Sakdrisi Gold Mine from fourth

Millenium, Southern Georgia

S. NADAREISHVILI & A. OMIADZE
Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Chavchavadze av., 0128 Tbilisi, Georgia
sergi.geology@gmail.com and alexandreomiadze@yahoo.com

Abstract
The Caucasus and especially Georgia, country of the "Golden Fleece" was always known as
rich by gold. Ancient Georgian tribes Colchis have had local practice of using fleeces to sift
gold dust from rivers. There is several gold deposits in Transcaucasus that was mined since
prehistoric times. Most interesting from them is Sakdrisi gold deposit where survey geological
works revealed ancient mine which was dated as IV- III millennium BC. This is sensational
discovery, because it is one of the earliest gold mine known worldwide.
Keywords: Stonehammer, Epithermal Deposit, Kura-Araxes Culture, gold deposits.
Introduction
Sakdrisi as well as whole Kvemo Kartli
region (Fig.1) is rich with its history.
Many archeological and architectural
monuments, dated back to Bronze Era,
Antique Era and Middle Ages, are
discovered in this district. The most
important in point of view archaeology is
Dmanisi Ancient Settlement, where after
archeological investigation the whole
history of the country and all periods of
pre-history were discovered (Dzaparidze
et.al., 1989). According to the sciences'
definition Dmanisi Homo Erectus belong
to Homo Erasers and are 1,7-1,8 million
year-old. The first homos outside Africa
was discovered in Dmanisi. And it is
already formulated the idea that Dmanisi
is the motherland of the first Europeans
(La Georgie, 2000). However, Sakdrisi
gold deposit is most interesting in the
point of view archaeometallurgy. It is
quite logical to ask if metals of the
southern Caucasus, especially form
Kvemo Kartli, did play role in
international trading networks especially
during the Kura-Araxes period when

Sakdrisi gold mine had been exploited.

The goal of the Georgian-German
expedition was detailed excavation of at
least one mine in order to be able to
calculate effort and extraction rate as well
as the gold outcome of such prehistoric
enterprise. The investigation of the
ancient method of the gold recovery was
the main goal right form the beginning.

Fig.1 | Location of Sakdrisi, Georgia

Dating
Wide application of natural and technical
sciences, offers the great opportunities for
dating archaeological monuments with the
view of
determining their cultural
belonging. The studies carried out by us
serve the above stated goal. On the one
hand, there are ceramic items found in the
mine, which may provide a vital clue as to
the age of this discovery. Along with
ancient stone artefacts it is a fact that this
mine contained articles of ceramics typical
of Kura-Araxes culture, which, to
emphasize the point, were found in an
intact cultural layer. On the other hand
there are wood charcoal samples were
collected for analyses at the institute of
Physics under the Heidelberg Academy of
Sciences. The Exact age of radiocarbon
was computed and set at 3018-2929 B.C
(Stollner et al., 2008).
Geological setting
Sakdrisi deposit is located in the ArtvinBolnisi tectonic zone. The latter is
continuing to the west in the Turkish (Fig.
2) Pontides and farther to the Bulgarian
srednegora. Eastern-Pontides, ArtvinBolnisi and Adjara-Trialety zones belong
to the Northtethyan paleo island arc system
(Adamia
et.al.,1995).
Mineralization
within this corridor is widespread and
includes such deposit as Chelopech,
Elshitsa and Medet (Bulgaria), Murgul,
Artvin-Borchka, Cheratepe and Chaely
(NE Turkey), Kafan (Armenia) and
Madneuli, Dambludka, Sakdrisi (Georgia).
The deposit styles within this corridor
includes kuroko-style Cu-Pl-Zn-Ag-Ba-Au
deposits, porphyry Cu-Au deposits,
hydrothermal, stockwork and vein Au
deposits and stockwork Cu-Pb-Zn-Au-Ba
mineralization (Gugushvili et.al., 2001).
The Bolnisi ore district is situated 60-80
km South-West of the Capital of Georgia,
Tbilisi, in the vicinity of the administrative
centre of Bolnisi region. The ore district
contains several gold bearing copper- leadzinc-barite deposits. The most important

from them are Madneuli, Sakdrisi and

Khatissopeli (Tsitelsopeli). The deposits
occur in Late Cretaceous volcanic suite
and are controlled by late Cretaceous
volcanic
structure,
represents
the
alternation of rhyolitic ignimbrites and
andesite-andesite-basaltic
lavas
and
volcanoclastics. The rocks of ore bearing

Fig. 2 | The scheme of the main structural units of

the Caucasus-eastern pontides (After Adamia et al.,
1995).
1 - Throughts with suboceanic crust in the black sea and the
south Caspian basins; 2 - Ophiolitic Suture zone; 3 - BayburtKarabakh unit, eastern limb; 4 - Bayburt-Karabakh unit western
limb; 5 - Latest Cretaceous-Paleogene Basaltic throughs of
Adjara-Trialety and Talysh. A - Anatolia; AB - Artvin-Bolnisi
unit; AT - Adjara -Trialeti unit; BK-E - Bayburt - Karabakh unit,
eastern limb; BK-W - Bayburt - Karabakh unit, western limb;
GC - Greater Caucasus; NT - Northern Transcaucasian unit; P Pontides; SA - South Armenian block; SP- Scythian platform; T Talysh

level are filling the volcanic depressions

(calderas). The upper stratigraphic
horizons of this sequence are represented
by rhyolithic ignimbrites and pumiceous
pyroclastic flows (K-Ar age - 77.6 Ma).
They are intruded by rhyolithic rhyodacitic
extrusive domes (K-Ar age - 72-71 Ma)
(Gugushvili, 2000).
Sakdrisi deposit
Sakdrisi deposit is located in the
subsidence of Darbazi-Abulmulk caldera.
It is composed by felsic Upper Cretaceous
Ignimbrites, Tuffs and rhyolitic lava flows.
Ore bodies in Sakdrisi deposit are hosted in
the
Mashavera
Suite's
Coniacian
sediments. They are presented by
alternation of felsic turbiditic tuffs, tuffsandstones, tuff-allevrolites and tuffargillites. The chemical composition (Table
1) of fluid inclusions from the mineralized
zones

Sample

Sum

SiO2

Al2O3

(%)

(%)

(%)

GEO-28/16

94.934

85.64

5.12

GEO-28/19

96.85

72.96

10.35

GEO-28/21

95.64

81.76

8.78

GEO-28/26

96.101

78.06

8.15

GEO-28/27

95.128

67.82

13.22

GEO-28/29

94.885

77.6

9.43

Table. 1 Silicate analysis of rocks (Omiadze, 2007)

indicates, that gold generation is related

with alkaline carbonic acid solutions (Fig.
3). The optimal conditions for gold
mineralization
coincides
with
hydrothermal activity, which revealed in
siderite-hydrobiotite alteration formed in
two stages at 240-250 oC and 100-140 oC.
The latter is related to low temperature
quartz-barite veins (Gugushvili et al.,
2001).
For Sakdrisi gold is characteristic high
purity, it varies between 800-987 (parts per
thousand) and always contains admixture
of silver 1,3-20%. By the grain size we can
classify Sakdrisi gold as fine-dispersive
(0.001 - 0.07 mm).

Fig. 3 | Schematic model of epithermal Au deposit

In Bolnisi depression occur several

endogenic mineralization, where we can
distinguish 2 stage of mineralization: lower
Madneuli - bounded with calc-alkaline
volcanic series and upper Sakdrisi
magmatism.

Main horizons of mine are represented by

tuffs (Mashavera suite), which are mainly
argillized. Acid tuffs and tefrits are
replaced
by
hydromica
(illite,
montmorillonite), Kaolinite, Dikite. Within
Bolnisi mining district economic reserves
of gold mineralization are contained in
hydrothermal argillites and silicified rocks
secondary quartzites. The latter also
contain mineable reserve of copper-pyrite
and barite-polymetallic mineralization. The
average gold content in the ores is
approximately 4-5 g/t, whereas in the
secondary quartzites it is 1.3 g/t. The main
reserves of gold mineralization here are
associated with ''secondary quartzites'' and
hydrothermal argillites. This is due to large
volume and relatively even distribution of
the gold grade through the secondary
quartzites.
Gold Extraction
It was doubtlessly the most important
result to have found considerable quantities
of Kura-Araxes ceramics. The mine can be
followed under surface about 25m. Most of
galleries have been advanced hammering
work and by help of fire-setting for
weaking the hard rock. The high technical
level of hammering work can easily be
understood when one looks on the quantity
and the different types of hammer-stones.
The deposit itself consists mainly by gold
bearing quartz-vein while the host rocks
are composed of softer rhyolitic and other
volcanic rocks but silicified in the contact
zone and therefore quite as hard as the
quartz vein itself.

Quartz veins are extremely hard, so, often

ancient miners used heating of rocks with
fire to make them hammer responsive. The
fact is that the narrow walls of the mining
work are sootblacked. Afterwards crashed
material was pounded in anvil stone.
Concentration of gold in some part of
deposit are anomalous and occurs about 50
g/t and even more. After crashing and
pounding the material was washed in the
river where finally gold was obtained.
Well-preserved board faces clearly show
fire-setting and crushing work with the
hammer. The grooved hammers used in
this are so varied in shape and type, that
one has to suppose the existence of
specialized tools for coping with even the
smallest gold-bearing quartz veins.
Numerous anvil and separation stones give
evidence of a busy ore processing activity.
We may suppose the further steps of
processing, e.g. the washing of the gold, to
have happened at the river Mashavera, but
the corresponding sites have not yet been
found, as have the settlements where the
gold was melted down in crucibles.
Carried out investigations of stone tools
revealed, that they are made by pebbles,
brought from river Mashavera valley. They
are represented
basically by mafic
(basalts) and intermediate (andesite) rocks
of calc-alkaline composition (Fig. 4). To
make a hammer the requirements are: a
stone of suitable size, weight and shape, a
strong but flexible piece of wood that can
be made into a handle, and something to
hold them securely together, such they
withstand the repeated shock of use. A
stone held in the hand can be, and probably
was, used on occasion, but a stone with a
handle is more efficient and such less
damaging to the hands and arms. There is a
very little surviving evidence of hafted
stone hammers from anywhere in the
world, despite many reports of the stones
themselves. There are to many reason for
this absence: the very unusual environmental conditions required and it is
suspected, that there may not have been
much of the hafting left to preserved. The
conditions for preservation would be

extreme aridity, or extreme wet and

anaerobic. Unfortunately in Bolnisi we
havent such a climate conditions and
hafted stone hammers are not survived
(Nadareishvili, 2007).

Fig. 4 | TAS (Total Alkali Silica) diagram for stone

tools

Samples for analysis were taken from

cultural layer of Sakdrisi mine and from
nearby territories of the mine. Because of
the rich variety of pebbles there were
chosen 40 samples- 28/31-28/71. On the
basis of microscopical and chemical
analysis it was determined main type of the
rock.
Conclusion
By its geotectonic position, as well as the
composition of the host volcanic rocks, the
Sakdrisi deposit is similar to volcanogenic
epithermal gold deposits (VED), which are
associated with calc-alkaline volcanism of
subduction zones. The tectonic corridor
developed during the subduction and
collision of the Afro-Arabian (Southern)
beneath the Eurasian (Northern) plate
resulting in closure of the Northern branch
of the Tethys.
On the Sakdrisi mine gold occurs in low
temperature quartz veins. Kachagiani hill
(North-Eastern site of the deposit) presumably was very rich in gold. Enormous
number of found stone tools tell us, that
extraction of gold was carried out by using
ancient techniques. They used fire-setting
for mechanical decomposition of this
material and after crashing them with anvil

stone they extracted gold by gravitational

separation in river.
Acknowledgements
Presented investigation financially was
supported by Volkswagen Foundation. We
thank the Tbilisi State University
department of Geology including Prof. V.
Koiava, Prof. B. Tutberidze, Prof. K.
Akimidze,
Prof. A. Magalashvili.
Geologists M. Natsvlishvili and M.
Chokhonelidze who helped us to get very
important information about Sakdrisi
deposit. Special thank to German MiningMuseum and Geological Institute of
Georgia to contribution.
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