enestrom, Loria, Paul

Tannery, and Zeuthen, but especially by Moritz Cantor, whose

Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Mathematik must long remain

In any movement of this kind compendia are always necessary

lack either the time or the linguistic

But the most systematic attempt

the work here translated.

Several such works have recently appeared

the leading treatises.

writers of most hand-

kind feel called upon to collect a store of anecdotes,

history of the science.

minimize the real

Fink, on the other hand, omits biography

entirely, referring the reader to a brief table in the

systematically considers the growth of

arithmetic, algebra, geometry,

and trigonometry, carrying the

development, as should be done, somewhat beyond the limits

of the ordinary course.

of the translator is a rather thankless

a target for critics of style and for critics of matter.

the translators will hardly be

not a fluent one, leaning too

always easy reading.

form, but the translators have preferred to err on the side of a

has seemed unwise to

The attempt has been made

unquestionable errors, occasional references have been added, and

Readers who are interested

has not seemed

in the subject will naturally

De Morgan, Allman, Gow,

place upon their shelves the works of

Heath, and other English writers, and, as far as

mentioned in the footnotes, and the French language

beyond the works of Chasles and Paul Tannery.

translators desire to express their obligations to Professor

Markley for valuable assistance

misleading, at least to English read-

work going considerably beyond the