Biogas Production in Rural

Communities
ENGR. PROFESSOR I. N. ITODO
DEAN, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
MAKURDI, NIGERIA
E-MAIL: DRITODO@YAHOO.COM

Sensitization and Awareness Forum (SAF) on Renewable Energy

Initiatives in Edo State, Barden-Barden Hotel,
Benin, 25th August, 2009

Outline
2

Introduction
Feedstocks
Production
Factors affecting production
Methods of improving production
Economics
Technologies
Types of plants
Construction of plant

Preconstruction considerations
Construction

Operation
Output and pressure

Maintenance
Safety issues

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
3

Biogas is produced when biomass is subjected to

biological gasification.
Nigerias animal waste resource base is estimated to
be 61 million tonnes/year
Nigerias crop residue resource base is estimated to
be 83 million tonnes/year

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Nigerias Renewable Resources

Energy source

Capacity

Hydropower, large scale

10,000

Hydropower, small scale

734 MW

Fuelwood

13,071,464 ha (forest land

1981)

Animal waste

61 million tonnes/year

Crop residue

83 million tonnes/year

Solar radiation

3.5-7.0 kWh/m2-day

Wind

2.4 m/s (annual average)

ECN (2005). Renewable Energy Resources, Technology and Markets. Renewable Energy
Master Plan. Energy Commission of Nigeria, Abuja. Pp.3-4

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
5

Biogas is a methane-rich gas produced from the

anaerobic digestion of organic materials.

It is a high-grade fuel of 22 MJ/m3 (15.6MJ/kg).
The density of biogas is 1.2 kg/l at atmospheric
pressure, which makes it denser than air.
The biomass materials are held in a digester or
reactor.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
6

The gas is produced from a three-phase process namely,

hydrolysis, acid-forming and methane-forming phases.

It is a biological-engineering process in which a complex set of
environmentally sensitive micro-organisms are involved.
The gas is typically composed of 70% methane, 30% carbon
dioxide, 1-10% hydrogen, 1-3% nitrogen, 0.1% oxygen and
carbon monoxide and traces of hydrogen sulphide.
Factors affecting the production of this gas include
temperature, pH, total solids concentration of the slurry,
digester type and design, presence of toxic ingredients in the
waste stream and the carbon to nitrogen ratio of the slurry.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
7

Biogas is used for cooking and heating and as such can be

used in unit operations like frying and cold storage of

agricultural produces such as the refrigeration of fruit
and vegetables.
Worldwide installed power capacity of biomass for gridconnected power generation and estimated annual
energy generation in 2008 is 4 GW and 227-357 TWh
Bubbling the gas through lime solution purifies it by
removing the carbon dioxide thereby improving its
heating value to about 56 MJ/m3.
The hydrogen sulphide is removed by bubbling the gas
through sawdust impregnated with iron filling in a
mixture of 1:1.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
8

The advantages of this technology are:

It is also a waste management technique because the
anaerobic treatment process eliminates the harmful
micro-organisms. About 85% of the pathogens contained
in the waste are killed by the anaerobic digestion process.
The digested slurry is relatively odourless and attracts
much fewer flies than the fresh slurry.
Anaerobic digestion has also been used for sewage
treatment.
It is a cheap source of energy because the feedstock is
usually waste materials.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
9

The technology ensures energy independence as a

unit can meet the needs of a family or community.

The digested slurry is a good fertilizer. It is claimed
that its value as fertilizer could double crop yield.
The treated effluent from the anaerobic digestion
process is a good animal feed when treated and
mixed with molasses and grains.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
10

The disadvantages of the technology are:

Gas yield from the digester may not be steady which
therefore makes it unreliable thereby necessitating
storage.
It is a low-pressure gas production system and as
such cannot be bottled for use outside the site of
production thereby restricting the technology only to
the site of production.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
11

To date the main interest in the third world in biogas

technology has come from countries of Asia and the

Pacific region.
Despite the numerous advantages of using biogas
technology as a source of energy and a source of
nitrogen-rich fertilizer, it has made only little impact in
Africa and Latin America.
Attitude to biogas technology varies from region to
region. While the west often sees new and renewable
energy sources as morally superior, green or soft or
appropriate, the third world suspects that they are
second-class technology.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
12

The Sokoto Energy Research Centre has constructed and

operated more than twenty one (21) biogas plants of 10

20 m3 capacity across the country using different
feedstocks such as cow dung, human excreta, piggery and
poultry wastes.
The Raw Materials Research and Development Council
funded the construction of a float-drum type of biogas
plant at the University of Agriculture, Makurdi in 1999.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
has successfully introduced the floating drum, plastic
balloon and other types of biogas plants to Yobe, Kano
and Jigawa states under the African 2000 Low
Technology Biogas System.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Introduction
13

The success story of the use of biogas in Nigeria is

illustrated by its use in Kwachiri community where a

family of forty (40) have been using it for their daily
cooking needs since 2003.
The United Nations Development Programme has
also introduced this technology to some abattoirs in
some Northern states of Nigeria.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Fig. 1: Biogas plant at the University of Agriculture, Makurdi

and the burning flame from the plant

Prof. I. N. Itodo

14

Feedstocks
15

Animal wastes and plant residues are excellent

feedstock for biogas production because they are

organic compounds that contain carbon and
nitrogen in the required proportion.
Animal waste such as poultry waste, cattle waste,
piggery waste and human excreta are used in biogas
production.
Crop residues and crops such as water hyacinth have
also successfully been used as feedstock in biogas
production.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Calculated manure production of Nigerias livestock

Livestock

Manure
produced
(million
tonnes)

Population
based on
FMA, 1997
(million)

Manure
produced
2001
calculated
(million
tonnes)

Cattle

170.4

21

197.6

Sheep

13

38.5

15.1

Goat

21.1

62.4

24.5

Pig

13.2

9.6

15.3

Poultry

28.1

42.9

32.6

Total

245.9

285.1

ECN (2005). Renewable Energy Resources, Technology and Markets. Renewable Energy
Master Plan. Energy Commission of Nigeria, Abuja. Pp.3-4

Prof. I. N. Itodo

16

Production
17

Biogas is produced from a three-phase process

namely the hydrolysis, acid-forming and methaneforming phases.

In the hydrolysis phase, extra cellular enzymes
secreted by acidogens break down the complex
organic material into simple, soluble molecules.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Production
18

These molecules are broken down into volatile fatty

acids (e.g. propionic and butyric acids), carbon

dioxide, ammonia and hydrogen by acidogens in the
acid-forming phase.
In the methane-forming phase, methanogens or
methane-formers convert the VFA into methane,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and
hydrogen sulphide. In this phase too, a synthesis of
carbon dioxide and hydrogen takes place to also
form methane and water.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Feedstock (e.g. poultry waste) + water

Hydrolysis phase

Simple soluble molecules

Acid-forming phase

VFA, NH3, CO2, H2, etc

Methane-forming phase

CO2+4H2= CH4+2H2O

CH4, CO2, N, H2, H2S

Fig.2: Flow diagram of biogas production process

Prof. I. N. Itodo

19

Factors affecting biogas production

20

Temperature
Total solids concentration (TS)

Retention time
pH
Loading rate
Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of slurry
Toxicity

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Temperature
21

Temperature is an important parameter that affects

biogas production.
This is because it affects the enzymatic activities of
the
micro-organism
responsible
for
the
bioconversion of substrates into gas.
Biogas can be produced at the psychophilic (below
20c), mesophilic (20c-40c) and thermophilic
(40c-65c) temperatures.
Table 1 is the advantages and disadvantages of
producing gas at each of these temperatures.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Temperature
Advantage(s)
range
Psychophilic None

Mesophilic

Prof. I. N. Itodo

This
temperature
corresponds
to
the
ambient temperature of
the Tropics and as such
no heating is required
thus reducing cost of
production

22

Disadvantage(s)
1. Bioconversion
is
slow and incomplete
2. Longer
detention
time is required
3. Heating
of
the
digester is required
Longer detention time
may be required to
enable
complete
conversion
of
the
available carbon

Thermophilic

Prof. I. N. Itodo

1. Higher rate of gas Digestion is

production
upset
at
2. Allows heavier organic temperature
loading
3. Lower detention time
4. Enables the use of
comparatively smaller
size digesters
5. Digestion is much
more sanitary than
digestion at the other
temperatures because
of the few pathogens
that can survive at this
temperature
6. Mechanical transport
and handling of the
digester
is
easier
because the slurry is
less viscous
23

easily
this

Total solids concentration of slurry (TS)

24

Slurry is diluted by the addition of liquid and concentrated by the

addition of slurry solids.

Slurries of feedstock used in the anaerobic digestion process to
produce biogas are usually classified as low (less than 10% TS) and
high (TS greater than 20%).
Low TS
Slurries of low TS are easier to handle by pumps and pipe works
compared to those of high TS.
If the slurry is too thin, the solid matter separates and falls to the
bottom instead of remaining in suspension resulting in reduced gas
yield.
High TS
If the slurry is too thick, the biogas produced is trapped within the
slurry and rises to the surface with great difficulty resulting in
reduced gas yield.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Retention time
25

Generally, 30 days is considered as a minimum time

frame for optimum bacterial decomposition to take

place to produce biogas and destroy the toxic
pathogens found in waste.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

pH
26

The pH value of the slurry in the digester is an

important indicator of methanogenic performance.

In the absence of any other indicator, pH value alone
has been used to check the digester environment.
Gas will be produced if the pH is between 6.6 and
7.6. Gas production is highest when the pH is
between 7.0 and 7.2.
Beyond this pH limits, digestion can proceed but
with less efficiency.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Loading rate
27

The quantity of waste that is fed into a digester depends

on the capacity of the digester, the temperature at which

digestion is taking place, the retention time and the
efficiency of bioconversion of the waste into biogas.
Increasing the loading rate after the optimum value
increases the TS concentration of the slurry, which
results in an accumulation of some inhibitory
compounds that reduce the rate of gas yield.
In a simple biogas plant, 1.5 kg/m3/day is already quite a
high loading rate. Temperature controlled and
mechanically stirred large scale plants can be loaded at
about 5 kg/m3/day.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Carbon- to-Nitrogen ratio of slurry

28

The microbial population involved in anaerobic digestion

requires sufficient nutrient to grow and multiply. Each species

require both a source of carbon and nitrogen.
If there is an insufficient quantity of nitrogen present, the
bacteria will be unable to produce the enzymes which are
needed to utilize the carbon.
If there is too much nitrogen, particularly in the form of
ammonia, it can inhibit the growth of bacteria.
An optimum ratio of Carbon to Nitrogen (C: N) of
between 20:1 and 30:1 is recommended for optimum
methanogenic performance.
A deficiency in the carbon content of animal manure used for
anaerobic digestion can be corrected by the addition of plant
wastes, which are high in carbon content.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Toxicity
29

Many compounds can be toxic to methanogens if present

in sufficient concentration in digesters although some are

needed, they quickly become inhibitory. Sources of
toxicity in biogas plants are:
The various salts, heavy metals such as Copper, Zinc and
Nikel present in the waste, antibiotics in the feed for
animals that produce the waste and ammonia
concentrations of the slurry in excess of 3000 mg/l.
Formation of aromatics such as phenol, P-cresol, ethyl
phenol, indole and skatole during the microbial
degradation of proteins contained in the waste being fed
into the digester.
High concentrations of volatile fatty acids in the digester.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Methods of improving biogas production

30

The anaerobic digestion process can be improved by

the pre-treatment of organic wastes, the mixing of

different waste types, the addition of chemicals and
use of media materials among others.
The addition of certain chemicals such as nickel
accelerates and increases gas yield.
The use of mixed substrate. E.g. 25% poultry manure
and 75% brewery waste water.
Pre-treatment of the feedstock such as milling to
diminish the particle size, swelling in an alkaline
solution and heating of the feedstock.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Methods of improving biogas production

31

Re-concentrating flushed waste (waste to which

fresh waste has been added to increase its TS

concentration).
Stirring or mixing of the digester content.
Two-phase anaerobic digestion of waste. The twophase concept consists of first digesting the waste in
an acid phase. The gaseous and liquid products of
this phase are separately conveyed into separate
methane fermenters to enable biogas production.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Economics of Biogas Production

32

A biogas plant is economically viable if:

1 m3 of biogas is produced from 1m3 of digester
volume
18-20 m3 of biogas is produced from 1m3 of feedstock

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Biogas Technology
33

Types of Plants
The floating-drum and fixed-drum plants are the two
basic types of tested biogas plants that have gained
widespread acceptance.
The floating drum plant has a metal gasholder that floats
on the digester while in the fixed-drum plant gas storage
is by the displacement principle.
Biogas is produced from digesters, which consist of two
basic parts: a tank, which holds the slurry (manure and
water) and a gas cap drum seal on the tank, which
captures the gas released from the slurry.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Fig. 3: Floating-drum Plant

Prof. I. N. Itodo

34

Fig. 4: Fixed dome plant

Prof. I. N. Itodo

35

Construction of Biogas Plants

36

Preconstruction consideration
Availability of feedstock to meet the daily need of
manure to be fed into the digester
Location
Sizing of plant
Material of construction
Tools

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Availability of feedstock
37

The amount of manure fed daily into a digester is

determined by the volume of the digester itself,

divided over a period of 30-40 days.
Thirty days is chosen as a minimum time frame for

optimum bacterial decomposition to take place to

produce biogas and destroy many of the toxic
pathogens found in wastes.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Location
38

The digester pit should not be dug within 13 meters of a drinking

water well or spring.

If the water table is reached during digging, it will be necessary to
cement the inside of the digester pit although this increases the cost.
The digester should be located near the source of the feedstock so
that excessive time is not spent transporting the manure.
Be sure that there is enough space to construct the digester.
Be sure that water is readily available for mixing with the manure.
Provision should be made for slurry storage.
Select a site that is open and exposed to the sun.
Locate the gas plant near the point of gas consumption this tends to
reduce cost and pressure losses in piping the gas.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Sizing of Biogas Plant

39

How much gas can be expected per day from the

available feedstock?
o
o
o
o
o

The available feedstock is from six (6) cattle

Each cattle produces an average of 10 kg of waste per day
1 kg of fresh manure yields 0.05 m3 of biogas
The animals will, therefore, produce about 3.0 m3 of gas
Therefore, the size of the plant will be 3 m3.

How much gas is required to meet the needs of the user?

o

o
o

Six (6) persons are required to use the plant to meet their cooking
and lighting needs
Each person requires an average of 0.6 m3 of gas for lighting and
cooking per day
Therefore, six (6) persons will require 3.6 m3 of gas per day

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Sizing of biogas plant

40

What will be the volume of the fermentation tank or

pit needed to handle the required mixture of manure

and water?
o
o
o
o

o
o
o

The ratio of manure to water is 1: 1

6 cattle will give 60 kg/manure + 60 kg/water = 120 kg
The total input per day will be 120 kg
The input for six weeks (42 days) will be 120 kg x 42 days =
5040 kg
The rule of the thumb is 1000 kg = 1 m3
Therefore, 5040 kg is 5.4 m3
The minimum capacity of the fermentation well is 5.4 m3

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Sizing of biogas plant

41

What size and shape of fermentation tank or pit is

required?
o

The shape of the tank is determined by the soil, subsoil and

water table. The example illustrated assumes that the earth is
not too hard to dig out and that the water table is low even in
the rainy season.
An approximate size for the 6 m3 tank would be a diameter of
1.5 m. Therefore, the depth required is 2.3 m.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Sizing of biogas plant

42

What is the volume of the gas storage cap?

o The drum is made to hold between 60% to 70% of the total
daily gas production
o Therefore, the volume of the gas holder will be 70% x 4 m3 =
2.8 m3
o If the gas holder is of diameter 1.5 m, the height of the gas
holder will be 1.1 m

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Materials of Construction
43

The materials required for construction of the 4 m3 plant

are:
Baked bricks, approximately 4000
Cement, foundation and wall covering, 28 -40 bags of
(50 kg) cement
Sand 12 m3
Copper wire screen (25 cm x 25 cm)
Rubber or plastic hose
Gas outlet pipe 3 cm in diameter
Mild steel sheeting 0.32 mm (30 gauge) to 1.63 mm (16
gauge) -9 m
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Tools
44

Some of the tools required for construction are:

Welding equipment for gas cap construction, pipe

fittings, etc
Shovels for concrete and masonry works
Metal saw and blades for cutting steel

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Construction
45

Foundation and Walls

Dig a pit 1.5 m in diameter to a depth of 2.5 m
Line the floor and walls of the pit with baked brick bound
with lime mortar or clay.
Make a ledge or cornice at two-thirds the height of the pit
from the bottom. The ledge should be some 15 cm wide
for the gas cap to rest on when empty.
Extend the brickworks 30-40 cm above the ground, to
bring the total depth of the pit to approximately 3 m.
Build the ledge up to the height of the brickwork
extension above the ground. This forms the space to be
filled with water in which the gas holder with sit in and
float.
Prof. I. N. Itodo

Fig. 5: Construction of biogas plant at the University of Agriculture, Makurdi

Prof. I. N. Itodo

46

Foundation and walls

47

Put in place the input and output piping for the

slurry from 20 cm clay pipe. Place the input pipe 70

cm above the bottom of the pit.
Place the output pipe 40 cm above the bottom of the
pit opposite the input pipe and end at ground level.
Put copper screening of 0.5 cm holes at the mouth of
the input and output pipes to exclude foreign matter
from the pit

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Gas Cap Drum

48

Fabricate the gas cap from mild steel sheeting of 1.63 mm (16

gauge)
Make the height of the drum 1/3 the depth of the pit
Make the diameter of the drum 10 cm less than that of the pit
Cut a 3 cm hole on the cap
Fix a rubber hose on the 3 cm hole.
Paint the inside and outside of the drum with a coat of paint
or tar
Ensure that the drum is air tight by filling with water to check
for leakage
Attach handles to either side of the drum for lifting the drum
during maintenance.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Mixing and Effluent Tanks

49

Build a mixing pit to be placed near the outside

opening of the inlet pipe

Also, provide a pit at the outlet to catch the effluent.
Make provision for drying the effluent when the
influent goes into full operation

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Table 2: Measurement for a number of biogas plants

Plant
size
(m3)

No.
of
animals

Water: waste
Per
day (1:1)
(Kg)

Vol. of
well
for
40 days
digestion
(m3)

No.
of
bricks

No. of
cement
Bags
(50 kg)

Qty.
of
Sand
(m3)

Gas
Prod.
Per day
(m3)

Qty. of
fertilizer
per
day
(kg)

No. of
persons
served
(cooking
+
lighting)

80

3.5

2800

22

4-8

4-6

120

3200

25

12

6-12

6-8

160

4000

28

12

8-16

9-11

10

200

8.5

4000

30

14

10-20

12-15

7.5

15

300

13

5200

32

16

7.5

15-30

15-20

10

20

400

17

6400

35

18

10

20-40

20-30

Prof. I. N. Itodo

50

Operation
51

4 m3 (4000 liters) of manure are necessary for the start-up of the new

digester.
In addition, approximately 20 kg of seeder is required to get the
bacteriological process started. The seeder can come from several
sources.
Put the manure and seeder and an equal amount of water into the mixing
pit. Stir it into thick liquid called slurry. A good slurry is one in which the
manure is broken up thoroughly to make a smooth, even mixture having
the consistency of a thin cream. 50 kg of fresh manure is mixed with 50 kg
of water and the mixture added to the digester every day.
It can take 4 to 6 weeks from the time the digester is fully loaded before
enough gas is produced and the gas plant becomes fully operational.
The first drum full of the gas will probably contain so much carbon dioxide
that it will not burn. On the other hand, it may contain methane and air in
the right proportion to explode if ignited.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Output and Pressure

52

The pressure output from the floating drum plant

can be regulated by the addition and reduction of

weight on the gas holder to increase the pressure of
gas flow from the plant.
This also affects the volume delivered at the
appliance.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

Maintenance
53

Common problems encountered when operating

biogas plants and the attendant maintenance

practices are provided in table 3.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

s/no.

Problem

Possible reason(s)

Solution

Gas drum will not rise

Scum formation
No gas formed
Leakage in the system

No gas at the appliance

Prof. I. N. Itodo

No gas formed

Not enough pressure in

the system to force the gas
from the digester to the
appliance
Gas leakage

54

Patience.
The
system
needs
about 4 to 6 weeks
to get properly
started
Stir the digester
Dilute the digester
by adding some
water
Ensure that there is
no leakage in the
system
Consider solution
#1
Adjust the inlet jet
of the appliance

Toxicity in digester

Inappropriate
wastewater mixture

4 Inadequate quantity of
gas being formed

Inappropriate
waste-
water ratio
Slurry too thick or too
thin
Few
population
of
required microorganisms
Pressure
from
the
digester too high

3 No gas formed

5 Flame dies off too quickly

at the appliance

Prof. I. N. Itodo

55

Flush
out
the
content
of
the
digester with water
Add more waste to
the digester
Add a seeder from
another plant or a
sewage
to
the
digester
Add more waste to
the digester
Adjust the inlet jet
of the appliance
Reduce the weight
on the gas holder

Safety
56

Spontaneous ignition of methane occurs when 4 -

15% of the gas mixes with air and it has an explosive

pressure of between 90 and 104 psi.
Do not attempt to light the first drumful of gas.
Empty the gas contained and let the drum fill again
because it may contain methane and air in the right
proportion to explode when ignited.

Prof. I. N. Itodo

By-products
57

Fertilizer
The sludge that is produced from the anaerobic
digestion process is a better fertilizer and soil conditioner
than either composted or fresh manure. This is because:
a. The liquid effluent contains many elements essential to
plant life. It contains nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium
and small amounts of metallic salts that are
indispensable for plant growth.
b. When the sludge is applied on the soil as fertilizer, its
nitrogen is converted to ammonium ions (NH4+), which
fix themselves to the negative charged clay particles of
the soil, thereby making nitrogen available to the
plants.
Prof. I. N. Itodo