Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction:
Bond strength was a more serious problem when only plain reinforcing bars were used.
Bond study in general is made considering relationship between the bond stress and slipping of
steel bar in pull out specimens. The design of structural members are based on the fundamental
assumption that exist the effective bond linking concrete and steel when the structural member is
loaded. The behavior of reinforced concrete elements depends on the steel-concrete bond and the
strength capacity of these elements is directly related with the bond.
Bond in reinforced concrete refers to the adhesion between the reinforcing steel and the
surrounding concrete. It is this bond which is responsible for the transfer of axial force from a
reinforcing bar to the surrounding concrete, thereby providing strain compatibility and
composite action of concrete and steel. If this bond is inadequate, slipping of the reinforcing
bar will occur, destroying full composite action. Hence, the fundamental assumption of the
theory of flexure, viz. plane sections remain plane even after bending, becomes valid in
reinforced concrete only if the mechanism of bond is fully effective.
It is through the action of bond resistance that the axial stress (tensile or compressive) in
a reinforcing bar can undergo variation from point to point along its length. This is required to
accommodate the variation in bending moment along the length of the flexural member. Had the
bond been absent, the stress at all points on a straight bar would be constant, as in a string or a
straight cable.
The bond resistance of plain bars is often thought of as chemical adhesion between
mortar paste and bar surface. However, even low stresses will cause sufficient slip to break the
adhesion between the concrete and the steel. Once slip occurs, further bond can be developed
only by means of friction and by the wedging action of small dislodged sand particles between
the bar and the surrounding concrete. The frictional resistance depends on the surface conditions
of the steel.

Bond resistance is achieved by the development of tangential (shear) stress components

along the interface (contact surface) between the reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete.
The stress so developed at the interface is called bond stress, and is expressed in terms of the
tangential force per unit nominal surface area of the reinforcing bar.
In this report the bond stress and slipping of steel bars in pull out specimens of Normal
strength concrete and High strength concrete, and is summarizing the results obtained with the
concretes of different theoretical strength 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 MPa, and rib bars of different
diameters 12.0, 16.0 and 20.0 mm. A statistical analysis furnished the average and the maximum
value for bond stress, and the expression to bond stress (x) vs. slipping s(x). In order to
investigate the effect of development length on bond stress and slip relationships, experimental
investigation was carried out.

1.2 Mechanisms of Bond Resistance

Bond resistance in reinforced concrete is achieved through the following mechanisms:
1. Chemical adhesion due to a gum-like property in the products of hydration (formed during
the making of concrete).
2. Frictional resistance due to the surface roughness of the reinforcement and the grip exerted
by the concrete shrinkage.
3. Mechanical interlock due to the surface protrusions or ribs (oriented transversely to the
bar axis) provided in deformed bars.
The mechanism that transfers forces between short concrete corbels surrounding the ribs
of the bars is the most important type of bond.
For the plain bars the bond is formed by two parcels: the chemical and friction that
depends of the deformed bar surface. The ultimate bond force is proportional to lateral bar area,
where occur the adhesion effect, friction and deformed surface.
For deformed bar, the strength occurs mainly by the action of these ribs. The chemical
adhesion is low, and friction not happen even when the slipping between the bar and concrete
occurs. The loading origins an internal mechanical system on concrete, where the principal
stresses need to be evaluate, and anchorage strength is limited by the smallest value of the
principal tension stress or by principal compression stress. Bond failure is connected with these

stresses. The stress transfer between the steel and the concrete happen mainly by the action of the
bar ribs on the concrete between bar salience, and the crush of concrete surrounding to the one of
these ribs not affect the bar anchorage. The stress of the one salience is transferred to others ribs.
Therefore, there are two failure situations in the bond: micro-failure, which is a local bond
failure and does not affect the anchorage, and a macro-failure, that is formed after the occurrence
of several micro failures. The second type of failure does not allow a new stress distribution, and
the bar anchorage is no more effective.
Bond failure on deformed bar happens by the followings modes:
a) Crush of the concrete surrounding to the ribs;
b) Shear of the concrete surrounding to the bar;
c) Or more frequently, by one longitudinal spalling of concrete cover;
d) One combination of these three modes.

1.3 Types of Bond

There are two types of loading situations which induce bond stresses, and accordingly
bond is characterized as:
1. Flexural bond;
2. Anchorage bond or development bond.

1.3.1 Flexural bond

Flexural bond is that which arises in flexural members on account of shear or a variation
in bending moment, which in turn causes a variation in axial tension along the length of a
reinforcing bar [Fig.]. Evidently, flexural bond is critical at points where the shear (V= dM/dx)
is significant.

1.3.2 Anchorage bond or development bond

Anchorage bond (or development bond) is that which arises over the length of anchorage
provided for a bar or near the end (or cut-off point) of a reinforcing bar; this bond resists the
pulling out of the bar if it is in tension [Fig.], or conversely, the pushing in of the bar if it is
in compression.

1.4 Bond Failure Mechanisms

The mechanisms that initiate bond failure may be any one or combination of the following:
a) Break-up of adhesion between the bar and the concrete;
b) Longitudinal splitting of the concrete around the bar;
c) Crushing of the concrete in front of the bar ribs (in deformed bars); and
d) Shearing of the concrete keyed between the ribs along a cylindrical surface surrounding the
ribs (in deformed bars).
The most common type of bond failure mechanism is the pulling loose of the
reinforcement bar, following the longitudinal splitting of the concrete along the bar embedment
[Fig.]. Occasionally, failure occurs with the bar pulling out of the concrete, leaving a circular
hole without causing extensive splitting of the concrete. Such a failure may occur with plain
smooth bars placed with large cover, and with very small diameter deformed bars (wires) having
large concrete cover. However, with deformed bars and with the normal cover provided in
ordinary beams, bond failure is usually a result of longitudinal splitting.
In the case of ribbed bars, the bearing pressure between the rib and the concrete is
inclined to the bar axis [Fig.]. This introduces radial forces in the concrete (wedging action),
causing circumferential tensile stresses in the concrete surrounding the bar (similar to the stresses
in a pipe subjected to internal pressure) and tending to split the concrete along the weakest plane.
Splitting occurs along the thinnest surrounding concrete section, and the direction of the splitting
crack (bottom splitting or side splitting) depends on the relative values of the bottom cover,
side cover and bar spacing as shown in Fig.
Splitting cracks usually appear on the surface as extensions of flexural or diagonal
tension cracks in flexural members, beginning in regions of high local bond stress [Fig. ]. With
increased loads, these cracks propagate gradually along the length of embedment (longitudinal
splitting) with local splitting at regions of high local bond stress and associated redistribution of
bond stresses. It is found that in a normal beam, local splitting can develop over 60 75 percent
of the bar length without loss of average bond strength and without adversely affecting the loadcarrying capacity of the beam. The presence of stirrups offers resistance to the propagation of
continuous longitudinal splitting cracks [Fig.]. However, in beams without stirrups, the failure

due to bond can occur early and suddenly, as the longitudinal split runs through to the end of the
bar without the resistance offered by the stirrups.

1.5 Bond Tests

Bond strength is usually ascertained by means of pull out tests or some sort of beam tests.
The pullout test measures the force required to pull an embedded metal insert with an enlarged
head from a concrete specimen or a structure.
The typical pull out test is shown schematically in Fig.. A bar embedded in a concrete
cylinder or prism is pulled until failures occurs by splitting, excessive slip or pull out. The
nominal bond strength is computed as P/ (L), where P is the pull at failure, the bar diameter
and L the length of embedment. It may be noted, however, that factors such as cracking (flexural
or diagonal tension) and dowel forces, which lower the bond resistance of a flexural member, are
not present in a concentric pull out test. Moreover, the concrete in the test specimen is subjected
to a state of compression (and not tension), and the friction at the bearing on the concrete offers
some restraint against splitting. Hence, the bond conditions in a pull out test do not ideally
represent those in a flexural member.
The bond strength measured from such a test, using the same expression [ P/(L) ] as for a
pull-out test, is bound to give a lesser (and more accurate) measure of the bond strength than the
pull out strength. However, the pull out test is easier to perform, and for this reason, more
commonly performed.

1.6 Factors Influencing Bond Strength

Bond strength is influenced by several factors. In general, bond strength is enhanced when
the following measures are adopted:
Deformed (ribbed) bars are used instead of plain bars;
Smaller bar diameters are used;
Higher grade of concrete (improved tensile strength) is used;
Increased cover is provided around each bar;
Increased length of embedment bends and /or hooks are provided;
Mechanical anchorages are employed;

 Stirrups with increased area, reduced spacing and/or higher grade of steel are used;
Termination of longitudinal reinforcement in tension zones is avoided;
Any measure that will increase the confinement of the concrete around the bar is employed.
Another factor which influences bond strength in a beam is the depth of fresh concrete
below the bar during casting. Water and air inevitably rise towards the top of the concrete mass
and tend to get trapped beneath the horizontal reinforcement, thereby weakening the bond at the
underside of these bars. For this reason, codes specify a lower bond resistance for the top
reinforcement in a beam.