Statistical Process Control

Second Edition

SPC
Statistical Process Control -

SPC - Second Edition

STATISTICAL PROCESS
CONTROL
(SPC)

REFERENCE MANUAL

Copyright 1992, 1995, 2005

Daimler Chrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, and General Motors Corporation
ISBN# 978-1-60534-108-8

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Continual Improvement and Statistical Process Control......................................................................... 1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Six Points ............................................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER I Section A ............................................................................................................................ 7
Prevention Versus Detection ..................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER I Section B ............................................................................................................................ 9
A Process Control System......................................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER I Section C .......................................................................................................................... 13
Variation: Common................................................................................................................................. 13
and Special Causes .................................................................................................................................. 13
CHAPTER I Section D .......................................................................................................................... 17
Local Actions And Actions On The System ........................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER I Section E .......................................................................................................................... 19
Process Control and Process Capability .................................................................................................. 19
Control vs. Capability.......................................................................................................................... 19
Process Indices .................................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER I Section F........................................................................................................................... 25
The Process Improvement Cycle and Process Control............................................................................ 25
CHAPTER I Section G .......................................................................................................................... 29
Control Charts: Tools For Process Control and Improvement ............................................................... 29
How do they work? .............................................................................................................................. 30
Approach: ............................................................................................................................................ 32
CHAPTER I Section H .......................................................................................................................... 37
Effective Use and Benefits of Control Charts ......................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER II............................................................................................................................................. 41
Control Charts ......................................................................................................................................... 41
Introduction:........................................................................................................................................ 43
Variables Control Charts .................................................................................................................... 45
Attributes Control Charts .................................................................................................................... 47
Elements of Control Charts ................................................................................................................. 48
CHAPTER II - Section A ......................................................................................................................... 53
Control Chart Process.............................................................................................................................. 53
Preparatory Steps ................................................................................................................................ 53
Control Chart Mechanics .................................................................................................................... 55
Establish Control Limits .................................................................................................................. 59
Interpret for Statistical Control ........................................................................................................ 60
Final Comments ............................................................................................................................... 63
Extend Control Limits for Ongoing Control.................................................................................... 65
CHAPTER II - Section B ......................................................................................................................... 69
Defining Out-of-Control Signals ......................................................................................................... 69
Point Beyond a Control Limit.............................................................................................................. 69
Patterns or Trends Within the Control Limits ..................................................................................... 70
Special Cause Criteria......................................................................................................................... 75
Average Run Length (ARL).................................................................................................................. 76
CHAPTER II - Section C ......................................................................................................................... 79
Control Chart Formulas........................................................................................................................... 79

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Variables Control Charts .................................................................................................................... 79

( X , R ) ............................................................................................. 79
Average and Standard Deviation Charts ( X , s ) ........................................................................... 83
Average and Range Charts

Median and Range Charts

( X , R ) ................................................................................................. 85

Individuals and Moving Range Charts

( X , MR ) ........................................................................ 87

Attributes Control Charts .................................................................................................................... 89

Control Charts for Nonconforming Items ........................................................................................ 89
Proportion Nonconforming (p Chart)............................................................................................... 89
Number of Nonconforming Chart (np Chart) .................................................................................. 93
Number of Nonconformities per Unit Chart (u Chart)..................................................................... 95
Number of Nonconformities Chart (c Chart) ................................................................................... 97
CHAPTER III ........................................................................................................................................... 99
Other Types of Control Charts ................................................................................................................ 99
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 101
Probability Based Charts .................................................................................................................. 101
Short-Run Control Charts.................................................................................................................. 107
Charts for Detecting Small Changes ................................................................................................. 109
Non-Normal Charts ........................................................................................................................... 113
Multivariate ....................................................................................................................................... 116
Other Charts ...................................................................................................................................... 117
Regression Control Charts ............................................................................................................. 117
Residual Charts .............................................................................................................................. 118
Autoregressive Charts .................................................................................................................... 118
Zone Charts .................................................................................................................................... 121
CHAPTER IV.......................................................................................................................................... 125
Understanding Process Capability......................................................................................................... 125
and Process Performance for Variables Data ........................................................................................ 125
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 127
CHAPTER IV - Section A ...................................................................................................................... 131
Definitions of Process Terms ................................................................................................................ 131
Process Measures for Predictable Processes ......................................................................................... 132
Indices Bilateral Tolerances.......................................................................................................... 132
Indices Unilateral Tolerances ....................................................................................................... 137
CHAPTER IV - Section B ...................................................................................................................... 139
Description of Conditions ..................................................................................................................... 139
Handling Non-Normal and Multivariate Distributions ......................................................................... 140
Relationship of Indices and Proportion Nonconforming................................................................... 140
Non-Normal Distributions Using Transformations........................................................................... 140
Non-Normal Distributions Using Non-Normal Forms ...................................................................... 142
Multivariate Distributions ................................................................................................................. 144
CHAPTER IV - Section C ...................................................................................................................... 147
Suggested Use of Process Measures ..................................................................................................... 147
The Loss Function Concept ............................................................................................................... 148
Alignment of Process to Customer Requirements.............................................................................. 153
APPENDIX A .......................................................................................................................................... 157
Some Comments on Sampling .............................................................................................................. 157
Effects of Subgrouping....................................................................................................................... 157

Autocorrelated Data .......................................................................................................................... 157

Multiple Stream Process Example..................................................................................................... 162
Effects of Sample Size on Indices....................................................................................................... 168
APPENDIX B .......................................................................................................................................... 171
Some Comments on Special Causes ..................................................................................................... 171
Over-Adjustment ................................................................................................................................ 171
Time Dependent Processes ................................................................................................................ 173
Repeating Patterns............................................................................................................................. 175
APPENDIX C .......................................................................................................................................... 177
Selection Procedure for the Use of the Control Charts Described in This Manual............................... 177
APPENDIX D .......................................................................................................................................... 179
Relationship Between Cpm and Other Indices ....................................................................................... 179
APPENDIX E .......................................................................................................................................... 181
Table of Constants and Formulas for Control Charts............................................................................ 181
APPENDIX F .......................................................................................................................................... 185
Capability Index Calculations Example ................................................................................................ 185
Data Set: ................................................................................................................................................ 186
Analysis................................................................................................................................................. 187
Diameter Statistics: ........................................................................................................................... 188
Conclusion:........................................................................................................................................ 190
APPENDIX G.......................................................................................................................................... 191
Glossary of Terms and Symbols ........................................................................................................... 191
Terms Used in This Manual............................................................................................................... 191
Symbols as Used in This Manual...................................................................................................... 204
APPENDIX H.......................................................................................................................................... 211
References and Suggested Readings ..................................................................................................... 211
APPENDIX I ........................................................................................................................................... 215
Standard Normal Tables........................................................................................................................ 215
INDEX...................................................................................................................................................... 217
S.P.C. Manual User Feedback Process ................................................................................................. 221

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure I.1: A Process Control System........................................................................................................... 8
Figure I.2: Variation: Common Cause and Special Cause.......................................................................... 12
Figure I.3: Process Control and Process Capability.................................................................................... 18
Figure I.4: The Process Improvement Cycle .............................................................................................. 24
Figure I.5: Control Charts ........................................................................................................................... 28
Figure II.1: Variables Data ......................................................................................................................... 44
Figure II.2: Attributes Data......................................................................................................................... 46
Figure II.3: Elements of Control Charts...................................................................................................... 49
Figure II.4a: Sample Control Chart (Front side)........................................................................................ 51
Figure II.4b: Sample Control Chart (back side) Event Log ..................................................................... 52
Figure II.5: Extending Control Limits ........................................................................................................ 56
Figure II.6: Control Limits Recalculation................................................................................................... 61
Figure II.7: Extend Control Limits for Ongoing Control............................................................................ 64
Figure II.8: Process Variation Relative to Specification Limits ................................................................. 67
Figure II.9: Points Beyond Control Limits ................................................................................................. 70
Figure II.10: Runs in an Average Control Chart......................................................................................... 71
Figure II.11: Runs in a Range Control Chart .............................................................................................. 72
Figure II.12: Nonrandom Patterns in a Control Chart................................................................................. 74
Figure II.13: Average and Range Charts .................................................................................................... 78
Figure II.14: Average and Standard Deviation Charts................................................................................ 82
Figure II.15: Median and Range Charts...................................................................................................... 84
Figure II.16: Individual and Moving Range Charts .................................................................................... 86
Figure II.17: Proportion Nonconforming Chart .......................................................................................... 88
Figure II.18: Number of Nonconforming Chart.......................................................................................... 92
Figure II.19: Number of Nonconforming per Unit Chart ........................................................................... 94
Figure II.20: Number of Nonconformities Chart ........................................................................................ 96
Figure III.1: Control Charts ...................................................................................................................... 100
Figure III.2: Stoplight Control .................................................................................................................. 102
Figure III.3: Pre-Control ........................................................................................................................... 105
Figure III.4: DNOM Control Chart........................................................................................................... 108
Figure III.5: CUSUM Chart with V-Mask................................................................................................ 109
Figure III.6: X, MR Chart .......................................................................................................................... 110
Figure III.7: EWMA Chart of Viscosity ................................................................................................... 112
Figure III.8: X, MR Chart of Viscosity..................................................................................................... 112
Figure IV.1: Within- and Between-Subgroup Variation........................................................................... 130
Figure IV.2: Cpk and Ppk Comparison ........................................................................................................ 133
Figure IV.3: Comparison between a Predictable and Immature Process.................................................. 135
Figure IV.4: Cpk and Ppk Values Produced by a Predictable and Immature Process .............................. 136
Figure IV.5: Goal Post vs. Loss Function ............................................................................................. 148
Figure IV.6: Comparison of Loss Function and Specifications ................................................................ 150
Figure IV.7: Comparison of Loss Functions............................................................................................. 151
Figure IV.8: A Process Control System.................................................................................................... 152
Figure IV.9: Process Alignment to Requirements .................................................................................... 154

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